STUDY OF TOOLS AND OPERATIONS IN CYLINDER LINER

MANUFACTURING

An Industrial practice school program of On- Job-Engineering Training project

report Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in

Mechanical Engineering
D.Likhith

160070078

Under the esteemed guidance

of

Mr.B.Jagadeeswara Rao

QMS

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

K L Deemed to be UNIVERSITY

Green Fields, Vaddeswaram, Tadepalli,

Guntur - 522 502, Andhra Pradesh.

2019-2020
 KUSALAVA INTERNATIONAL LIMITED

Plot No.N1,Phase-3,VSEZ,DUVVADA,

Visakhapatnam-530046,AP

Bonafide Certificate

This is to certify that this On –Job- Engineering Training project report entitled
“STUDY OF TOOLS AND OPERATIONS IN CYLINDER LINER
MANUFACTUTING” submitted to Department of Mechanical Engineering, KL
Deemed to be University, Vaddeswaram, Guntur, in connection with the
University “Industrial Practice School Program” is a bonafide record of work done by
“D.Likhith” under my supervision at the “KUSALAVA INTERNATIONAL
LIMITED” from “11-07-2019” to “15-11-2019”.

MR.B.Jagadeeswara Rao

QMS
 K L Deemed to be UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Certificate

This is Certified that the project entitled “STUDY OF TOOLS AND OPERATIONS IN
CYLINDER LINER MANUFACTURING” which is a experimental &/ theoretical &/
Simulation&/hardware work carried out by D.Likhith (160070078),in partial fulfillment for
the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Department of Mechanical
Engineering, during the year 2019-2020. The project has been approved as it satisfies the
academic requirements.

Department Coordinator Head of the Department

MR.SYED KARIMULLA DR.A.SRINATH

University Guide External

MR.V.SHOURIE REDDY
 K L Deemed to be UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT

OFMECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DECLARATION

I hereby declare thatOn-Job Engineer training project report(OJET) the project entitled
“STUDY OF TOOLS AND OPERATIONS IN CYLINDER LINER
MANUFACTURING” by “KUSALAVA INTERNATIONAL LIMITED ” has been
carried out by D.Likhith(160070078), under the supervision Mr.B.Jagadeeswara Rao. This
report is the preservation of original work carried by me, and it has not been submitted in
part or in full, for the award of any other degree or diploma of any other University.

Place: Vijayawada

Date: 15-11-2019

D.Likhith

160070078
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The internship opportunity I had with “KUSALAVA INTERNATIONAL LIMITED” was a

great chance for learning and professional development . Therefore, I consider myself
as a very lucky individual as I as provided with an opportunity to be a part of it.I am
also greatful for having a chance to meet so many people and professionals who led
me through this internship period,

I am using this opportunity to express my deepest gratitude and special thanks to the
Mr.B.JAGADEESWARA RAO,QMS & HR of kusalava international limitednwho
inspite of being extradinarily busy with his duties, took tim out to hear,guide and keep
me on the correct path and allowing me to carry out my project at their esteemed
organization and extending during the training .

I am grateful to Mr.VATTI SHOURIE REDDY the university guide and the regional
manager for placing me in this company and continuous effort for successful
completion of PSP.

I express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr.A.SRINATH sir head of the department ,

mechanical engineering for his encouragement and support .

At last I would like to thank MR.KARIMULLA ,our coordinator for allowing us to do this
enlightening program at the organization.

D.Likhith

160070078
 ABSTRACT

A Cylinder Liner or also known as Sleeve is a cylindrical component that is placed in an

engine block. It is one of the most important functional parts to make up the interior of an
engine and it gives a wear protective surface for piston and piston rings.The barrel or bore
in which an engine piston moves back and forth may be an integral part of the cylinder
block, or it may be a separate liner. It is commonly used in gasoline engines, has the
disadvantage of not being replaceable. When excessive wear occurs in a block of this type,
the cylinder must be re-bored or honed. Reconditioning of this type cannot be repeated
indefinitely and, in time, the entire block must be replaced. Another disadvantage is the
inconvenience, especially in large engines, of having to remove the entire cylinder block
from a ship in order to recondition the cylinders.
 INDEX

S.NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

1 CHAPTER 1 Over View Of Company 1
2 CHAPTER 2 History 2-3
3 CHAPTER 3 Products 4
3.1 Cylinder Liners 4
3.2 Flow Chart Of Processes 5
3.3 Machining Process 6
3.4 Types Of Machinery In Industry 6-19
4 CHAPTER 4 Project 20-62
5 CHAPTER 5 Solid Works Design And Ansys Result 63-65
6 CHAPTER 6 Conclusion 66
7 CHAPTER 7 Result 66
8 CHAPTER 8 References 66
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CHAPTER-1

OVER VIEW OF COMPANY

KUSALAVA INTERNATIONAL LIMITED

Kusalava international limite is done of the leading manufacturer of critical engine parts,
supplying to major OEM’s in India. Kusalava International also has a dominating presence
in the After Market, its products are marketed under the brand name Tiger Power, and
currently Tiger Power possesses a market share of 35% in India and 30% in USA.

Backed by a strong Research and Development team with over four decades of
manufacturing excellence in engine critical parts, today Kusalava has emerged as the
market leader for developing superior products at cost effective prices in the global market.

Kusalava is one of the first few companies in India to be certified for ISO/TS 16949 and
the first among the cylinder liner manufacturers, in the year
2000. More.

DRAG RACE

KUSALAVA has partnered with DARTON INTERNATIONAL to develop 3special

material for Drag Racing to acheive high-tensile and high-alongation. Kusalava Darton
products were most successful for Drag Racing and enjoy clear 100% market share

PLANTS

Location of plant1:-Adavinekkalam, vijayawada

 Operations: casting and machining

Location of plant2:l-Rudrapur, Uttaranch

 Operations: casting and machining

Location of plant3:- Special Economic Zone, Visakhapatnam

 Operations: machining
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CHAPTER-2

HISTORY

Started in 1964 as a small foundry under the visionary leadership of Mr. Kusalava
(chairman) today KUSALAVA INTERNATIONAL LTD has transformed itself into a
truely professional organization with revenues close to 25 millions USD. Today
KUSALAVA INTERNATIONAL LTD supplies critical engine components to original
equipment manufactures in India and to aftermarket sales in INDIA, USA, Europe. The
company has established itself as the preferred supplier of cylinder liners worldwide.

STEP BY STEP OF DEVELOPMENT OF KUSALAVA INTERNATIONAL

LIMITED
1964: Kusalava International Limited comes into existence as M/S Bharat Industries

1972: Started production of grey iron cylinder liners. Started supplies to major road
transport corporations (STU's)

1982: Supplies to replacement market with TIGER POWER-TOUGH PARTS Brand

name.

1986: Installed the first Dual Track Induction Furnace in India. 1987: Became the major
source for Defence Vehicle Factory 1990: Exported its first consignment to New Zealand.
1992: Tiger Power became the major supplier of cylinder liners in After Market

1994: Emerged as the Largest cylinder liner manufacturer in India.

1995: Kusalava commissions its first overseas office in Houston, Texas, USA ISO: 9002
certified.

1996: Sales figures crossed of 1 million USD. Kuslava becomes a limited company.

1997: Started WOS in USA, (Wholly Owned Subsidary)

1998: QS-9000 certified

1999: Started production of Ductile Iron castings.

2000: ISO/TS 16949 certified.

2002: Turn Over crosses 10 millions USD.

2003: Introduced Six Sigma Process.

Awarded by ACMA for Best Six Sigma Project in 2003

2004: Introduced Lean Manufacturing Practices.

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Received the best supplied award from EICHER MOTORS, for outstanding contribution
to supply chain management.
Awarded by ACMA for Best Six Sigma Project in 2004 again.

2005: Entered into an agreement with the Market Leader Darton Sleeves, USA for
suppling High Grade Ductile iron liners to the Drag Racing Market.

2006: Total PM Kick off on July 3rd 2006.

Kusalava commissions new plant at pantnagar, Uttarakhand.

2007: Turn over crosses 20 million USD.

Kusalava commissions new plant at Visakhaptnam, Andhra Pradesh. 2009:
Implemented SAP across Four Manufacturing Locations.
2009: Obtained ISO 14001 CERTIFICATION for - Visakhapatnam Plant.

2012: Obtained ACT Foundation Cluster.

2014: Obtained Govt. Of India R & D Recognition.

2016: Received ISO 14001 CERTIFICATION for - Vijayawada.

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CHAPTER-3
PRODUCTS

 Cylinder liners
 Aluminum block liners
 Pistion and piston rings
 Value seats and guides
 Centrifugal casting

3.1 Cyinder liners

A cylinder liner is a cylindrical part to be fitted into an engine block to form a cylinder. It
is one of the most important functional parts to make up the interior of an engine The
cylinder liner, serving as the inner wall of a cylinder, forms a sliding surface for the piston
rings while retaining the lubricant within.

The most important function of cylinder liners is the excellent characteristic as sliding
surface and these four necessary points.

 High anti-galling properties

 Less wear on the cylinder liner itself
 Less wear on the partner piston ring
 Less consumption of lubricant

The cylinder liner receives combustion heat through the piston and piston rings and
transmits the heat to the coolant.

A cylinder wall in an engine is under high temperature and high pressure, with the piston
and piston rings sliding at high speeds. In particular, since longer service life is required of
engines for trucks and buses, cast iron cylinders that have excellent wear-resistant
properties are only used for cylinder parts. Also, with the recent trend of lighter engines,
materials for engine blocks have been shifting from cast iron to aluminum alloys.
However, as the sliding surface for the inner cylinder, the direct sliding motion of
aluminum alloys has drawbacks in deformation during operation and wear-resistance. For
that reason, cast iron cylinder liners are used in most cases.

Types of cylinder liners

 Cummins
 Darton
 Hino
 Peugeot
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3.2 FLOW CHART OF CYLINDER LINER PROCESSES

Casting

1B and 1C

(if required) 2C 2DR

Fine Boring

(if required)Hardening Rough honing

2D(CNC)

Fine Honing

(As per coustmer requirement) Phospating

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Quality Testing

Packing and
Export

3.3 MACHINING PROCESS

The casting are shot blasted and are sent to the machine shop for machining operation, the
first operation is the roughing operation where casting skin is removed, this operations is
performed on a custom designed vertical high speed turning cum boring machine. The
machined liner is then turned on a CNC Turning Center where all outer diameter and
lengths are maintained, for Dry liners the next sequence of operations would be Rough
Grinding, fine boring, Rough honing followed by Plateau honing and Finish grinding
where as for Wet Liners after CNC turning, fine boring followed by rough honing, fine
CNC turning and plateau honing would be performed.

Honing has been and will remain to be in the foreseeable future the only process available
that could provide both the required surface roughness and the cross- hatching in cylinder
liners. The cross-hatching lay direction is needed to provide means for retaining lubricants.

A cylinder liner has fairly intricate surface requirements due to its complicated functions. It
has to provide adequate surface roughness to resist wear and to store and retain lubricants
during high temperatures, in addition to liner hardness, geometric dimensioning and
tolerancing to ensure other proper functions.

