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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
Class
THE
TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY
DIAGRAM
BY
CHARLES W. BERRY
Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
OF THE
UNIVERSITY
OF
.CALIFOH^
NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY & SONS
LONDON : CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED
190S
Copyright, 1905, 1908,
i
BY
CHARLES W. BEREY
Eh?
^Sobrrt flrummoub anb (tompany
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.
diagram.
CHARLES W. BERRY.
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
October, 1908. fii
195015
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
PAGE
INTRODUCTION ix
TABLE OF SYMBOLS USED IN TEXT xvii
CHAPTER
I. GENERAL DISCUSSION. REVERSIBLE PROCESSES AND
CYCLES. EFFECT OF IRREVERSIBILITY , 1
-=v
= 0, but nevertheless the entropy of
//7D
the substance increases. It is even possible to imagine
an irreversible process which is at the same time isen-
taken reversible
/Q -jp-j
along any path
cesses, as in general
d(/>>-^-.
^
-
of the differential extending over all the states
A= Change of ...
E = Internal (intrinsic) energy in work units =S+I.
T)
= Thermal efficiency of an engine.
F=Area (Flache).
G=Weight (Gewicht).
g= Acceleration due to gravity.
H= Total heat above some arbitrary zero, =q, q+xr, >l,
vapor.
THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY
DIAGRAM.
CHAPTER I.
ance.
counterpart <j>
=f 2 (T) in the T^-plane; both being but
6 BJ
FIG. 1.
r* 2 r<t>2
or
= / cdt= / Td$
J t\ i/ <i
4 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
to the expression
mr : T = d(j> : dt y
_ T d$_
the heat received and the heat rejected, i.e., the magni-
FIG. 2.
ffa
is rejected the heat Q = / T^^T^-^),
2 repre-
U <f>\
ciency, 9
= ''-,
is simply the ratio of the rectangles
Q,
cdef and facdfa, and as these have the same base, the
THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
d<f>
= -^r f r reversible cycles, use is made of the Carnot
1
FIG. 4.
rejected at T2 '
from the actual engine (area d'c'g'h)
T,
T.',
99' &'
FIG. 5.
and radiation.
pv=RT,
and whose specific heat at constant pressure, cp , and
at constant volume, cv , are constants.
s*
whence E=-^T
A.
+ constant ..... (2)
rdQ
dQ rdT c dv .
=c
Y J Y~ + J^:r +c
,
j '
pv
~R
.J V
=Ct,[loge v + log e p] + (cp-cv ) loge v + constant,
=cv loge p+ cv loge v +constant,
L
=Co loge pv
k
+ constant i ...... (5a)
PERFECT GASES. 15
be expressed as
i-fc
(f)
= cp \ogeTp k
+ constants . . . (5c)
, . . .
(6)
dQ-ejCC+ctt
and cP -c v = AR, (7)
<f>2
~ ^i = . .
(8)
(9)
16 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAURAM.
T
and &-&~c*tog.7jr
* i
...... (10)
namely,
pv
n = p^vf = a constant, '. . . .
(11)
log i>
2 -log Vi
T v n ~' = T v n - = a constant
l l
L
2 2
l
. . . (12)
l-n 1-n
and Ttfi
=T p2 2
= a constant, . .
(13)
<
2 -<i = c log e ;=r +(cp -c v ) logJ^r)
1 1 V 2/
2 n-k , ^2
or
'
- *i = cp log e
- (cp -c v ) log e
n-k
^0 = c
dT
_ or (j> 2 fa
= c log T
~T. e
2
. .
(16)
pv
= constant can be expressed as a function of the
n
}
T
becomes &~&*?clog,5rj as already found in equa-
tion (10).
Equation (17)
=
gives c c v r = cv ,
whence from
T
equation (15) $ 2 -<t>i = c v log e -^-,
^
as previously found in
i
equation (9).
