LAB REPORT

Lab # Modern Physics

Name Bushra Bibi

Experiment # Regd. # 923 FBAS/BSPHY FA15

02

Date Performed 12 10 2018 Submitted Ma’am Zill-e-huma

To

Date Submitted 12 10 2018 Evaluation

Title Determination of the Charge to Mass Ratio of the

Electron
Background
This classic experiment was first carried out by J.J.Thomson in 1897. It involves the
use of an electric field to accelerate electrons up to high velocity, and a magnetic
field to then steer the electrons in a circular trajectory. The electrons are released by
thermionic emission from a heated filament (cathode) and are accelerated towards a
cylindrical anode. This is a similar situation to the electron gun used to generate the
electron beam in an X-ray tube or in an electron microscope

INTRODUCTION

Measuring separately the electric charge (e) and the rest mass (m) of an electron is
a difficult task because both quantities are extremely small (e = 1.60217733×10-19
coulombs, m = 9.1093897×10-31 kilograms). Fortunately, the ratio of these two
fundamental constants can be determined easily and precisely from the radius of
curvature of an electron beam traveling in a known magnetic field. An electron beam
of a specified energy, and therefore a specified speed, may be produced
conveniently in an (e/m) apparatus. The central piece of this apparatus is an
evacuated electron-beam bulb with a special anode. A known current flows through
a pair of Helmholtz coils and produces a magnetic field. The trajectory of the
speeding electrons moving through the magnetic field is made visible by a small
amount of mercury vapor.

J.J Thompson’s e/m Experiment

_ deflection
+
plates V X
cathode anode
heater
element

d Z
6 Vac _ +
I Y
accelerating coils to produce
voltage VA B field into page

He first accelerated electrons which were emitted from a hot cathode in an

electric field EA produced by an accelerating voltage VA to increase their kinetic
energy. The speed of an electron in the passing anode is:

eVA = ½ mev2 v

v = (2 e VA / me)1/2

The electrons then passed into a region of crossed electric and magnetic fields.
A voltage V was placed across a pair of parallel plates with a separation distance
d. This produced a uniform electric field E = V /d which gives an upward deflection
of the electron beam (along path X). The electric force FE on an electron is
FE = e E = eV / d

A pair of Helmholtz coil carrying a straight I produced a uniform magnetic field

to deflect the electron beam downward (path Y). The magnetic force FB to
deflect an electron is

FB = eVB = eB (2 e VA / me)1/2

Thompson then adjusted the strengths of the electric and magnetic fields so that the
electric force and the magnetic force had equal magnitudes so that the electrons
travelled straight thought the tube without any deflection (path Z). Hence, from
measurements of VA, V, B and d, the e/me ratio can be estimated:
 FE = FB => eE = evB => v = E / B

E=V/d, v = (2 e VA / me)1/2

eV / d = eB (2 e VA / me)1/2

e / m = V2 / 2d2 VA B

Thompson’s first measurement for e/me was 0.77×1011 C.kg-1. Even though
Thompson’s result was different from the now accepted value of 1.759×1011
C.kg-1, his measurement was a tremendous achievement. Thompson can be
considered the “discoverer” of the electron, although many people contributed
to the investigation into the nature of matter.
Thompson believed that an electron was not an atom, but a part of an atom.

Another method by Thompson used only a magnetic field to deflect the electron
beam. In the absence of the deflecting electric field, the cathode ray beam is
bent into a circular path of radius R due to the magnetic force FB on the
electrons. The magnetic force produces the centripetal force FC,
Hence,
magnetic force = centripetal force
v2 2eVA
FB = FC, evB = m , v=
R me

e/m = 2VA / R2 B2

Alternatively, once the radius of curvature R has been measured, the electric
field E is adjusted so that the beam has zero deflection and this occurs when

V = E / B = V / dB

e/me = E / RB2 = V / dRB2

 Measurements of VA, R and B or V, d, R and B can then be used to measure
the e/me ratio.

Theory
Electrons are thermally emitted from a surface and accelerated through a potential
difference V. The kinetic energy of the accelerated electrons equals the energy they
gain as a result of being accelerated through the potential difference. In other words:

½ m v2 = eV
and solving for velocity,

v = (2eV / m)1/2 .

In this equation m is the mass of the electron and e is the charge of the electron.

The beam of electrons enters the region where a magnetic field B is set up by the
Helmholz coils. The beam is deflected into a circular path of radius R by the
magnetic force and undergoes a centripetal acceleration. This can be expressed as

evB = mv2 / r

When the velocity is eliminated between the above two equations, then the charge to
mass ratio can be written as

e/m = 2V / (B2r2)

The magnetic field due to the Helmholz coils can be expressed as

B = 8moNI / (125)1/2a

where N is the number of turns of wire on each coil, I is the current through the coils,
a is the mean radius of the coils, and mo is the permeability of free space (mo = 4π x
10-7 Tm/A).

Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism is a branch of Physics, deals with the electromagnetic force that
occurs between electrically charged particles. The electromagnetic force is one of
the four fundamental forces and exhibits electromagnetic fields such as magnetic
fields, electric fields, and light. It is the basic reason electrons bound to the nucleus
and responsible for the complete structure of the nucleus.
It is a process where a magnetic field is created by introducing the current in the
conductor. When a conductor is electrically charged it generates magnetic lines of
force of conductor. When a conductor is placed or moved through the magnetic field
it generates voltage i.e., electricity. This principle is called Electromagnetic Induction.

Faraday’s Law

Faraday’s Law states that whenever there is relative motion between magnetic field
and conductor, the flux linkage changes and this change in flux induces a voltage
across the coil.

Effect of magnetic force on charge

Work done on the charged particle is always zero as F is ALWAYS perpendicular to

the direction of travel(or displacement) and the distance travelled in the direction of
the force is zero.
Hence, no energy is gained or lost by the particle moving through the magnetic field
and the particle’s speed is always constant.
Since the force is of constant magnitude and it always at right angles to the
displacement, the conditions are met for circular motion. Hence, the magnetic force
on a moving charge provides a centripetal force to the charge.

mv2 / r = Bqv,
where m is mass of moving charge and r is radius of orbit
B = mv / qr
Making r the subject,
r = mv / qB
r∝v , if charge and mass are constant.
If the charged particle enters the uniform field at angles other than right angles, it will
take a spiral (or helical) path as shown in the figure.
Reason: Component of velocity parallel to the magnetic field is unaffected by
magnetic field and the particle will continue to drift along parallel to the magnetic field
in addition to moving in circular motion.

The force a charged particle “feels” due to a magnetic field is dependent on the
angle between the velocity vector and the magnetic field vector B . Recall that the
magnetic force is:

F = qvB sinθ

In the case above the magnetic force is zero because the velocity is parallel to the magnetic field lines.

If the magnetic field and the velocity are parallel (or antiparallel), then sinθ equals
zero and there is no force. In this case a charged particle can continue with straight-
line motion even in a strong magnetic field. If is between 0 and 90 degrees, then the
component of v parallel to B remains unchanged.

Circular Motion of a Charged particle in a Magnetic

Field
Since the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the velocity of a charged
particle, the particle will undergo circular motion.
 The magnetic field does no work, so the kinetic energy and speed of a charged
particle in a magnetic field remain constant.
 The magnetic force, acting perpendicular to the velocity of the particle, will
cause circular motion.
 The centripetal force of the particle is provided by magnetic Lorentzian force so
that qvB = mv2 / r.
 Solving for r above yields the gryoradius, or the radius of curvature of the path
of a particle with charge q and mass m moving in a magnetic field of strength
B. The gryoradius is then given by r = mv / qB.
 The cyclotron frequency (or, equivalently, gyrofrequency) is the number of
cycles a particle completes around its circular circuit every second and is given
by f = qB / 2πm.

A negatively charged particle moves in the plane of the page in a region where the magnetic field is
perpendicular into the page
Helical Motion and Magnetic Mirrors: When a charged particle moves along a magnetic field line into a
region where the field becomes stronger, the particle experiences a force that reduces the component of
velocity parallel to the field. This force slows the motion along the field line and here reverses it, forming a
“magnetic mirror. “

Centripetal force
A centripetal force is a force that makes a body follow a curved path. Its direction is
always orthogonal to the motion of the body and towards the fixed point of the
instantaneous center of curvature of the path. Isaac Newton described it as "a force
by which bodies are drawn or impelled, or in any way tend, towards a point as to a
centre". In Newtonian mechanics, gravity provides the centripetal force responsible
for astronomical orbits.

One common example involving centripetal force is the case in which a body moves
with uniform speed along a circular path. The centripetal force is directed at right
angles to the motion and also along the radius towards the centre of the circular
path.

The magnitude of the centripetal force on an object of mass m moving at tangential

speed v along a path with radius of curvature r is :

F = mac = mv2 / r

where ac is the centripetal acceleration. The direction of the force is toward the
center of the circle in which the object is moving, or the osculating circle
Lorentz force:
It is the force exerted on a charged particle q moving with velocity v through
an electric E and magnetic field B. The entire electromagnetic force F on the
charged particle is called the Lorentz force and is given by

F = qE + qv × B

The first term is contributed by the electric field. The second term is the magnetic
force and has a direction perpendicular to both the velocity and the magnetic field.
The magnetic force is proportional to q and to the magnitude of the vector cross
product v × B. In terms of the angle ϕ between v and B, the magnitude of the force
equals qvB sin ϕ.

The magnetic force on a moving charge reveals the sign of the charge carriers in
a conductor. A current flowing from right to left in a conductor can be the result of
positive charge carriers moving from right to left or negative charges moving from left
to right, or some combination of each. When a conductor is placed in a B field
perpendicular to the current, the magnetic force on both types of charge carriers is in
the same direction. This force gives rise to a small potential difference between the
sides of the conductor. Known as the Hall effect.
Helmholtz coils
A Helmholtz coil is a device for producing a region of nearly uniform magnetic field,
named after the German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz. It consists of two
electromagnets on the same axis. Besides creating magnetic fields, Helmholtz coils
are also used in scientific apparatus to cancel external magnetic fields, such as the
Earth's magnetic field.