3.4 TYPES OF MACHINERIES IN THE INDUSTRY

1.Computerised Numerical Control(CNC)

INTRODUCTION:

A group of commands given to the CNC for operating the machine is called the program. It
consists of:
• Information about part geometry
• Motion statements to move the cutting tool
• Cutting speed
• Feed
• Auxiliary functions such as coolant on and off, spindle direction

CNC machining is a manufacturing process in which pre-programmed computer software

dictates the movement of factory tools and machinery. The process can be used to control a
range of complex machinery, from grinders and lathes to mills and routers. With CNC
machining, three-dimensional cutting tasks can be accomplished in a single set of prompts.
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When a CNC system is activated, the desired cuts are programmed into the software and
dictated to corresponding tools and machinery, which carry out the dimensional tasks as
specified, much like a robot.

In CNC programming, the code generator within the numerical system will often assume
mechanisms are flawless, despite the possibility of errors, which is greater whenever a
CNC machine is directed to cut in more than one direction simultaneously. The placement
of a tool in a numerical control system is outlined by a series of inputs known as the part
program.

CNC MACHINE PROGRAMMING:

In CNC, machines are operated via numerical control, wherein a software program is
designated to control an object. The language behind CNC machining is alternately
referred to as G-code, and it’s written to control the various behaviour of a corresponding
machine, such as the speed, feed rate and coordination.

Basically, CNC machining makes it possible to pre-program the speed and position of
machine tool functions and run them via software in repetitive, predictable cycles, all with
little involvement from human operators. Due to these capabilities, the process has been
adopted across all corners of the manufacturing sector and is especially vital in the areas of
metal and plastic production.
For starters, a 2D or 3D CAD drawing is conceived, which is then translated to computer
code for the CNC system to execute. After the program is inputted, the operator gives it a
trial run to ensure no mistakes are present in the coding.

Open/Closed-Loop Machining Systems:

Position control is determined through an open-loop or closed-loop system. With the

former, the signaling runs in a single direction between the controller and motor. With a
closed-loop system, the controller is capable of receiving feedback, which makes error
correction possible. Thus, a closed-loop system can rectify irregularities in velocity and
position.

In CNC machining, movement is usually directed across X and Y axes. The tool, in turn, is
positioned and guided via stepper or servo motors, which replicate exact movements as
determined by the G-code. If the force and speed are minimal, the process can be run via
open-loop control. For everything else, closed-loop control is necessary to ensure the
speed, consistency and accuracy required for industrial applications, such as metalwork.

TYPES OF CNC MACHINES:

There are basically five different types of CNC machines:

 CNC Plasma Cutting Machine.

 CNC Laser Cutting Machine.
 CNC Milling Machine.
 CNC Router Machine.
 CNC Lathe Machine.
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• G-CODE:

Preparatory word, used as a communication device to prepare the MCU. The G-code
indicates that a given control function such as G01, linear interpolation, is to be requested.

• M-CODE:
Miscellaneous function The M code is used to designate a particular mode of operation for
an NC machine tool.

Advantages of CNC machines:

1. Machining is accurate
2. Time taken to perform a job is very less
3. Safe to operate
4. Number of operators required to operate a machine are reduced
5. No possibility of human error
6. Reliable
7. Even very complex designs can also be made
8. Low maintenance required
9. They are versatile
10.Uniformity in designs
11.They could run for all 24 hours a day

Disadvantages of CNC machines

1. They are most expansive

2. Skilled operator is required to operate the machine
3. In case of breakdown a highly skilled professional is required to solve the problem
Applications of CNC machines

1. Metal removal industries.

2. Material fabrication industries.
3. For non-conventional machining industries where the machining task is difficult to
perform manually.
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2.INTRODUCTION TO CENTERLESSS GRINDING MACHINE

Cylindrically shaped parts are fundamental to many industries, especially the roller bearing
industry. Cylindrical parts are usually made with a turning or grinding process. For
analysis, it is crucial to understand the geometry and basic physics of a process whose goal
is the production perfectly circular cross sections. A perfect circle is fully defined either by
a center and a radius or by three points on the circumference, and precision production of
circular cross sections requires strict adherance to one of these two definitions.
There are two types of grinding processes which produce circular cross sections. The
process based on the first definition of a circle, establishing a center and a radius, is called
center-type grinding.
Center-type grinding employs two coned shaped centers which are thrust into the faces of a
cylinder while the grinding wheel is positioned a constant distance from the centers during
 P a g e | 10

workpiece/grinding wheel rotation as shown in Figure

This method of grinding is flexible and is well suited for low volume production.
Difficulties with this method include: the accurate placement of the centers on the
workpiece axis, the constant distance maintenance of the grinding wheel during
processing, and the deflection of the workpiece due to the bending moment from the cones
and the grinding wheel.
The second definition of an ideal circle, three points on the circumference, is met with a
process called centerless grinding. In centerless grinding the workpiece is held between the
grinding wheel and two other points (often a regulating wheel and a metal blade).

CENTERLESS GRINDING MACHINE :-

Centerless grinding has many advantages unavailable to center-type or other, over-

constrained processes. Centerless grinding optimally constrains the circular workpiece
geometry,has high production rates, and can maintain high roundness accuracy.
Difficulties with centerless grinding include the lack of stiffness of the machine system and
the optimal placement of the two contact points in relation to the grinding wheel during
processing.
This study attempts to address the difficulties in centerless grinding including: the effect of
set up geometry on the production of accurately round workpieces, the effect of overall
machine stiffness on the production of round workpieces, and the effect of set up geometry
on unstable vibration given the machine's finite stiffness.
As will be seen, the angular placement of the two support points greatly affects the
accuracy and stability of the centerless grinding process. This thesis will first review the
seventy-year history of published research into centerless grinding and show the overall
lack of comprehensive analysis.
Then, a geometric and dynamic model of centerless grinding will be proposed, analyzed,
and experimentally evaluated in terms of the accuracy of part cross- section roundness and
process dynamic stability.
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BENEFITS OF CENTERLESS GRINDING MACHINE:-

 Tight tolerance.
 Excellent surface finish.
 Excellent roundness.
 Excellent straightness.
 Less stock compared to between center grinding machine.
 Ease of automation.
 Low cycle times.

Diamond dresser conditioning process:

Types of dressers

 Diamond dresser
 Rotary dresser and
 Dressing stones

Diamond dresser's shape like a pencil. It is a tool carrying industrial diamond for dressing
or truing the surface of a grinding wheel.It has single point,multi-point and other types.

Dressing stones are abrasive stones which made of aluminum oxide or silicon
carbide,even can use diamond grains. Dressing stones are used for profiling, dressing,
and sharpening grinding wheels.

Rotary dresser is the type of a high precision grinding wheel which is used for
profiling wheels,it also used for most high-tech industries to manufacture high precision
machine parts and equipment.

OBJECTIVE

1. Know how to grind of a metal object.

2. Know about the function of the grinding machine.
3. Understand the functioned the type of tools used in the grinding machine.
4. Knowing method about how the work.

Advantages of centreless grinding :

 Centerless grinding operation requires less grinding stock.

 Centerless grinding has a high rate of production.
 This process helps in high rate of production.
 This operation is easy to control.
 This operation is done with quality output.
 This type of work can be done by less skilled persons.
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 This centreless grinding process occurs an exact floating condition.

Disadvantages of centerless grinding machine:

 This operation is not so easy to handle at different working diameters.

 This type of operations is not useful at less production.
 Changing the tool of grinding wheels takes a long time.
 This cannot be highly useful to long Flat and key ways

Precautions:

1. Wear a goggle before start the works.

2. Wear safety shoes.
3. Avoid wear jewellery while using this surface grinding machine.
4. Make sure the machine is safe before use.
5. Use appropriate machine speed.
6. Switching off the machine after use.
7. Make sure the machine is used with safety switch and another switch lock.

Tools required for grinding machine:

 Regulating wheel
 Grinding wheel
 Star blade type dresser
 Dial guage

Visual effects :-
 Porous
 Cracks
 Damage
 Tool mark

Coolant usuage in grinding machine :-

cutting fluid is a type of coolant and lubricant designed specifically
for metalworking processes, such as machining and stamping. There are various kinds of
cutting fluids, which include oils, oil-water emulsions, pastes, gels, aerosols (mists), and
air or other gases. They may be made from petroleum distillates, animal fats, plant oils,
water and air, or other raw ingredients.
Depending on context and on which type of cutting fluid is being considered, it may be
referred to as cutting fluid, cutting oil, cutting compound, coolant, or lubricant.
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Most metalworking and machining processes can benefit from the use of cutting fluid,
depending on workpiece material. Common exceptions to this are cast
iron and brass, which may be machined dry (though this is not true of all brasses, and any
machining of brass will likely benefit from the presence of a cutting fluid).

3.HONING OPERATION

WHAT IS HONING?
Honing can be considered as a machining process because it involves metal removal in
form of microchips. The word “Honing” is developed by the word “Hone”. Hone is used
for a cylindrical tool dressed with some abrasive material. This abrasive material is used in
the form of sticks which are mounted on the mandrel. However nowadays diamond and
carbon boron nitrite grits are used for complete the operation in just one stroke. This
process is used for achieve accurate dimension of cylindrical holes. It is best suited for
finishing engine cylinder. Sometimes It is used for finishing gear where tool made with
plastic impregnated with abrasive.

In honing process a well-dressed (with abrasive particles) cylindrical tool rotates at its own
axis. The tool diameter is almost equal to the work piece internal diameter. This tool
rotates at its own axis and also reciprocates which allows to remove material in form of
microchips. It can achieve tolerance of about 0.25 – micron. This cutting form a cross lay
hatched pattern at work piece.

WHY HONING?

Cost effective machining method for..

 Removing stock
 Generating exacting
 Bore tolerances
 Bore polishing
 Finishing bores of almost any material such a: sprayed coatings, CGI, Ceramics, etc.

Define The Honing (Process):-

 The honing process provides the final sizing and creates the desired finish pattern on the
interior of tubing or cylinder bores. Finishing is accomplished by expanding abrasive
stones of suitable grit and grade against the work surface. The stones are rotated and
reciprocated in the part with hone abrasive under controlled pressure. Combining rotation
and reciprocation produces a cross-hatch pattern in the surface of the part being honed
TYPES OF HONING:-
Honing can be classified into two types.They are

1.Manual honing:-

In this type of honing the hone rotate continuously and the work piece is move front and
back manually. This process is rarely used now days.
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2.Machine honing:-

The honing process in which the hone performs combined rotary and reciprocating motion
and there is less manual interaction called machine honing. According to the type of
machine this process can be classified into two types
VERTICAL HONING AND HORIZONTAL HONING

HONING MACHINES PERFORM THREE OPERATIONS

 First, it is a stock removal process which takes out ruptured metal and reaches base metal.
 Second, a finish pattern is generated to provide the best possible surface for promoting
optimum lubricating conditions.
 Third, honing assures extremely accurate straightness, roundness and size of the
cylindrical surface.
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PROCESS PARAMETERS:-

RPM of tool:-

If the tool speed increases, it increases metal removal rate and decreases surface roughness.