<p O
FIG. 6.
or (j>i
= cv log f are summarized in the fol-
TV
1
-L
-^r,
-/i
pv-coordinates. T^-coordinates.
* During an isothermal change of a perfect gas all the heat added performs
external work, hence in the diagrams the isodynamic lines are superimposed
upon the isothermals.
|<n<fc
0<n<\
*> ]<n<k
O
FIG. 7.
PERFECT GASES. 21
and < =
and <>=
(3) Determine
ARloge-^ and
P2
FIG. 8.
Xn . . .
4, 3, X 2) Xi, XQ, Xi, X 2, X%, . . . Xn .
^ Xn
?i_?3 ? 5i ^!L
^ l ^2 Xn _!
m x n ~i Xs x 2 x\ XQ Xi X 2 X% Xn
whence Xi=m~ l
xo X\~mxQ
x n = m~ l xn - 1 = mr n XQ Xn = mXn- 1
=
logxi = logra- 1
z = 1 logm= 1 D = log
XQ
logo*
= 0=log-^
XQ
v
=+1 logra=-fl D = log
XQ
v
= +2 logw=+2 D = log
XQ
-\r
curve.
Fig. 9.
FIG. 9.
vi'ai:-logi>i=-n:-l,
v\a =n log v\
= log v\~
n = bb'.
bhi-.Ob =A1:OA,
instead of ( 1, n).
FIG. 11.
of drawing isotliermals
through points already known,
it becomes necessary to determine them for definite
temperatures the work of plotting may be carried on
, ..
= Hence the change of intrinsic energy during
-j.
w w PaVa -
*^-JPIJ
i.e., the decrease in internal energy during frictionless
adiabatic expansion from any finite condition a to
because by definition,
energy;
= kinetic energy plus potential energy;
or E=S+I,
and at infinity while the vibration or kinetic energy
has become zero with the disappearance of both pressure
and temperature, the disgregation or potential energy
has assumed its maximum value due to infinite increase
in volume. Hence E x = S M + 1^ = + 1^ = /^ and we
may write
W -F -'
k-l *-! k-1
be used.
In the 7^-plane a slightly different construction
must be During a constant volume change no
used.
will absorb the heat c v (Tb 7^)= area under Pb, and
during this change its internal energy will be increased
and the other has only one form for any given gas.
FIG. 14.
T v
A$ = cv log* 7fr
* o
+ AR log* V
Q
J<> 1 . T
duces to
333 5 T v
entropy.
Thus suppose we have the curve ab (Fig. 15) in the
TVplane and desire to find its TV-projection. Choose
any point TQVQ as the reference point, and then on base
lines parallel to the T and v axes and located if necessary
T -v
Ay = log TJT
*
and Ay 2 = log
#0
the curve
T
= 2.47 log r-
Now,
--
333.5
40 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
PERFECT GASES. 41
For point a,
Ay = Aya and Ay 2 = 0,
Ay i =
- Aytf and Ay 2 = + Ayb ,.
zero.
42 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
paper.
CHAPTER III.
dq = cdT, (1)
43
44 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
..... (2)
and
'
2 -0 =
1
t -^-,
..... (3)
r cdT ..... m
6 = / -fir, (4)
/22
32 J-
"
as given in the steam-tables, we obtain the water-
"
line ab. At any temperature t the value of the specific
heat c is shown by the subtangent gf: Further, as we
proved in the general case of equation (1), the area
under the curve aefO represents the heat of the liquid,
* r
its liquid, lie all the values given in the steam- tables; to
the right of the dry-steam curve lies the region of
superheated steam.
"
Having given the chart with the water-line" and
"
dry-steam" line located, and knowing the temperature
t of the steam, it is simply necessary to draw the hori-
zontal line ed and drop the two perpendiculars ef and
dm and the tangent eg', then the diagram gives at once
q, r, ;, 0, T and c-
Y> >
eM
x '
(6)
ed
FIG. 18.
of a with t
may be neglected and o set equal to 0.016
<-axis, and from the latter point lay off the distance
+o =v 1 Through
l . c draw yy parallel to For any
0<f>.
diagram.