A Helmholtz pair consists of two identical circular magnetic coils that are placed
symmetrically along a common axis, one on each side of the experimental area, and
separated by a distance h equal to the radius R of the coil. Each coil carries an equal
electric current in the same direction.

A beam of cathode rays in a vacuum tube bent into a circle by a Helmholtz coil.
APPLICATIONS AND SUMMARY
This experiment, first performed by J.J. Thomson demonstrated the existence of
the electron, making it a tremendously important experiment from a historical
perspective. Electrons have since been exploited in countless electronic devices.

The following is a list of some applications of charged particles that are traveling in
circular or spiral paths, and thus they are traveling in a magnetic field:

 The formation of the Northern Lights (Aurora Borealis) and Southern Lights
(Aurora Australis) by charged particles that spiral around the magnetic field
lines of the earth and deposit their energy in the polar regions.
 A cathode-ray tube, which used to be the basis for all televisions, before the
newer technologies of LCD, LED, and plasma screens.
 )A mass spectrometer. Some mass spectrometers separate ions based on
their mass by bending their trajectories into circular paths using a magnetic
field. The radius of the path followed by a particular ion is proportional to its
mass.
 The Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which is the famous 27 km circumference
instrument buried underground along the France-Switzerland border, where
physicists recently performed experiments to prove the existence of the Higgs
boson, which is responsible for why particles have mass.

Objectives:
1. To measure e/m ratio, using thomson’s method
2. To study electron beam deflection for different directions of magnetic
field by varying orientation of e/m – tube

Apparatus:
o e/m experimental box
o Helmholtz coils
o Fine beam tube and stand
o Power supply, 0-250 V (High Tension, HT), with special shrouded connecting
leads
o Eye piece
Description:
The central part of the set-up is the e/m-tube. This is energized by:
 Filament current supply,
 Deflection plates voltage supply,
 Continuously variable accelerating voltage supply to the anode.

The tube is mounted on a rotatable socket and is placed between a pair of Helmholtz
coils. The tube can be rotated about a vertical axis, varying the orientation of the
electron beam with respect to the Helmholtz coils. This allows magnetic deflection of
the beam to be demonstrated. Circular, helical or undeflected paths can be seen.
The direction of the current can be changed.

The magnetizing current I and the accelerating voltage V are respectively measured
by an ammeter and a voltmeter mounted on the front of the panel. The diameter of
the electron beam path is measured by a detachable scale mounted in front of the
bulb of the tube. This scale has a slider with a hollow tube (fitted with cross wires at
its both ends) to fix the line of sight while making the measurements of the beam
path diameter. Base of the unit contains the power supply that provides all the
required potentials and the current to the Helmholtz coils. The entire apparatus is
contained in a wooden case for convenient storage.
Experimental Procedure
We are going to determine the ratio by determining the B-field and the radius
of curvature of the electron beam in the magnetic field. To do this you select an
accelerating voltage and keep it constant while you vary the magnetic field by
varying the current in the coils. For each magnetic field setting you will then
determine the radius of curvature of the beam. From each measurement you
should be able to extract the ratio and in the end you will calculate the
(weighted) average.

1) Before the power is switched to ‘ON’, make sure all the control knobs are at
their minimum position.
2) Turn the power switch to ‘ON’, the indicator lamp will glow.
3) Wait a little for cathode to heat up.
4) Turn the accelerator voltage adjust knob clockwise to increase the voltage
rectilinear electron beam emerging from cathode will be visible. Adjust the
accelerator voltage at about 200 volt.
5) The glow of helium gas in the tube is observed when electrons collide with
atoms of the gas and excite them.
6) Rotate the e/m – tube so that the electron beam is parallel to plane of
Helmholtz coils. Do not take it out of its socket.
7) Slowly turn the current adjust knob clockwise to increase current for
Helmholtz coils. The electron beam will get curved. Increasing the current will
increase the curvature of the beam.
 8) In case the electron beam does not make a complete closed circle, rotate the
socket of tube until the path is a closed circle. This happens when the tube
pointer is set at about 90 degree.
9) Measure the diameter of electron beam. This measurement has been
facilitated by fixing a hollow tube on slider of scale. This tube fixes the line of
sight during measurement.
10) Note the ammeter reading for the current to Helmholtz coils and voltmeter
reading for accelerating voltage.
11) Calculate value of e/m by : e/m = (7.576*106 ) * V / I2 d2

Observations and calculations:

Radius of Helmholtz coil = 14 cm

Number of turns = 160 on each coil

Permeability of free space = µ o = 1.257 x 10 -6 henry per meter

Accelerating Current to Diameter of (diameter)2 V / I 2 d2
voltage ‘V’ Helmholtz beam path ‘d’
coils ‘I’ ‘d2’
(volt) (m)
(amp) (m)2