Honing time:-

If we increase honing time it will decrease surface roughness at some extent and then starts
increases it. It is so selected which gives minimum surface roughness with maximum metal
removal rate.
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Honing stick pressure:-

The change in metal removal rate and surface roughness with the change in unit pressure is
shown in the graph. The honing stick pressure is so selected as to get minimum roughness
with highest metal removal rate.

Stroke Length:
The stroke length should be as enough which can cover the whole working length.

ADVANTAGES:-

 Less complex or low cost fixtures.

 It is highly accurate.
 It can be used for both long and short bores.
 It maintains original bore centerline.
Any material can be finished regardless its hardness

DISADVANTAGES:

 High capital cost

 Corrosive environment
 High preventive maintenance cost
 Not economical for soft materials
 Matching of cast iron by ECG present certain difficulties
 Non conducting hard work materials such as ceramics cannot be machined by ECG
process
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4.Testing instrument:-

Material testing in casting:-

Chemical composition Spectrometer,wet lab & CE Analyser

Hardness Vicker,Rockwell&Brinell
Microstructure Metallurigal Microscope fitted with image
analyzers

Tensile strength UTM(Universal Testing Machine)

Material Flaw Detectors Eddy current detectors& Magnetic particle crack
detector
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Dimentional testing in machining:-

Roundness, Flatness, Runout, Total Runout, Roundness Tester
Squareness,
Concentricity
Radius(both inner and outer),Angles, Chamfer, Contour
Product quality inspection CMM(Coordinate measuring
machines)
Lengths Profile Projector
RA,RK,RVK,RPK,MR1,MR2,R2 Surface roughness and plateau
parameters
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CHAPTER-4

PROJECT:-
Our project is based upon the study and practical work on the machineries used in the
industry.
The main objective is to learn the proceeses involved and tools used and how to operate the
machineries and Identifiying the types of rejections and defects in the cylinder liner
manufacturing.

FLOW CHART OF THE CYLINDER LINER PROCESSES:-

For every cylinder liner the manufacturing process will vary from one liner to other
because the manufacturer should fulfill the requirement of the customer and also the
manufacturer should reduce the rejections and wastage for their industry so for this
cylinder liner manufacturing process will as follows.

Casting

2DR Operation

Heat treatment

2D Operation

Grinding

Boring

Rough honing
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Fine honing

Quality analysis

Packing and dispatch

1.CASTING:-

As the casting process is not done in this industry as there was no foundry work is done
here. The casted cylinder liners will come from the vijawada plant so the main process in
this plant is machining process and exports were done here .So we are giving just a simple
glance about the casting process by the theory we have learnt in the manufacturing
technology.

What is Casting?

Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into

a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify.
The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to
complete the process. Casting materials are usually metals or various time setting materials
that cure after mixing two or more components together; examples
are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is most often used for making complex
shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.
Heavy equipment like machine tool beds, ships' propellers, etc. can be cast easily in the
required size, rather than fabricating by joining several small pieces. Casting is a 7,000-
year-old process. The oldest surviving casting is a copper frog from 3200 BC

History :-

The oldest known example of the lost wax technique is a 6000-year old amulet from Indus
valley civilization.

Types of casting:-

 Centrifugal casting (industrial)

 Core plug
 Die casting
 Glass casting
 Investment casting
 Lost-foam casting
 Lost-wax casting
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 Molding process
 Casting with mycelium
 Permanent mold casting
 Rapid casting
 Sand casting
 Slipcasting

The casting process used in this industry is centrifugal casting process

Centrifugal casting process:-

In the centrifugal casting process, molten metal is poured into a spinning die. The die can
be spinning either on a vertical or horizontal axis depending on the configuration of the
desired part. By spinning a mold while molten metal is poured into it, centrifugal force acts
to distribute the molten metal in the mold at pressures approaching 100 times the force of
gravity. The combination of this applied pressure and the engineering mechanics of
controlled solidification and secondary refining produces components of superior quality.

Types of centrifugal casting

There are two types of centrifugal casting

1.Vertical centrifugal casting
2.horizontal centrifugal casting

In this they are using the Horizonal centrifugal casting because it is cost effective method

Horizontal centrifugal casting

This process is especially suited for long cylindrical parts where the casting length is
significantly longer than its outside diameter. This includes straight tube sections, long
cylinders with end flanges, or short parts such as rings or flanges where multiple parts can
be machined effectively from a straight cylinder.

Advantages:-

1. Centrifugal Casting Eliminates Mid-wall Defects

2. Centrifugal Casting Controls Impurities
3. Centrifugal Casting Greatly Reduces Micro Porosity

2.CNC 2DR OPERATION

The cnc 2dr operation is known as the rough cnc, So as first some of the cylinder liner will
be done firstly with rough cnc and some of cylinder liners will be done directly the 2d
operation. As our cylinder liner will firstly be done with 2dr operation i.e rough cnc the
main objective is to reduce the outer dia and coller width and facing and under cut
operations. The tools used for these operations are listed bellow and also we are giving the
glance about the tools used in cnc machines and also rake angles . The cnc used in the
industry are the turning cnc machines. The rough and fine cnc will be done based on the
tool usage and speed ,feed given in the machine by the operator.
 P a g e | 22

Tools Used in The 2DR operation

Image of insert Description Usage of insert

CNGA120402S01225SE Top facing and the bottom

facing

CNGN120408S01025 To cut the outer diameter of

the cylinder liner

DNGA150401S01225SE Used for the undercut

Note:-Tools used for this cylinder liner are CBN tools because this cylinder liner is hard
material so for the hard materials CBN tools are recommended

Description about the G-codes and M-codes:-

G Codes:-

G0,G1 Linear move

G75 Grooving cycle
G97 Spindle speed control

M Codes:-

M00 Program stop

M01 Optional program stop
M03 Spindle on forward
M16 Air blast/Tool changer
M164 Rotate APL grippers to ‘n’ position-modal
M30 Program end and reset

Program:-

G75 X6 ;0CR;
N1 MSG(‘’LOCATION’’)CR;
T1CR;
D2CR;
MS2CR;
 P a g e | 23

G0 Z0.0CR;
G0 X120;0CR;
M00 CR;
G0 Z-1.0CR;
G0 X200.0CR;
G75 X0 .0CR;
M01CR;
N2 MSG (“BOTTOM FACING’’)CR;
T24;
M164;
D24;
M03518004;
G0 Z12.04;
G0 X119.004;
G1 Z0.0 F0.254;
G0 Z2.54;
G0 Z-0.24;
G1 F0.3 X119.004;
G0 Z0.F4;
G0 X127.40CR;
G0 Z-0.1CR;
G1 ANG=160.0X129.90CR;
G0 X133.0CR;
G75 X0.0CR;
M01CR;
N2 MSG(“6D Turning’’)CR;
T3 CR;
M16 CR;
D2 CR;
M0351800CR;
G0 Z-260.00CR;
G0 X131.00CR;
G1 Z-274.90 F0.2CR;
G1 X138.00CR;
G0 Z4.0CR;
G0 X129.52CR;
G01 Z-70.00 X129.60 F0.55CR;
G01 Z-210.00 X129.50CR;
G01 Z-275.00 X129.65 F0.55CR;
G1 X136.17CR;
G1 Z-288.00 F0.5CR;
G0 X200.0CR;
G75 X0.0CR;
M01CR;
N5 MSG(“Top Face1”)CR;
T5 CR;
M16 CR;
D2 CR;
M0351 500CR;
G0 Z-1.0CR;
G0 X138.00CR;
G1 X120.00 F0.25CR;
 P a g e | 24

G0 Z-2.0CR;
G0 X138.00CR;
G0 Z0.0CR;
G1 F0.35 X120.00CR;
G0 Z-1.0CR;
G0 F0.35 X120.00CR;
G0 Z-1.0CR;
G0 X200.0CR;
M0.1CR;
N5 MSG(“Top Face.2”) CR;
T6 CR;
M16 CR;
D2 CR;
M0351 2004CR;
G0 Z0.0CR;
G0 X138.00CR;
G1 X120.00 F0.16CR;
G0 Z-1.0CR;
G0 X138.00CR;
G0 Z1.4CR;
G1 X128.80 F0.16CR;
G1 Z0.40CR;
G1 F0.2 X120.00CR;
G0 Z-1.0CR;
G0 X133.40CR;
G0 Z1.3CR;
G0 X200.0CR;
G75 X0.0CR;
M01CR;
N8 MSG(“UNDERCUT DIA”)CR;
T7 CR;
M16 CR;
D2 CR;
G97 M0351300CR;
G0 Z-277.40CR;
G0 X137.00CR;
G1 X129.276.25 F0.22CR;
G1 Z-276.20 F0.15CR;
G1 ANG=4 F0.28X129.30CR;
G0 X134.90CR;
G0 Z-277.55CR;
G1 ANG=135.0X137.80CR;
G0 X200.0CR;
G75 X0.0CR;
M0550CR;
M01CR;
T8CR;
M16CR;
D2CR;
G97 M0351000CR;
G0 Z-3.0CR;
G0 X123.50CR;
 P a g e | 25

G0 Z0.0CR;
G1 ANG=315.00 X120.50 F0.25CR;
G0 Z-3.CR;
G0 X200.CR;
G75 X0.0CR;
MO9CR;
MO550CR;
M01CR;
M30CR;

After the 2DR operation the liner will be sent to the heat treatment to reduce ovality

CYLINDER LINER AFTER THE 2DR OPERATION

 P a g e | 26

4. HEAT TREATMENT

Heat treatment:-

heat treatment is defined as an operation involving the heating and cooling of a metal or
an alloy in the solid-state to obtain certain desirable properties without change
composition. The process of heat treatment is carried out to change the grain size, to
modify the structure of the material and to relive the stresses set up the material after hot or
cold working.

 The heat treatment is done to improve the machinability.

 To improve magnetic and electrical properties.
 To increase resistance to wear, heat and corrosion and much more reason.

Heat treatment consists of heating the metal near or above its critical temperature, held
for a particular time at that finally cooling the metal in some medium which may be air,
water, brine or molten salts. The heat treatment process includes annealing, case hardening,
tempering, normalizing and quenching, nitriding, cyaniding etc.

Types of Heat Treatment Processes

Eight different types of heat treatment processes are as follows:
1. Annealing
2. Normalizing
3. Hardening
4. Tempering
5. Nitriding
6. Cyaniding
7. Induction hardening
8. Flame hardening

Types of Heat Treatment

1. Annealing:-
annealing is one of the most important processes of heat treatment. It is one of the most
widely used operations in the heat treatment of iron and steel and is defined as the
softening process.
Heating of from 30 – 50°C above the upper critical temperature and cooling it at the very
slow rate by seeking it the furnace. The main aim of annealing is to make steel more
ductile and malleable and to remove internal stresses. This process makes the steel soft so
that it can be easily machined.