Suppose it is required to find the heat necessary
SATURATED STEAM. 51
= v + xr = rcdT + xr
<P
Y J ~r~ Y'
cdT x r _ or
. .
(7o)
T^d 1f'ls ^ e
c ~7 "specific heat" of dry-saturated steam,
r dr
or h=c ~"
Water -Ether
FIG. 19.
or *- 0)
(dQ\_ (dp\
\dv/T~ \dT) v
or A . .
(10)
a u dT
whence Apu^=~
dT pdT
gent a'b
f
. From similar triangles it is evident that
7/TT
Ea =OgdkO+kcbf=q+(>.
56 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
dMnc = xM Apu,
cnmk = x Mp,
and
d/,e
m ,\
FIG. 20.
p, t,
v } E, <, x, c, h, s, q, r, X, p, 6, ,
and Apu. That
-^
FIG. 21.
FIG. 22.
elegant.
In constructing the T ^-diagram we have already
made use of the first, second, and fourth quadrants to
FIG. 23.
n l m
FIG. 24.
FIG. 25.
vapor in contact with ice, but this does not affect the
just discussed.
CHAPTER IV.
nnn
u
(
from this by more than 0.8 per cent., has the same
65
66 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
*dQ r2 cPdT T2
T cdT xr Ts
4<f>l
= CPI lOge
,
SUPERHEATED VAPORS. 69
y+ioo
=Cp* log,
FIG. 26.
^ Cv= AT
Cp f
~7dr\~7^\~
\dp / v\dv Jp
rn rn
ZVfclOO
SUPERHEATED VAPORS. 71
T+150
Tl+60
FIG. 27.
<p
FIG. 28.
E-q
SUPERHEATED VAPORS. 73
By combination we have
whence
\C7
FIG. 29.
ordinary diagrams.
It is thus possible to construct five sets of curves,
one set each for constant pressure, volume, tempera-
of I'i
b'f
FIG. 30.
b a 9
FIG. 31.
FIG. 32.
y 2_7 2=
2
- -X
Pi vi P2V 2 +Ei- E 2 .
pv
n = constant,
quality);
FIG. 33.
/2pdv
M.
.72 fi . n
n
[--]
FLOW OF FLUIDS. 81
FIG. 34.
7
in the two planes. The area in the 7 0-plane will then
pv-plane.
Let 12, Fig. 34, be the T^-projection of curve 12 in
V2 k
it follows that
~
V2
is thus represented by the area under the
-y-
t7
FIG. 35.
It is
whence
total heat
equal to the decrease
778 AH
"
if
head (Erzeu-
gungswarme) plays the same role in the acceleration of
ing into the T^-plane draw in the liquid (a) and dry
vapor (s) lines (Fig. 36). It is then seen that the
84 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
2
fa-Pa)"
778"
Now H+^~+E
/o
32
/
is the total energy (Erzeugungs-
Thus if
V 2 = V2g[778(H l -H 2
" "
Here again the total energy plays the same role
falling body.
We can now at once write out the formula required
V2
(1)
A'4^-
(2)
(3)
=
V2 - E2
A-=piOi p2v2 + E 1 ,
(1)
-q 2 - x 2p 2 - x 2 Ap 2 u 2
V2
(2) AJ--
V~2 =
(3) AJ
Thus,
V2
FIG. 38
yk:yO = On nd" :
or / yk-vO^-G-fc-F. |
Conversely to find the pressure which would be
obtained at any cross-section, lay offyk = F, draw kO >
and prolong until it intersects MN in d" from d" drop
',
= 0.995 B.T.U.,
-
336 X 144 X. 016
mately.
Thus we have, in general, the following relation
400
.p- 200
350
ff=100 \
<]
300
250
= 1-1.7
200
150
100
.80
32
0.2 0,4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 $
FlG. 39.
FIG. 40.
atmospheric pressure.