Purpose of Annealing:-
 It softens steel and to improve its machinability.
 To refine grain size and remove gases.
 It removes the internal stresses developed during the previous process.
 To obtain desired ductility, malleability and toughness.
 It modifies the electrical and magnetic properties.
 P a g e | 27

Procedure for annealing:-

Depending on the carbon content, the steel is heated to a temperature of about 50° to 55°C
above its critical temperature range. It is held at this temperature for a definite period of
time depending on the type of furnace and nature of work. The steel is then allowed to cool
inside the furnace constantly.

Application of annealing:-
It is applied to castings and forgings.

2. Normalizing:-

The main aim of normalizing is to remove the internal stresses developed after the cold
working process. In this, steel is heated 30 – 50°C above its upper critical temperature and
cooling it in the air.

It improves mechanical and electrical properties, machinability & tensile strength.

Normalizing is the process of heat treatment carried out to restore the structure of normal
condition.

Purpose of Normalizing:-
 Promote uniformity of structure.
 To secure grain refinement.
 To bring about desirable changes in the properties of steel.

Procedure for Normalizing:-

The steel is heated to a temperature of about 40° to 50°C above its upper critical
temperature. It is held at this temperature for a short duration. The steel is then allowed
cool in still air at room temperature, which is known as air quenching.

Application of normalizing:-
a) It is applied castings and forgings to refine grain structure and to relieve stresses.
b) It is applied after cold working such as rolling, stamping and hammering.

3. Hardening:-
Hardening: The main aim of the hardening process is to make steel hard tough. In this
process, steel is heated 30° – 40°C above the upper critical temperature and then followed
by continues cooling to room temperature by quenching in water or oil. It is the opposite
process of annealing.

Purpose of hardening:-
 By hardening, it increases the hardness of steel.
 To resist to wear.
 Allows the steel to cut other metals

Procedure for hardening:-

The steel is heated above its critical temperature range. It is held at that temperature for a
definite period of time. The steel is then rapidly cooled in a medium of quenching. The
 P a g e | 28

quenching medium is selected according to the degree of hardness desired. The air, water,
bring, oils and molten salts are used as quenching mediums. A thin section such knife
blades are cooled in air. Water is widely used medium but it results in the formation of
bubbles on the surface of the metal.

Hence brine solution is used to prevent this. Oil is used when there is a risk of distortion on
cracks and is suitable for alloy steels. The molten salts are used to cool thin section to
obtain crack-free and impact-resistant products.

Application of hardening:-

It is applied for chisels, sledgehammer, hand hammer, centre punches, taps, dies, milling
cutters, knife blades and gears.

4. Tempering:-
Tempering: When the hardening process hardens a steel specimen, it becomes brittle and
has high residual stress. It is an operation used to modify the properties of steel hardened
by quenching for the purpose of increasing its usefulness.

Tempering or draw results in a reduction of brittleness and removal of internal strains

caused during hardening. Steel must be tempered after the hardening process.

The tempering is divided into three categories according to the usefulness of steel required.

 Low-temperature tempering.
 Medium temperature tempering.
 High-temperature tempering.

Purpose of Tempering:-
 To relieve internally stressed caused by hardening.
 To reduce brittleness.
 Improve ductility, strength and toughness.
 To increase wear resistance.
 To obtain desired mechanical properties.

Procedure for tempering:-

The steel after being quenched in the hardening process is reheated to a temperature
slightly above the temperature range at which it is to be used, but below the lower critical
temperature. The temperature here varies from 100°C to 700°C.

The reheating is done in a bath of oil or molten lead or molten salt. The specimen is held in
the bath for a period of time till attains the temperature evenly, the time depends on the
composition and desired quality of steel. Now the specimen is removed from the bath and
allow to cool slowly in still air.
 P a g e | 29

Application of Tempering:-
It is applied to cutting tools, tool and gears, which are hardened by the hardening process.

5. Nitriding:-
Nitriding is the process of the case or surface hardening in which nitrogen gas is employed
to obtain hard skin of the metal. In this process, steel is heated in the presence of ammonia
environment.

Due to this, a nitrogen atom is deposited and makes material hard. Induction hardening and
Flame hardening objects are heated by an oxy-acetylene flame.

Purpose of Nitriding:-
 To harden the surface of the steel to a certain depth.
 Increase resistance to wear and fatigue.
 To increase corrosion resistance.

Procedure for Nitriding:-

It is done in the electric furnace where temperature varying between 450° and 510°C is
maintained. The part is well machined and finished and placed in an airtight container
provided with outlet and inlet tubes through which ammonia gas is circulated.

The container with the part is placed in the furnace and ammonia gas is passed through it
while the furnace is heated.

During the process of heating nitrogen gas is released from ammonia in the form of atomic
nitrogen, which reacts with the surface of the part, and forms iron nitrate.

The depth of entrance depends upon the length of time spent at the nitriding temperature.
The part is taken out and it does not require any quenching or further heat treatment.

Application of Nitriding:-
 It is applied for hardening the surface of medium carbon alloy steels.

6. Cyaniding:-
In this process, steel is heated in the presence of sodium cyanide environment. Due to this,
carbon and nitrogen atoms are deposited on the surface of steel and make it hard.

Purpose of Cyaniding:-
 This method is effective for increasing the fatigue limit of medium and small-sized parts
such as gears, shafts, wrist pins etc.
 To increase surface hardness.
 increase wear resistance.
 To give the clean, bright and pleasing appearance to the hardened surface.
 P a g e | 30

Produce for Cyaniding:-

The parts to be treated is dipped in a molten cyanide salt bath maintained at a temperature
of 950°C. The molten salts used are sodium chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium cyanide
and soda ash.

The immersed article is left in the molten cyanide salt at a temperature of 950°C for about
15 to 20 minutes. The decomposition of sodium cyanide yield nitrogen and carbon from
carbon monoxide, which is diffused into the surface resulting in hardening the surface. The
part is then taken out of the bath and quenched in water or oil.

Application of Cyaniding:-
 It
is applied to small articles like gears, bushing, screws, pins and small hand tools, which
require a thin and hard wear-resisting surface.

7. Carburising:-
 Carburising: In this process, steel is heated in the presence of carbon environment. Due to
this carbon atoms are deposited on the metal surface and make it hard.

8. Case hardening or surface hardening:-

The main aim of this process is to make the only external surface of steel hard and inner
core soft. It is the process of carburisation i.e., saturating the surface layer of steel with
carbon, or some other process by which case is hardened and the core remains soft.

Purpose of Case hardening:-

 To obtain a hard and wear resistance to machine parts.
 By case hardening, it obtains a tough core.
 To obtain a higher fatigue limit and high mechanical properties in the core.

TOTAL SIMPLE GLANCE ABOUT HEAT TREATMENT:-

When the 2DR Rough CNC operation is completed then the cylinder liner should be sent
to Heat treatment for hardening. The main purpose of this processes is to harden the liner
hardening up to 45 to 52 microns. All this procedure will be done in “electrical furnace”
temperature in this furnace is 920 degrees Celsius. Hardening is used to reduce the ovality
in the cylinder.
Electrical furnace should be controlled by control panel it is an Alternate Current device
with 420 volts electrical coils are around in the inside of the furnace with the help of
electricity we can heat the cylinder liner with in filler which is present inside the furnace.
After the liner is heated it should cooled and we have to check the hardness by hardening
testing stand. After doing this we have to check the internal diameter with “Bore gauge” it
should be 0-10 microns and with the help of “dial gauge” we can check the outer diameter
it will be 0-1.0microns.
 P a g e | 31

ELECTRICAL FURNANCE:-

CONTROL PANEL OF ELECTRICAL FURNANCE:-

HARDENING TESTING STAND:-

 P a g e | 32

4.CNC 2D OPERATION

After the heat treatment the cylinder is brought to the 2d operation there the liner is
operated on cnc and steps on the liner and fine operation is done in this cnc.

Indications of cutting conditions

P For Carbon Steel/Alloy Steel
M For Stain Steel/Cast Iron
K For Gray Cast Iron/Nodular cast Iron
N For Aluminum / Nonferrous Metals / Non-Metals
S For Titanium Alloy / Ni Alloy
H For Heat Resistant Steel /Chilled Cast Iron

Types of insert grades

1.Cermet:-

 Cermets combine toughness with superior wear resistance, and provide longer tool life
and excellent surface finishes.

 Typical materials used in cermets are TiC, TiN, TiCN and NbC.

PVD Coated cermet(MegaCoat Cermet):-

 PVD Coated Cermet is coated on cermet substrate with a thin layer of high wear
resistance and high adhesion resistance by PVD (Physical Vapor Deposition) technology.
Generally because of the low processing temperature of PVD compared with CVD, PVD
Coated Cermet features less deterioration and more bending strength.

Advantages of MegaCoat Cermet:-

 Longer tool life and stable cutting due to superior heat resistance and hardness.
 Improved oxidation resistance prevents crater wear and enables stable machining.
 High thermal stability and surface smoothness provide excellent surface finish

2.CVD Coated Carbide:-

 Using Chemical Vapor Deposition coating technology, CVD coated carbide grades
provide stable, efficient cutting at high speeds or for heavy interrupted applications.

FEATURES:-
 Applicable from low to high speed cutting and from finishing to roughing
 Stable cutting is achieved due to the superior toughness and crack resistance
 Cutting times are reduced due to good chip control from effective chip breakers
 P a g e | 33

ADVANTAGES:-

 High Adhesion Strength of Coating Layer Ultra fine interface

 High Hardness with Tougher Al2O3 coating layer
 Generates low cutting force and stable machining
 Prevents adhesion (edge build-up) and sudden fracturing

3.Ceramic:-

 Ceramics inserts are capable of cutting at high speeds. Recommended for

hard turning of 38HRC to 64HRC hardened steel or rough to finish turning of
cast iron and heat-resistant alloys.

Features:-
 Excellent wear resistance enables high cutting speeds
 Ceramic maintains good surface finishes due to the low affinity to workpiece materials
 Silicon nitride ceramic can machine cast iron with coolant due to its superior thermal
shock resistance

4.Cbn(Cubic Boron Nitride):-

 CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride) is second only to diamond in hardness, and is a synthetically
produced material with high thermal conductivity

Features:-
 Superior wear resistance when machining hard materials
 Suitable for high speed cutting of cast iron and sintered steel
 High thermal conductivity provides stable machining

5.Pcd(Polycrystalline diamond):-

 PCD (Polycrystalline Diamond) is a synthetic diamond sintered under high temperatures

and pressures

Features:-

 Applicable for machining non-ferrous metals and non-metals

 No edge build-up provides high precision machining
 Diversified applications for cutting of non-ferrous metals and non-metals
 Finished surface will be rainbow colored.

6.Honeycomb Structure CBN/Ceramic:-

 Honeycomb Structure is the high structural controled composite material consisting of a

hard and superior wear-resistance core(gray portion) and a tough shell (white portion).
 P a g e | 34

Features:-

 Honeycomb structure CBN/ceramic combine a hard, wear-resistant core and a tough shell
into one insert.
 The tough shell stops cracks that form in the core.
 CBN is suitable for interrupted cutting of exceptionally hard material and ceramic is
suitable for heatresistant alloys

Tools used in the 2D operations in our industry are

Image of insert Description Usage of

insert
Smoothening
the top step
TT7310 and
chamfered
part of
cylinder liner
Under cut in
top surface
and the
KBN60M bottom
surface
To reduce the
outer
DNGA 150604S01225ME diameter of
the cylinder
liner

Regrinding:-
1.Regrinding is possible for inserts without any indication in manufacturer’s option.
Regrinding can not be available depending on the edge condition.
2 Regrinding is not recommended for inserts with manufacturer’s symbol like “ME” or
“SE”

 ME&SE are edge preparation with 0.12×25°+Honed Cutting Edge for negative inserts
 ME&SE are edge preparation with 0.08×15°

Program:-

G1 X129.90 F0.15;
G1 Z0.350;
G1 X120.00 F0.15;
G0 Z-1.5;
G0 X127.90;
G0 Z0.29;
 P a g e | 35

G1 A225.0 X129.40;
G0 Z-1.3;
G0 X134.45;
G0 Z1.18;
G1 A225.0 X137.00;
G0 X150.00;
T0000;
G0 X0.0;
M01;
N4(TOP FACE GROOVE);
T0905;
M03 S170;
M07;
G0 Z-0.5;
G0 X129.00
G1 Z1.30 F0.07;
G04 X1.0;
G0 Z-1.0
G0 X138.00;
T0000;
G0 X0.0;
M09;
M01;
N5(U/C DIA);
T1006;
M03 S750;
G0 Z-277.40;
G0 X137.00;
G1 X129.20 F0.1;
G0 Z-274.75 F0.14;
G0 X134.30;
G0 Z-277.35;
G1 A135.0 X136.90 F0.14;
G0 X150.00;
T0000;
G0 X0.0;
M01;
N6(BOTTOM CHAMP);
T1203;
M03 S1200;
M07;
G0 Z3.0;
G0 X126.00;
G0 Z0.0;
 P a g e | 36

G02 X123.50 Z-0.6 R1.5 F0.15;

G1 A190.0 X122.00 F0.12;
G0 Z3.0;
T0000;
G0 X0.0;
M09;
M01;
N7(TOP CHAMP);
T1207;
M07;
M03 S200;
G0 Z-3.0;
G0 X126.00;
G0 Z0.0;
G03 X123.50 Z0.6 R1.5 F0.15;
G1 A170.0 X122.050 F0.12;
G0 Z-3.0;
T0000;
G0 X0.0;
M09;
M05 S0;
M30;

The Cylinder liner after the 2D operation:-

 P a g e | 37

5.Grinding
Diamond dresser conditioning process:-

Types of dressers

 Diamond dresser
 Rotary dresser and
 Dressing stones

Diamond dresser's shape like a pencil. It is a tool carrying industrial diamond for
dressing or truing the surface of a grinding wheel.It has single point,multi-point and
other types.

Dressing stones are abrasive stones which made of aluminum oxide or silicon carbide,even
can use diamond grains. Dressing stones are used for profiling, dressing, and sharpening
grinding wheels.

Rotary dresser is the type of a high precision grinding wheel which is used for profiling
wheels,it also used for most high-tech industries to manufacture high precision machine parts
and equipment.

Diamond dresser conditioningprocess:-

DRESSING
CLEANING

PROFILING SHARPENING
Macrostructure Microstructure microstructure
Imparting running truth and correct Producing the wheel topography Elimination of
wheel shape chips from the
chip spaces

Intentional modification of Intentional setting back of the bond No intention to

grit and bond modify the
grinding wheel

OBJECTIVE:-
1.Know how to grind of a metal object.
2.Know about the function of the grinding machine.
3.Understand the functioned the type of tools used in the grinding machine.
4.Knowing method about how the work.

Advantages of centreless grinding :-

 Centerless grinding operation requires less grinding stock.
 Centerless grinding has a high rate of production.
 This process helps in high rate of production.
 P a g e | 38

 This operation is easy to control.

 This operation is done with quality output.
 This type of work can be done by less skilled persons.
 This centreless grinding process occurs an exact floating condition.
Disadvantages of centerless grinding machine:-

 This operation is not so easy to handle at different working diameters.

 This type of operations is not useful at less production.
 Changing the tool of grinding wheels takes a long time.
 This cannot be highly useful to long Flat and key ways

Precautions:-
1.Wear a goggle before start the works.
2.Wear safety shoes.
3.Avoid wear jewellery while using this surface grinding machine.
4.Make sure the machine is safe before use.
5.Use appropriate machine speed.
6.Switching off the machine after use.
7.Make sure the machine is used with safety switch and another switch lock.

Tools required for grinding machine:-

 Regulating wheel
 Grinding wheel
 Star blade type dresser
 Dial guage

Visual effects :-
 Porous
 Cracks
 Damage
 Tool mark

Coolant usuage in grinding machine :-

cutting fluid is a type of coolant and lubricant designed specifically for metalworking
processes, such as machining and stamping. There are various kinds of cutting fluids,
which include oils, oil-water emulsions, pastes, gels, aerosols (mists), and air or other
gases. They may be made from petroleum distillates, animal fats, plant oils, water and air,
or other raw ingredients. Depending on context and on which type of cutting fluid is being
considered, it may be referred to as cutting fluid, cutting oil, cutting compound, coolant, or
lubricant. Most metalworking and machining processes can benefit from the use of cutting
fluid, depending on workpiece material. Common exceptions to this are cast iron and brass,
which may be machined dry (though this is not true of all brasses, and any machining of
brass will likely benefit from the presence of a cutting fluid).
 P a g e | 39

COOLANT SPECIFICATIONS:

Description - Emulsifiable, biodegradable stern tube lubricant for regular use

andlubrication of some stabilizer bearings and CPP hubs.

Typical Viscosity (cSt @40°C) - 150

Typical Viscosity Index - 181

Density (kg/ltr@15°C) - 0.93

Pour Point IP15 (°C) - <-24

HYDROX BIO 150 is a biodegradable lubricant based on synthetic esters, developed

primarily for use in sterntubes and bearings where water ingress may occur. The product
provides:

 Superior level of lubrication even when water ingress occurs

 Excellent wear protection
 Excellent corrosion protection
 Compatibility with metals commonly used
 Biodegradable and non-toxic

HYDROX BIO 150 will absorb sea or fresh water entering the sterntube to form a fluid
emulsion. This reduces the risk of free water being present and continues to provide the
required lubrication and corrosion protection. (Conventional oils do not emulsify in the
same way and tend to separate, exposing components to free water and potential wear
damage.)

HYDROX BIO lubricants achieve a biodegradability of greater than 60% in the 28 day
OECD 301B and OECD 306 tests and are considered non-toxic in the marine environment
based on the following results:

Material hardness:
The abrasive aggregate is selected according to the hardness of the material being cut.

 Aluminum oxide (A)

 Silicon carbide (S)
 Ceramic(C)
 Diamond (D, MD, SD)
 Cubic boron nitride(CBN)
Grinding wheels with diamond or CBN grains are called superabrasives. Grinding wheels
with aluminum oxide (corundum), silicon carbide, or ceramic grains are called
conventional abrasives.
 P a g e | 40

Grain size:
From 10 (coarsest) to 600 (finest), determines the average physical size of the abrasive
grains in the wheel. A larger grain will cut freely, allowing fast cutting but poor surface
finish. Ultra-fine grain sizes are for precision finish work. generally grain size of grinding
wheel are 10-24(coarse),30-60(medium),80-200(fine) and 220-600(very fine).
Wheel grade:
From A (soft) to Z (hard), determines how tightly the bond holds the abrasive. A to H for
softer structure, I to P for moderately hard structure and Q to Z for hard structure. Grade
affects almost all considerations of grinding, such as wheel speed, coolant flow, maximum
and minimum feed rates, and grinding depth.
Grain spacing:
Spacing or structure, from 1 (densest) to 17 (least dense). Density is the ratio of bond and
abrasive to air space. A less-dense wheel will cut freely, and has a large effect on surface
finish. It is also able to take a deeper or wider cut with less coolant, as the chip clearance
on the wheel is greater.
Wheel bond:
How the wheel holds the abrasives; affects finish, coolant, and minimum/maximum wheel
speed.
6.BORING

Boring, also called internal turning, is used to increase the inside diameter of a hole. The
original hole is made with a drill, or it may be a cored hole in a casting. Boring achieves
three things:

Sizing:-

Boring brings the hole to the proper size and finish. A drill or reamer can only be used if
the desired size is "standard" or if special tools are ground. The boring tool can work to
any diameter and it will give the required finish by adjusting speed, feed and nose radius.
Precision holes can be bored using micro adjustable boring bars.

Straightness:-

Boring will straighten the original drilled or cast hole. Drills, especially the longer ones,
may wander off center and cut at a slight angle because of eccentric forces on the drill,
occasional hard spots in the material, or uneven sharpening of the drill. Cored holes in
castings are almost never completely straight. The boring tool being moved straight along
the ways with the carriage feed will correct these errors.

Concentricity:-

Boring will make the hole concentric with the outside diameter within the limits of the
accuracy of the chuck or holding device. For best concentricity, the turning of the outside
diameter and the boring of the inside diameter is done in one set-up-that is, without
moving the work between operations.
with boring there are a number of limitations that must be taken into account in order to
reach a high stock removal rate combined with satisfactory accuracy, surface finish and
 P a g e | 41

tool life. Therefore, in this chapter the limitations that distinguish internal turning from
external turning will be discussed in greater detail. A typical boring operation is shown
below.

Boring Operations:-

Most of the turning operations that occur with external turning are also to be found in
boring. With external turning, the length of the workpiece does not affect the tool
overhang and the size of the toolholder can be chosen so that it withstands the forces and
stresses that arise during the operation. However, with internal turning, or boring, the
choice of tool is very much restricted by the workpiece's hole diameter and length.
A general rule, which applies to all machining, is to minimize the tool overhang to obtain
the best possible stability and thereby accuracy. With boring the depth of the hole
determines the overhang. The stability is increased when a larger tool diameter is used, but
even then the possibilities are limited since the space allowed by the diameter of the hole
in the workpiece must be taken into consideration for chip evacuation and radial
movements.
The limitations with regard to stability in boring mean that extra care must be taken with
production planning and preparation. By understanding how cutting forces are affected by
the tool geometry and the cutting data chosen, and also understanding how various types
of boring bars and tool clamping will affect the stability, de Election and vibration can be
kept to a minimum.

Cutting Forces:-

On engagement, the tangential force and the radial cutting force will attempt to push the
tool away from the workpiece, which results in the deflections.
The tangential force will try to force the tool downward and away from the centerline.
Because of the curving of the internal hole diameter the clearance angle will also be
reduced. Therefore, with small diameter holes, it is particularly important that the
clearance angle of the insert be sufficient to avoid contact between the tool and the wall of
the hole.

The radial deflection will reduce the cutting depth. In addition to the diametrical accuracy
being affected, the chip thickness will change with the varying size of the cutting forces.
This causes vibration, which is transferred from the cutting edge to the toolholder. The
stability of the tool and clamping will be the factor that determines the magnitude of the
vibration and whether it is amplified or dampened.