94 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
pound of steam is
-H 2) = 778(1248.3-1067.2)
= 0.03904 Ib,
Hence
reversible processes ;
that is, the expansion was friction-
72
A = Pl Vl ~
20
V2
we obtain, since ^9~
= the result,
pv+E= constant
reduces to
k
rrr-^ = constant, or simply pv = constant,
FIG, 41.
ing objects."
Let the dotted line (Figs. 41 and 42) represent the
lowest available temperature, i.e., that of the atmos-
98 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
atmosphere.
TN\>
s*
a
FIG. 42.
and
k-l\pB
- p
Therefore
FLOW OF FLUIDS. 99
by the amount
operation AB is therefore
c' a'
FIG. 43.
"
The increase of entropy multiplied by the lowest
temperature available gives the energy that either has
been already irrevocably degraded into heat during the
FIG. 44.
FIG. 45.
or
Therefore
= 0.5233 + 0.99x1.0373
= 1.5502
r 7*
and <f>2
700
= 0.4693 + 1. 1319 + 0.6 X 2.303 X logio
^
= 1.6065.
T(<t> 2
- 0i) = (126.3 + 459.5) (1.6065 - 1.5502)
= 33.0B.T.U.
FlG. 46.
Steam pipe
400-
Orifice
300
200- Calorimeter
100
FIG. 47.
whence
OCr
-
TB
TB
H = qc + r + Cp(Ts
c c known, while steam of the
Tc) is
FIG. 48.
and further that the higher the steam pressure the greater
theamount of moisture which the instrument can meas-
ure.
* Trans.
Royal Soc., vol. 194, secf. A, 1900.
FLOW OF FLUIDS. Ill
conditions.
Xl=
of c p .
Furthermore, as ri is in the neighborhood of
1000 B.T.U. a very slight error in the determination
of xi would produce a large percentage error in cp .
Q
-
so that the heat added raises the temperature by the
FIG. 49.
the throttling action does not all occur along the con-
stant total-energy curve AC, but it is occurring along the
whole series of throttling curves between A and B where
the drop in temperature is not so great as along AC.
It is therefore probable that the total drop of tempera-
T V -TX =T E - TF = T D -TG
cp
or
whence
-
FLOW OF FLUIDS. 115
pi
= 29.71bs. 7? 2 =27.71bs.
to
= 249.8 t G = 245.8
Zi
= 329.9 fe
w = 96.151bs. Q = 3758B.T.U. -=
w 39.08
39.08 + 0.305(249.8 - 245.8)
Cp
~ = 39.08 + 1.22
411.6-329.9+249.8-245.8 81.7+4.0
-?- .:.
Cp
= 39.08 '
~8lY
area
FLOW OF FLUIDS. 117
FIG. 50.
Vb2 -Va2 rr A C 1
A s =Ha-Hb=A\ vdp
&Q J b
and =Ha H C)
FIG. 52.
H^Hb = H c Hbj
120 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM
of the amount,
, f(H l -H 2 ) '
100r 2
v2 = 0.016 +x 2 (s 2 - 0.016).
f( Hl -H 2)
100cp
and
whence
V = x/64.32 X 154,700 =3154
f ft. per second.
124 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
and
10 X 550
G= = 0.03555 Ibs. per second.
or equals
0.03555X3600
12.80 Ibs. per H.P. per hour.
10
0.03555X67.35
3154
=0.1093sq. ins.
per pound is
7,2
y-= 778 X'0.97 (1248.2 -1194.1)- 40830 ft.-lbs.
whence
whence
1.623
0.03555X5.637
*'~ 1620
= 0.01781 sq. ins.
gram."
Description. The general character of the plot and
its relation to the !T</>-diagram are shown in Fig. 53,
where for convenience in projection from the T<j>- into
the i(-plot, or the reverse, the pT- and pi-quadrants
are also given. Plot first, q + Apa and 0, and q + r + Apa
T
and 6 + 7p, to obtain the water (w) and dry steam (s)
I I l_>
i\ e
jcTv+H I; |
I j II o HI
value, cp =0.58.
To plot the isothermals in the superheated region,
start with the temperature corresponding to any pres-
sure A on the dry-steam line, then the heat required to
130 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
FIG. 54.
l~-Ji = 223.\
Ai
~A'
(in ft. per sec.)
0.01 0.1 22.37
0.04 0.2 44.74
0.09 0.3 67.1
0.16 0.4 89.5
0.25 0.5 111.9
0.36 0.6 134.2
0.49 0.7 156.6
0.64 0.8 179.0
0.81 0.9 201.3
1. 1. 223.7
4. 2. 447.4
9 . 3 . 671 .
25. 5. 1119.
64. 8. 1790.
100. 10. 2237.
144. 12. 2684.
225. 15. 3355.
324. 18. 4026.
400. 20. 4474.
441. 21. 4698.
484. 22. 4921.
625. 25. 5593.
132 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
600
600-
400
100
FIG. 55.
values.
perfect gases.
For any given mixture undergoing reversible opera-
tions it must also be assumed that heat interchanges
135
136 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
by
miC Vl + m 2 Cv. + . . .
cv =~ 2
. . .+m n
2 + . . . + mncPn
and c=
and the specific pressure by
-- w(Cp-C v
y
m-- !
1
J- 2 1
pe
PQ
--*-
(1)
U2
RT RT 2
W ---- a w ---- a
1
~" Pgi Po 2
"~"~* *
or
Ui U2
RTl
T2 v
&*
+ WCP \Oge7fT-w(Cp-C v) \Oge
Pm
process is given.
drop.
For such a change T 2 = T\, 6 2 = 6 1} r 2 = ri, u 2 = Ui, so
that the general expression for A<j> M reduces to
:~r
Pgz Pail
-(<*-*.) log,
Pgi
*.
log*
w RT 2 a w ET --
= -----------
a l
X2 Xi j
Q=RTw-^ [-1
h PoJ
d *
-AwRT log e
^-
P
2
.
rectly by multiplying A$ M by T.
140 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
V2
v(V2-Vi) +WRT log e
=#T2wl
A G. 57.
RT
and
RT,^ =
w --
2
Pgi Pg-i
heat added.
Here again the value of w must be determined by
suitable measurements before the expressions can be
evaluated.
loge
_ AR loge
=
non-essential.
FIG. 58.
1
ft
#2
j. F
+
T2
---ri
TFT \a
^Lu 2 T2 uiTil
rf,
1 = W\F ---
Rr2
Iu 2p g9
Rri 1
or that
IP* *
1
U 2 pgt
.
provided
(1) An orifice can be inserted in the exhaust-pipe
without appreciably changing the back pressure;
u2 T2
w=
53.35 + 0.01025Z 10 7
- 0.00296Zi
u lPgi
7*2 r
T2
n/
the further relation
PM=PO + PV = constant.
FIG. 59.
the work performed by the gas and the area above the
curve that performed by the vapor. If it is further
problems.
It is assumed that the mixture is of the same tem-
perature throughout at any given moment and that
the relative weights in a given space remain constant.
tion,
:
2 dT .
r'cdT
During vaporization
w\v\ = w 2 v 2 = w%vz = . . .
= vol. of cylinder,
vol.
---
Wi
<7i
-W
vol.
2
#2
U2
The entropy is
X 2r 2
150 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
= 2w x -
Apu
and the internal energy of vaporization is
PM = w&ipi + W 2 x 2p 2 + W 3 x 3p 3 -f . . . = I>wxp.
wv, say WiVi, which will be smaller than all the other
values of wv. That is, this particular substance will
be the first to have its liquid vaporized. At the moment
this occurs
Vol. =
whence
xrM
xr\ r*i
/M TI J. 2 J-3
etc., etc.
vol
Those that give '->s are superheated and the
each component.