Insert geometry:-

The geometry of the insert has a decisive influence on the cutting process. A positive
insert has a positive rake angle. The insert's edge angle and clearance angle together will
equal less than 90 degrees. A positive rake angle means a lower tangential cutting force.
However, a positive rake angle is obtained at the cost of the clearance angle or the edge
angle. If the clearance angle is small there is a risk of abrasion between the tool and
workpiece, and friction can give rise to vibration. In those cases where the rake angle is
large and the edge angle is small, a sharper cutting edge is obtained. The sharp cutting
edge penetrates the material more easily, but it is also more easily changed or damaged by
edge or other uneven wear.
Edge wear means that the geometry of the insert is changed, resulting in a reduction in the
clearance angle. Therefore, with finish machining it is the required surface finish of the
 P a g e | 42

workpiece that determines when the insert must be changed. Generally, the edge wear
should be between 0.004 and 0.012 in. for finishing and between 0.012 and 0.040 in. for
rough machining.

Lead angle:-

The lead angle affects the axial and radial directions of the cutting forces. A small lead
angle produces a large axial cutting force component while a large lead angle results in a
larger cutting force in the radial direction. The axial cutting force has a minimal negative
effect on the operation since the force is directed along the boring bar. To avoid vibrations,
it is consequently advantageous to choose a small lead angle but, since the lead angle also
affects other factors such as the chip thickness and the direction of the chip flow, a
compromise often has to be made.

The main disadvantage of a small lead angle is that the cutting forces are distributed over a
shorter section of the cutting edge than with a large lead angle. Furthermore, the cutting
edge is exposed to abrupt loading and unloading when the edge enters and leaves the
workpiece. Since boring is generally done in a pre-machined hole and is designated as
light machining, small lead angles generally do not cause a problem. Lead angles of 15
degrees or less are normally recommended. However, at a lead angle of 15 degrees the
radial cutting force will be virtually double that of the cutting force with a 0 degree lead
angle. A typical indexable insert boring bar with a 0-degree lead angle

Nose radius:+-

The nose radius of the insert also affects the distribution of cutting forces. The greater the
nose radius, the greater the radial and tangential cutting force- and the emergence of
vibration. However, this is not the case with radial cutting forces. The deflection of the
tool in a radial direction is instead affected by the relationship between the cutting depth
and the size of the nose radius. If the cutting depth is smaller than the nose radius, the
radial cutting forces will increase with increased cutting depth. If the cutting depth is equal
to or greater than the size of the nose radius, the radial deflection will be determined by
the lead angle. Thus, it's a good idea to choose a nose radius that is somewhat smaller than
the cutting depth. In this way the radial cutting forces can be kept to a minimum, while
utilizing the advantages of the largest possible nose radius, leading to a stronger cutting
edge, better surface finish and more even pressure on the cutting edge.

Chip Breaking and Evacuation:-

Obtaining relatively short, spiral shaped chips is the goal in internal turning. These are
easy to evacuate and do not place such large stresses on the cutting edge when chip
breaking occurs. Hard breaking of the chips-- this is, when short chips are obtained-
demands power and can increase vibration in the boring bar. However, this is preferred
over having long chips, which can make chip evacuation more difficult. Chip breaking is
affected by a number of factors such as the insert geometry, nose radius, lead angle,
cutting depth, feed and cutting speed. Generally, reduced feed and/or increased cutting
speed results in longer chips. The shape of the chip breaker affects the radius of the chip,
where any built-up edge or crater wear can also act as chip breaker. The direction in which
the chips flow and the way that they turn in the spiral, is affected by the lead angle or the
combination of cutting depth and nose radius.
The parameters that affect chip control also affect the direction and size of the cutting
force. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a grade and insert geometry that, together with
 P a g e | 43

the selected machining parameters, fulfill the requirements for good chip control. At the
same time, the machine, boring bar and tool clamping must provide sufficient stability in
order to resist the cutting forces that arise.
During boring operations the chip flow can be critical, particularly when deep holes are
being machined. The centrifugal force presses the chips outward. With boring, this means
that the chips remain in the workpiece. The remaining chips could get pressed into the
machined surface or get jammed and damage the tool, As with internal turning, tools with
an internal cutting fluid supply are recommended. The chips will then be flushed out of the
hole effectively. Compressed air can be used instead of cutting fluid and with trough
holes; the chips can be blown through the spindle and collected in a container.

Boring Rigidity:-

passes Part geometries can have external turning operations as well as internal operations.
Internal single point turning is referred to as boring, and can be utilized for either a
roughing or finishing operation. Single point boring tools consist of a round shaft with one
insert pocket designed to reach into a part hole or cavity to remove internal stock in one or
several machine.
The key to productivity in boring operations is the tool's rigidity. Boring bars are often
required to reach long distances into parts to remove stock, as shown below. Hence, the
rigidity of the machining operation is compromised because the diameter of the tool is
restricted by the hole size and the need for added clearance to evacuate chips. The
practical overhang limits for steel boring bars is four times their shank diameter. When the
tool overhang exceeds this limit, the metal removal rate of the boring operation is
compromised significantly because of lack of rigidity and the increased possibility of
vibration.
Boring bar deflection: The size of the boring bar's deflection is dependent on the bar
material, the diameter, the overhang and size of the radial and tangential cutting forces.
Boring bar deflection can be calculated, but such calculations are beyond our intended
scope here.
Increasing the diameter of the tool to create an increased moment of inertia can counteract
this deflection. Choosing a boring bar made of a material that has a higher coefficient of
elasticity can also counteract deflection. Since steel has a lower coefficient of elasticity
than cemented carbide, cemented carbide boring bars are better for large overhangs.

Compensating for deflection:-

Even with the best tool clamping, some vibration tendency will occur in boring. Radial
deflection affects the machined diameter. Tangential deflection means that the insert tip is
moved in a downward direction away from the centerline. In both cases the size and
direction of the cutting forces are affected by changes in the relationship between the chip
thicknesses and insert geometry.
If the exact size of the deflection of the insert tip is known in advance, then the problem
can be avoided. By positioning the insert tip distance above the centerline, the insert under
the effect of the tangential force, will take up the correct position during machining. In the
same way, setting the machine at a cutting depth that is greater than the desired cutting
depth compensates for the radial deflection. When cutting begins, the radial cutting force
reduces the cutting depth.
Even if the approximate deflection can be calculated, the practical outcome will be
somewhat different because the clamping is never absolutely rigid and because it is
impossible to calculate the cutting force exactly.
 P a g e | 44

Boring bar clamping:-

The slightest amount of mobility in the fixed end of the boring bar will lead to deflection
of the tool. The best stability is obtained with a holder that completely encases the bar. As
the illustration above shows, this type of holder is available in two styles: a rigid or flange
mounted bar (a), or a divided block that clamps when tightened (b). With a rigidly
mounted bar, the bar is either preshrunk into the holder and/or welded in. With flange
mounting, a flange with a through hole is normally used. The flange is usually glued onto
the shank of the bar at a distance that gives the required overhang. The bar is then fed into
the holder and clamped by means of a screw connection or by being held in the turret.
Less efficient are those tool-- clamping methods in which the screw clamps onto the bar.
This form generally results in vibration and is not recommended. Above all, this method
must not be used for the clamping of cemented carbide bars. Cemented carbide is more
brittle than steel and cracks will occur as a result of vibration, which in turn may result in
breakage.

Boring Bars:-

Boring bars are made in a wide variety of styles. Single-point boring bars are easily
ground but difficult to adjust when they are used in turret and automatic lathes and
machining centers, unless they are held in an adjustable holder. (See illustrations below.)
More expensive boring bars are provided with easily adjustable inserts. These bars are
made in standard sizes, with a range of 0.25 to 0.5 in. on the diameter. A fine adjustment is
included in increments of 0.001 in., or in some cases 0.0001 in. They are standard up to
about 6 in. in diameter. A boring bar with adjustments is shown below.
Many times it may be economical to order special bars with two or more preset diameters,
set at the proper distance apart. These special bars cost more and are generally only used
when large quantities make their use economical. Sometimes this may be the only way to
hold the required tolerances and concentricity.
Other special boring bars, sometimes called boring heads, are designed with replaceable
cartridges.

Boring bar types:-

Boring bars are available in steel, solid carbide, and carbide-reinforced steel. The capacity
to resist deflection increases as the coefficient of elasticity increases. Since the elasticity
coefficient of carbide is three times larger than that of steel, carbide bars are preferred for
large overhangs. The disadvantage of carbide is its poor ability to withstand tensile stress.
For carbide-reinforced bars, the carbide sleeves are prestressed to prevent tensile stresses.
Boring bars can be equipped with ducts for internal cooling, which is preferred for internal
turning. An internal coolant supply provides efficient cooling of the cutting edge, plus
better chip breaking and chip evacuation. In this way a longer tool life is obtained and
quality problems, which often arise because of chip jamming, are avoided.

Boring bar choice:-

When planning production, it is very important to minimize cutting forces and to create
conditions where the greatest possible stability is achieved so that the tool can withstand
the stresses that always arise. The length and diameter of the boring bar will be of great
significance to the stability of the tool. Since the appearance of the workpiece is the
decisive factor when selecting the minimum overhang and maximum tool diameter that
 P a g e | 45

can be used, it is important to choose the tool, tool clamping and cutting data which
minimize, as much as possible, the cutting forces which arise during the operation.

The following recommendations should be followed to obtain the best possible stability:
• Choose the largest possible bar diameter, but at the same time ensure that there is enough
room for chip evacuation.
• Choose the smallest possible overhang but, at the same time, ensure that the length of the
bar allows the recommended clamping lengths to be achieved.
• A 0-degree lead angle should be used. The lead angle should, under no circumstances be
more than 15 degrees.
• The indexable inserts should be positive rake that results in lower cutting forces.
• The carbide grade should be tougher than for external turning in order to withstand the
stresses to which the insert is exposed when chip jamming and vibration occur.
• Choose a nose radius that is smaller than the cutting depth.
Modern boring bars are designed to take into account the demands that must apply
because the operation is performed internally and the dimensions of the tool are
determined by the hole depth and the hole diameter. With a positive rake insert geometry,
less material deformation and low cutting forces are obtained. The tool should offer good
stability to resist the cutting forces that arise and also to reduce deflection and vibration as
much as possible. Because of space requirements, satisfactory chip control and good
accessibility are also properties of greater importance than with external turning.

Boring Machines:-

Boring operations can be performed on other than boring machines, such as lathes, milling
machines and machining centers. Boring machines, like most other machine tools, can be
classified as horizontal or vertical.

Horizontal Boring Machines (HBM) :-

The HBM is made to handle medium to very large-sized parts, but these parts are usually
somewhat rectangular in shape, though they may be asymmetrical or irregular. The
available cutting tools only limit the size of cut, the rigidity of the spindle, and the
available horsepower.
The table-type HBM is built on the same principles as the horizontal-spindle milling
machines. The base and column are fastened together, and the column does not move. The
tables are heavy, ribbed castings which may hold loads up to 20,000 pounds.