The total entropy would be
Z52 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
cp dT
= I>wE+ApM (wv-
component, so that
Q+T-J+M-
The external work performed during such a change is
CHAPTER VIII.
diagram.
The ideal cycle for the Stirling hot-air engine con-
sists of the following events:
through regenerator.
(2) Expansion at constant temperature in contact
with the hot surface of the furnace.
154
HOT-AIR ENGINES. 155
a Ta b
do.
FIG. 60.
l
dv
or
whence
156 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
"
That is, the lines ad and be are isodiabatic," as
a b
d ps c
FIG. 61.
"
Hence these curves are isodiabatic," since the ratio
polytrope pv
n = const., where the specific heat of the
/71
log, + C2
or
m/rr
heat rejected, or
this reduces to
\ J- 1
fjl
dW
make W a maximum can be found by setting - = 0.
HOT-AIR ENGINES. 159
Thus
or
Carnot
C2 =o>
ro T, c
T2
FIG. 63.
or -fi(r,-r8
)iog.^-
,_
HOT-AIR ENGINES. 161
PC
~)
CO OK O
(2500
- 600) X - X 2.303Zio
0. 169(2500
- 600) + -~35 X 2500 X 2.303
f) ,
1 10
^
=13.4 per cent.
2500-600
-
2 5QQ
FIG 64.
piston.
This engine in itself is of no great interest to the
minable.
The range of both pressure and average temperature
is so small that the air follows appreciably the laws of a
tures is known
any two positions of the piston.
for
projections respectively.
The heat received and rejected by the air per stroke
is unknown.
gine.
The Lenoir cycle consists of the following events:
Fig. 66).
FIG. 66.
the !F<-diagram.
In the Atkinson engine, now no longer made, the
pressure.
FIG. 67.
FIG. 68.
ab.
follows :
- -J
c v (T c -T b)
= _
TT
Tc -T b
a
= 1--, or 1--
,
>?Carnot
that 7
?Brayton
=
is,
GAS-ENGINE CYCLES. 177
FIG. 70.
FIG. 71.
r
Similarly let cc (Fig. 71) represent the safe maximum
temperature. Then abed and ab'c'd' will represent the
Brayton and Otto working between
cycles, respectively,
FIG. 72.
F_ max.
C2 ci, /==-
and
'Jmax. work
~ "
T2 TT
"*
2
'
whence as on p. 176,
whence
/ \fc-i
v \Jc-i Clearance
\Clearance + piston displacement/
77
J- 2
m2
-t
\rp~
-t 2
or
Clearance =
CHAPTER X.
governing is effected
by throttling the fuel gas there
seems to be no method of determining the relative
renheit.
placement,
Vi= volume of clearance,
2, and 3.
k~ 1
fvo\
TI = TO(} ,k may usually be assumed as 1.38;
(Seep. 157.)
188 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
heat analysis.
In the opinion of the Committee of the Institution of
Civil Engineers (see Min. Proc., 1905, pp. 324 and 326),
cxxiv, p. 96.
THE GAS-ENGINE INDICATOR CARD. 191
FIG. 73.
complete combustion.
The losses due to incomplete combustion and to heat
THE GAS-ENGINE INDICATOR CARD. 193
tween the charge and the cylinder walls that the T$-
analysis is of greatest value.
px + cp log e v x constant,
Atmosphsric
Line
perature differences.
The compression line in the T^-plane slants usually
first to the right, showing the transference of heat
from the hot metal to the cold charge. Continued
FIG. 77.
d'
\m n\
FIG. 78.
(3) During exhaust the piston simply forces out into the
202 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
to the condenser.
area abnm T^
-Xgfa]
- (x c -x d}r2
^ Carnot ^ ^ Rankine'
cycles.
Increased Efficiency by Use of High-pressure Steam.
tions b', 6", etc., along the constant heat curve 66",
and at the same time the state point c, representing
the condition at the end of the adiabatic expansion to
the back pressure, moves towards the left into the
FIG. 79.