The size of HBM:-

The basic size of an HBM is the diameter of the spindle. Table-type machines usually
have spindles from 3 to 6 in. diameter. The larger sizes will transmit more power and,
equally important, the spindle will not sag or deflect as much when using a heavy cutting
tool while extended. The size is further specified by the size of the table. Although each
machine has a "standard" size table, special sizes may be ordered. The principal parts of
the horizontal boring machine are shown below.

Workholding:-

Workholding is with clamps, bolts or fixtures, the same as with other machines. Rotary
tables allow machining of all four faces of a rectangular part or various angle cuts on any
shape of part. Rotary tables up to 72-in. square or round are used for large work. If large,
 P a g e | 46

rather flat work is to be machined, an angle plate is used. The workpiece is bolted or
clamped onto the angle plate so that the "flat" face is toward the spindle.

Cutting tools:-

Cutting tools are held in the rotating spindle by a tapered hole and a drawbar. To speed up
the process of tool changing, either or both of two things are done:
• The drawbar (which pulls the tapered tool holder tightly into the spindle hole) can be
power operated. Thus, the holder is pulled tight or ejected very quickly.
• Quick-change tooling is used. A basic holder is secured in the spindle. It has a taper into
which tools may be secured by a quarter to half turn of the locking collar. Thus, the
operator can change preset tools in 10 to 30 seconds.

Speeds and feeds:-

Speeds and feeds cover a wide range because of the wide variety of cutters that may be
used on the HBM. Speeds from 15 to 1500 RPM and feed rates from 0.1 to 40 IPM are
commonly used.

Floor-type horizontal boring machine (HBM) :-

The floor type HBM is used for especially tall or long workpieces. The "standard" 72-in.
runway can be made almost any length required for special jobs. Lengths of 20 feet are in
use today. The height of the column, which is usually 60 to 72 in., can be made to order up
to twice this height if the work requires it.
HBM table: The table is separate from the boring machine though it is, of course, fastened
to the floor. It may be bolted to the runway. The entire column and column base move left
and right (the X axis) along special ways on the runway. The runway must be carefully
aligned and leveled when it is first installed, and then checked at intervals as the machine
is used.
HBM headstock: The headstock can be moved accurately up and down the column (the Y
axis). The 6 to 10 in. diameter spindle rotates to do the machining. It is moved in and out
(the Z axis) up to 48 in. for boring cut, drilling, setting the depth of milling cuts, etc. As in
the table-type HBM, the spindle diameter and table size specify the machine size.
Cutting tools: Cutting tools are the same as those used on the table-type machine.
Workholding is also the same, and angle plates are frequently used.

Vertical Boring Machined (VBM):-

A general description of a vertical boring machine would be that it is a lathe turned on

end with the headstock resting on the floor. This machine is needed because even the
largest engine lathes cannot handle work much over 24 in. in diameter. Today's VBMs are
often listed as turning and boring machines. If facing is added to that name, it pretty well
describes the principal uses of this machine. Just like any lathe, these machines can make
only round cuts plus facing and contouring cuts.

Jig Borers:-

Jig borers are vertical boring machines with high precision bearings. They are available in
various sizes and used mainly in tool rooms for machining jigs and fixtures. More
versatile numerically controlled machines are now replacing many jig borers. Here in our
project we have used vertical boring operationfor the cylinder liner. The main aim of this
 P a g e | 47

operation is to decrease the “internal diameter” (ID) of the liner. For every different model
it will cut up to 0.8 to 1 mm it will take time according to the model or size of the cylinder
liner.
The main parts in this machine are Spindle tool, Gun metal bush bearingand fixtures
capacity of this machine is 1.5 BHP, feed rate up to 0.2 to 0.3, speed of the motor 75 to
200 RPM. We can set rpm at what level we need.
The tool used in our project is YG6 CARBIDE it is a mild steel material with soft bond.
The tip size of this tool is 0.006 mm with diamond cut shape.

7. HONING OPERATION

WHAT IS MEANT BY HONING:-

Honing is a machining process in which an abrasive cutting tool is used to produce a very
fine surface.

Introduction:-

Honing can obtain good form accuracy as well as good surface roughness, it is one of the
best alternatives as the finishing technology in manufacturing.In interior honing processes,
honing head provided with abrasive stones is used for removing material from the internal
surface of material. Honing is employed to improve shape, dimensional precision and
surface finish of previously machine parts.
Main advantages of interior honing are high material removal rate up to 0.6mm/min, much
higher than that obtain in lapping processes, with typical values of 0.5um/min. The fact
that a lower pressure is usually employed than in grinding processes, making it possible to
control roundness and dimensions of the parts, and improved surface texture.

Honing Process:-

Honing or to honeis an abrasive machining process that produces a precision surface on a

metal work piece by scrubbing an abrasive stone against it along a controlled path.
Honing is primarily used to improve the geometric form of a surface, but may also improve
the surface texture. Typical applications are the finishing of cylinders for internal
combustion engines, air bearing spindles and gears. There are many types of hones but all
consist of one or more abrasive stones that are held under pressure against the surface they
are working on.
Honing is particularly used at the end of the manufacturing process during the work piece
manufacturing. It finishes surfaces so that they become functional. During the mechanic
load of the work piece, the functional glides, seals and guides. Therefore, high demands
regarding size, space form and surface quality must be fulfilled. Mostly, the production
tolerances lies within the submicron range with a high repeatability at the same time.
The honing process includes the overlap of three movement components that take place
simultaneously. The first one is a rotational movement in tangential direction, the second
one an oscillating movement in axial direction and the third one is feed motion in radial
direction.
 P a g e | 48

Types Of Honing Machines:-

There are two types of honing machines

1.Vertical honing machine
2.Horizontal honing machine

A vertical honing machine normally incorporates a mechanism not only to rotate

but also to reciprocate the honing tool or tools and expands the stones until size is
reach. It may have a single spindle or a number of spindles for production, similar to
vertical boring machine.

In horizontal honing machines work piece is reciprocates on the rotating honing tool. The
reciprocation of work piece canbe done by using power stroke.

Vertical Honing Machine:-

The dimensional and geometrical accuracies by normal methods of machining like turning,
milling, etc. are limited. The geometrical errors includecircularity, cylindricity, flatness
and parallelism of function surfaces. Also the surface finish has a vital influence on
most important functional properties such as wear resistance, fatigue corrosion
resistance and power losses due to friction, poor surface finish will lead to the rupture
of oil fills on the peaks of the micro irregularities which lead to a state approaching
dry friction are employed in machining the surface of many critical components to
obtain a very high surface finish or high dimensional and geometrical accuracies.
 P a g e | 49

Cylinder Liner Machining:-

The raw piecesused in the cylinder liner manufacturing are created through
centrifugal casting. Before being introduced to the cylinder liner manufacturing, the liner
is rough machined by the supplier. This includes drillingof the bore and rough turning to
obtain the desired geometry. Once introduced to the production line it isprocessed in three
steps before being washed and packaged.
In the rough honing process, the innercylindrical surface of the cylinder liner is
processed. Honing stones with a large grain size, 151μm in diameter, areused andthe
aim is only to increase the inner diameter and improve the geometrical accuracy.
The surface texture created in this step will be removed from later process stages.
Next, the critical outer surfaces of the cylinder liner are turned in order to ensure proper
sealing when it is mounted in the engine block.
The third step is the finish honing step, When the liners have been readily processed,
they are washed in order to remove residual oil. All liners are then visually inspected and
packaged.

The Final Honing Process:-

The final honing operations are performed in a vertical honing machine manufactured
by Nagel. There are three different operations included in the honing process, all with
different objectives. The different steps in the finish honing process are coarse-, base-
and plateau honing. These operations are performed in three different spindles. In the
coarse honing operation,honing stones with a large grain size are used which enables a
high material removal rate. The feed of the stones is controlled with an
electromechanical actuator, which presses the stones towards the liner surface with a
constant speed. The machining of the bore will continue until a predetermined diameter is
reached. The diameter is measured with a gauge using air pressure. This process is
important for the resulting geometry of the cylinder liner but the surface created has to be
removed by the later operations to avoid too wide valleys.

After the coarse honing operation, the cylinder liner is transported to the next spindle.
During the process the product is transported and machined while in the same
fixture. There are a total of six fixtures used in the finished honing. Each fixture contains
two rubber sleeves, one upper and one lower. The cylinder liner is clamped in the fixture
by an oil pressure that builds up between the fixture and the rubber sleeves. The sleeves
are thereby pressed against the liner and hold it in place. The oil pressure is kept
throughout the whole honing operation.The duration of the operation is controlled by
the number of strokes.These two steps will create the grooves with a crosshatch
angle, characteristic for honing. The honing stones consist of grains with a medium
diameter.

Plateau Honing:

Plateau honing is a process that improves cylinder wall surface finish by removing tiny
peaks of torn or folded material and increasing bearing area. This type of finish allows
lubricant to collect in the remaining valleys, improving lubrication control and retention.
It also extends the life of components such as piston rings and seals because there are no
peaks of material for them to remove during initial break-in.
 P a g e | 50

Parameters for Plateau Honing:

All plateau honed surfaces are not created equal. The image below is the heart of the story,
and the focus of this article. In this image you see three honed cylinder bore surfaces with
very different characteristics. As it turns out, each is best controlled using different sets of
surface texture parameters.

Three types of honed cylinder surfaces. We will see that each requires different
parameters to describe them.

Conventional height parameters are sufficient for single honed surfaces:

The top profile in the image shows a conventional surface made with a single honing
operation. The texture is made up of peaks and valleys of all depths. The valleys might be
slightly deeper than the peak heights–but nothing too significant. Over the initial run-in
period the action of the engine wears away the higher peak material, leaving a surface with
smooth plateaus and valleys in between to retain lubricant.
 P a g e | 51

Traditional roughness parameters such as Ra (Average Roughness), Rz (10-point

Roughness Height) and Rmr (Material Ratio) are often sufficient to control the honing
operations for a conventional, single honed surface.

Conventional parameters (Ra, Rz, Rmr) are often sufficient to describe single-honed
surfaces.

Plateau honing leads to the K family parameters:

While straightforward to manufacture, single honed surfaces do have drawbacks. The wear
that occurs during break-in inevitably creates unwanted gaps/leakage as well as debris.
Both factors can reduce engine performance.

As emissions and performance standards grew tighter, manufacturers began creating

“plateaued” surfaces in order to reduce break-in and improve sealing. Plateau honing uses
rough honing to make the valleys, followed by finer honing to create the plateaus. A
“plateau honed” surface is shown in the second profile.
 P a g e | 52

But with these improved surfaces came a new challenge: the Ra, Rz and Rmr could not
robustly distinguish a plateau honed surface from a single honed surface. Very different
surfaces gave similar values for the parameters when dealing with this class of surface.

In order to better describe and control these new surfaces, researchers developed and
applied the Rk family of parameters. The Rk family is based on the material ratio curve,
shown below on the right. The individual parameters (Rk, Rpk, Rmr1, Rvk, Rmr2)
quantify the peaks, valleys and kernel regimes. They allow for better control of plateau
honing as they are more targeted toward the individual geometries within the surface.