Critical temperature
690
670
640
600
550
500
g
2
A 450
S 400
-S 300
250
H 150
100
50
32
Abs. Z< -o
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
Units of Entropy.
FIG. 80.
THE NON-CONDUCTING STEAM-ENGINE. 207
Fig. 81.)
The effect of the sloping liquid line is further enhanced
or diminished by the relative positions of the liquid and
dry vapor lines, Vi and V 2 Fig. 81. Thus if the latent
,
\ \
FIG. 81.
FIG. 82.
Carnot cycle, = fp rp
? = rp
but the expression for
>?
hp 1~^?
the Rankine cycle,
xcr2
210 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
and
T - io -io e
efficiency increases,
IJ0
FIG. 83.
-ft +r t +c p (t,-t
-
_ i l)
T x rj T.
FIG. 84.
FIG. 85.
fe a +X e ()2 ) +X e
-Ax u c -p ),
c (p c 2
g crc +g -g -Ax uc (p -
c 2 c c
FIG. 86.
work.
A horse-power is equal to 33,000 foot-pounds of work
per minute, so that the heat equivalent of a horse-
power is 2545 B.T.U. per hour. The heat utilized per
equal to jj
-H
2545
HI
.-
7)
42.42
B.T.U. per I.H.P. per minute =
shown above.
CHAPTER XII.
carry a vacuum.
Theoretically, at least, the efficiency could be increased
OT = (9 +XT
^exhaust \oiler ^condenser"
its boiler.
Efficiency of X-engine, ^x
Efficiency of steam-engine j) 8t
= , ,.
m'gaen'
abed +gaef
'
mabcn
Efficiency of F-engine
mf'kghn"'
madn to m"kihfednm".
station.
the hot flue gases from the first boiler furnace might
be made to pass successively through all the super-
heaters and thus the total economy increased two
ways at once.
32 F.. = 0,
0+^
Water
248 F.. = 0. 365, 0+-
MULTIPLE-FLUID OR WASTE-HEAT ENGINE. 227
32 F.. = 0, = 0.34;
0+^
Ether
248 F. .0 = 0.205, 0+4=0.385;
1 pound of steam.
l
mn T s
FIG. 88.
tenburg.
The steam-engine was triple expansion, and the
ideal cards for such an engine are shown combined at
dbcde. The heat exhausted to the steam-condenser,
or S0 2 boiler, xr, equals aerm. Of this quantity an
MULTIPLE-FLUID OR WASTE-HEAT ENGINE 229
sumptions :
FIG. 89.
and wire-drawing.
234 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
steam.
The expansion line thus assumes at the start some
such form as c'd, becoming steeper as the temperature
drops, and just at the moment the temperatures of the
ACTUAL STEAM-ENGINE CYCLE. 235
or cylinder.
charged.
In the case of the ideal engine, the exhaust line, efg,
cylinder feed.
This method undoubtedly makes possible a deter-
mination of the general magnitude and character of the
various heat interchanges, but is open to the following
objections.
The compression line of the card refers to the clear-
ance steam alone, so that the deviations from the adia-
batic thus obtained refer to itself and not to the cylin-
der feed. Furthermore, the reconstructed curve may
actually pass to the left of the water line, assuming
FIG. 90.
ABCDEF
ALXH '
*' V s
FIG. 91.
^total
= ^Rankine '
^cylinder
'
^mechanical-
cylinder.
The throttling losses depend upon the relative areas
throttling loss.
The external loss depends upon the difference be-
tween the mean temperature of the cylinder walls
250 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
insulating material.
The condensation and re-evaporation loss is caused
(3) Compounding;
(4) Steam jacketing;
(5) Use of superheated steam.
nal amount.
power developed.
If no heat losses occurredin the cylinder, expansion
FIG. 92.
cylinders.
FIG. 93.
Abs.|
ZeroL
FIG. 94.
given by
R.- Cylinder
- __ 2545XI.H.P. __
gteam per hour (#1 - 2 ) + jacket
steam per hourXri
2545
wc (Hi-q 2 )
purpose.*
(4) As mentioned on pp. 210-213 the use of super-
heated steam has but slight effect upon the Rankine
Abs.
Zero
FIG. 95.
FIG. 96.
FIG. 97.
investigation.
Let Fig. 98 represent the T^-diagram of some gas
FIG. 98.
y 2
y 2
which becomes
LIQUEFACTION OF VAPORS AND GASES. 269
In such a case
and
thermals.
In Fig. 98 let a 1} a 2 a 3
, , etc., represent a series of such
throttling-curves. Let a pound of air be taken from
its initial condition P (representing atmospheric pres-
sure and temperature) and be compressed isothermally
to 1. This may be effected by jacketing the cylinder
walls of the compressor with cold water. If the air
FIG. 99.
in the following.
FIG. 100.
k-l
k
fc-1 fc-1
paVapc
temperature.
Thus suppose the compression to follow the law
n= w
piVi p 2 v 2 and to be represented by the curve ac in
>
FIG. 101.
n-l n-l
n-l n-l
d P i'Px\ n ( PS \ n "1
dpx\~\Pi' \Px'
= pv :p 2,
or and
Pz b~he
FIG. 102.
ing to the first general case where the air is used for
of the pipe line which conducts the air from the com-
FIG. 103.
Discharge pressure
Atmospheric Lane
Discharge pressure
FIG. 104
piston displacement.
Then
n and
2)
whence
or
c=
V1+V4 V2
the assumption.
Then
or o
2=
and p 3 (c + v 3
or 2=
whence c=
and hence if
projected into the 2^-plane only por-
tions have any significance, namely, the com-
of it
FIG. 105.
FIG. 106.
^D
^>
^>
:-
m
5=5)
tejaumon
Valv.e
^
FIG. 107.
FIG. 108.
expansion ab' ;
that is, by replacing the expansion-
valve with an auxiliary cylinder and thus utilize the
W'.
The Warming-engine. The third possibility of the
reversed cycle, viz., the utilization of the heat deliv-
temperature T a
will depend upon the entropy of the
system, since Qi+Q = T3 2 -(f) 3
. The smaller <
3
the
dQ nFT
= 0. This is possible in two ways: (1) iso-
Tfr *
L-J. 2 1-1
T, Q
T9 -T 2 T, T -T3 2
'
DISCUSSION OF THE WARMING ENGINE. 295
rp rp _ rp
2 2 Y2 tlm rp rp
1
- -
1
*
3
L 2
rfi
2
fTJ
l
~ 3
rri
J i~
,
rri r
3
/-)
/TT
'rp _ rp TVl /TT
Qf) _f)
3~^l~^lrp
rp
'
rp
rp
__
l
rp
rp
1
_2
Vl ~
f) _f)
Vim
rp
L 2
'
rp
*
rrt
l
_ rp3
-*
m n
~^2f
L 1 * 3~ 2 -L
1 1 3~- L 2
296 THE TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM.
partially utilized.
This maximum gain, Q 3 Q,, can be illustrated by
means of the T^-diagram, as shown in Fig. 109. Let db
T,
I' c T,'
\Tt
b e e'
FIG. 109.
sected by isothermals T 3,
T 3 ', etc., the rectangles mn,
tively.
It should be noticed that as T s approaches T 2, the
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Smith's Materials of Machines 12mo, 1 00
Tate and Stone's Foundry Practice 12mo, 2 00
Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts 8vo, 8 00
Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering, see Civil Engineering,
page 9.
Part II. Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50
Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their
Constituents 8vo, 2 50
Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 00
West's American Foundry Practice 12mo, 2 50
Moulders' Text Book 12mo, 2 50
16
MINERALOGY.
MINING.
MISCELLANEOUS.
W U/ t-J
1S5S
LD 2lA-50m-4,'59 Berkeley
(Al724slO)476B
YB 0975'
195015