The Rk parameters are well-suited to describing plateau honed surfaces that have distinct
plateaus, kernels and valleys.
 P a g e | 53

High performance surfaces need better parameters: Q parameters:

High-performance applications (for example, diesel and racing engines) require surfaces
that are more extremely plateaued, as in the third of our profiles.

For these applications, manufacturers create very smooth plateaus with discrete valleys, to
optimize friction, clearance and engine temperature, with virtually no run-in period. The
primary characteristic of these surface is a strong distinction between the peaks and the
valleys. There is a clear visual indication of where peaks meet valleys.

Unfortunately, again, the existing texture parameters proved insufficient to describe these
surfaces. When a surface is extremely plateaued, the Rk parameter model does not fit the
material ratio curve as well. This becomes apparent in the material ratio curve shown
below. Looking at the green area we see that there is no exact position on the curve at
which the plateaus give way to valleys (as indicated by the left corner of the large, green
triangle.) Thus, the Rmr2 and, subsequently, the Rvk parameters become unreliable.
 P a g e | 54

In a high-performance engine the distinction between plateaus and valleys, is almost non-
existent, which makes the Rk parameters unreliable.

For extremely plateaued surface we turn to the Q parameters family. Rather than using the
material ratio curve, the Q parameters are based on a “material probability” curve, shown
below on the right. This curve is a representation of the material ratio curve with
percentages mapped to standard deviations. When doing so, we see the two distinct
distributions (plateaus and valleys) as two clearly linear regions. Furthermore, these linear
regions produce a sharp knee on the curve. The Q parameters (Rpq, Rvq, Rmq) derived
from this curve can robustly distinguish the surface regimes for extremely plateaued
surfaces.

For extremely plateau’d surfaces the Q parameters, based on the material probability
curve, are most robust.
 P a g e | 55

Types Of Honing Sticks:-

There are two types of honing sticks. They are

1.Rough sticks
2.Soft sticks

 Rough sticks are made up of aluminium oxide and it is attached to cast iron stick.

 Soft sticks are made up of silicon and it is attached to cast iron stick.

Machining Parameters:-

1. Honing Speed:-

Honing stones should be kept cutting at all times to ensure conditions breakdown and
the gritsand the bond and to prevent altering. The aim should obtain free cutting with a
minimum of pressure of heat generation.Cutting conditions for honing are specified in
terms of the spindle and the reciprocating speed. The cross –hatch angle depends on
the ratios the spindle speed to the reciprocating speed is important in honing.

2. Spindle Speed:-

The spindle speed depends mainly on the diameters of the bore tobe honed. The
choice of spindle speed is influenced by the following factors.
1)Material being honed-Higher speeds are used for,metals that shear easily as cast
iron and non-ferrous metals.
2)Hardness –The harder the work piece, the lower n the honing speed.
3) Surface finish –Round surfaces that dress the stone mechanically allow higher speeds.
4) Number and width of stones in a tool-speed should be decreased as the area of abrasive
per unit area of bore increases.
5) Finish requirements-Higher speeds usually results in finer finish. Excessive speeds
contribute to decreased dimensional accuracy, overheatingof the work piece and glazing
or dulling of the abrasive.

3. Reciprocating Speed:-

The reciprocating speed which depends mainly on the length of the honing tool and depth
of the bore is expressed in meters per minute as the product of number of strokes per
minute and twice the stroke length. Since reciprocating speed,rotary speed and cross –
hatch angle are related function, the cross –hatch angle can be controlled by varying the
reciprocating speed has considerable influence on the finish of the job. If the reciprocating
speed is high the dressing action is greater and consequently results in a rougher finish on
the job.
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Honing Oil:-

A critical part of the honing operation is the honing oil.Additional to the lubrication,
the honing oil contributes by cooling the workpiece and honing tool as well as by flushing
the swarfs away from the cutting process. By keeping the process at the right
temperature,both cylinder liner and stone can be preserved to ensure quality and lower
production cost. The most common fluid used is mineral oil. This is due to its high
viscosity and high flash point. Another benefit of the oil is that it does not irritate the skin
of the machine operators.

ZAVENIR FG0002815-HAKU OIL IS USED FOR THIS HONING

OPERATION.

Advantages:-

1.Simple in Construction.
2.It’s require less space.
3.Manufacturing cost is less.
4.Maintenance required is less.
5.It gives good accuracy & surface finish.

Disadvantages:-

1.Not suitable for high scale industry.

2.Production rate depends upon the honing tool.

Applications:-

1.For super finishing of the internal side of circular hole.

2.Any Material can superfinish.

Limitations:-

Honing is though of as a slow process. However, new machines and stones have shortened
hone times considerably. Horizontal honing may create oval holes unless the work is
rotated or supported. If the work piece is thin, even hand pressure may cause a slightly oval
hole.
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8.QUALITY ANALYSIS

Quality Assurance Processes of Cylinder Liners

Quality assurance is of utmost importance in the manufacturing process. Not only in

manufacturing, but the process of quality assurance is applied in almost every field. Good
quality elements ensure the smooth operation of the machine. Engines last long if they are
composed of good quality materials. A quality check of engines is a good way to ensure
customer satisfaction. There are a number of businesses that deal with the import and
export of cylinder liners. One can get a Cylinder liner India either by importing it or by
local businesses.

What is quality assurance?

The process of quality assurance is a way to prevent and deal with manufacturing defects
in products. Avoiding problems while delivering solutions to customers can also be said as
quality assurance. It is a kind of assurance provided to the customers or users that the
desired quality requirements are fulfilled or will be fulfilled at the time of delivery.
Attention is given to every stage of the process.

The need for quality aasurance:-

The need for quality assurance was felt for a cylinder liner in india as well as in other
countries beacause of the depreciation of the machinery with time . As many a times
machines need to handle a heavy workload ,the parts get weary .also ,chance of corrosion
increases at ahigh rate.To prevent the Machinery from severe damage and make it last
long efficient materials and machanisms should be used .Quality assurance deals with
ensuring the same.The checks through this process make user get assured of the smooth
running and installation of machinery.

Steps involved in the process of quality assurance:-

The products need to go through a variety of quality checks prior to its delivery or usage.
The basic steps are considered as an integral part of the process. There are some highly
intensive processes that may fail if not assured of quality. Therefore, there is a high need
to focus on quality assurance of cylinder liner in India. The steps involved are described as
follows

Quality of raw materials:

The first and foremost thing in the process of manufacturing is raw material. Efficient raw
materials produce efficient products. This is the reason why the quality of raw materials
needs to be assured.

Corrosion removal and cleaning:

Corrosion may lead to intense damages in the machinery or cylinder liners. This may
reduce the efficiency of the engine. Therefore, before delivering the product it must be
checked whether it’s free from corrosion and other materials that may cause damage.
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Supervising each step of quality processing:

The processing involves a number of steps and each of the steps needs to be supervised.
Any issues encountered in any of the steps or process must be resolved properly.

Inspection and packing division:

The process becomes easier if any inspection and packing division is involved in the
process that handles all the related tasks.

Different types quality control instruments:

1.Roundness testing machine

Measuring instrument With rotation accuracy of (0.02+3.7H/10000) μm, this instrument

supports measurement of high-precision components. Assured R-axis indication accuracy
improves the reliability of diameter measurements. Various workpieces can be measured
easily without interference from the R-axis arm. You can switch between outside diameter
measurement and top flatness measurement just by tilting the detector holder. Detector
positioning for ID/OD measurements, top/under/ tapered surfaces measurements, and so
on can be controlled automatically. The same detector is used with all standard type
instruments and is also available after upgrades. Once you have both a standard model and
the CNC holder model, maintenance costs are reduced

The higly accurate form measuring systems with manual or complete CNC-
controlled rotary table for large workpieces

Fast, easy and precise completion of form measuring tasks

Very high accuracies resulting from rotary table on air bearings
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TIMS measuring software with assistant function for centering and leveling with
Rondcom 47
Automated fast tilting and centering of the workpiece with Rondcom 55
CNC programming from measurement to evaluation to printout, easy with teach-in
Optional manual or CNC-controlled detectorand-stylus system
Optional with incremental glass scale also in the R axis Standard machine with Z =
350 mm and 60 kg max. load
Variable measuring range and probing force Numerous possible variations
Maximum accuracy and high flexibility through newly developed detector-and-stylus
system New: easy on-site upgrade to full CNC capable form measuring system
High productivity resulting from time savings during set up: rough alignment –
maximum measuring accuracy
Compact table form measuring station
Highly accurate rotary table with air bearings for wear-free radial runout
Additional linear scale in the R-axis in the R44 and R54 standard systems
TIMS software with assistant function for centering and leveling

2.VICKERS HARDNESS TEST FOR CYLINDER LINER:-

The Vickers hardness test was developed in 1921 by Robert L.smith and George E.
sandland at Vickers as an alternative to brinell method to measure the hardness of
materials.The Vickers test is often easier to use than other hardness tests since the required
calculations are independent of the size of the indenter,and the indenter cab be used for all
materials irrespective of the hardness.

WHAT IS HARDNESS TESTING ?

A hardness test is a method employed to measure the hardness of a material.Hardness

refers to a material’s resistance to permanent indentation.There are numerous techniques
to measure hardness and each of these tests can identify varying hardness values for a
single material under testing.

HOW IS HARDNESS CALCULATED ?

It takes 17.1 PPM to equal 1 GPG. If a test for hard water is measured in parts per million
or milligrams per liter you can take the total hardness level and divide it by 17.1 to get
hardness in grains per gallon.

TYPES OF HARDNESS

1. Scratch
2. Indentation
3. Rebound
4.Vickers Hardness Tester
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ADVANTAGES:

1. Huge range of materials can be tested.

2. Structural characteristics can be also be seen.
3. Not sensitive as brinell test.

DISADVANTAGES:

1. Take time for the experiement.

2. Can only be observed by optical microscopy.
3. Required surface preparation for testing.

FACTORS FOR THE SELECTION OF THE CORRECT TEST

FORCE(TEST LOAD)AND TEST METHOD :-

1.THE SPECIMEN SIZE (the minimum clearances between test points (indent spacing)
and from the specimen edge (edge clearance) for Vickers defined in the standard must be
observed).

2.THE SPECIMEN THICKNESS (the specimen thickness must be at least 1.5 times the
indentation diagonals, the minimum specimen thickness must be between 0.085 and 6.5
mm).

3.THE SURFACE QUALITY (the specimen should be polished resp. ground ;

Particularly for very low test loads, a good specimen surface is essential for a correct
measurement result, because the Vickers ident is very small in this case, so the smallest of
irregularities can affect the measurement result)
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What is roughness tester?

A roughness tester is used to quickly and accurately determine the surface texture or
surface roughness of a material. A roughness tester shows the measured roughness depth
(Rz) as well as the mean roughness value (Ra) in micrometers or microns (µm).

How roughness is measured?

Ra and RMS are both representations of surface roughness, but each is calculated
differently. Ra is calculated as the Roughness Average of a surfaces measured microscopic
peaks and valleys. RMS is calculated as the Root Mean Square of a
surfaces measured microscopic peaks and valleys.

Unit of Roughness:

As an approximation, the roughness length is approximately one-tenth of the height of the

surface roughness elements. ... Roughness length is an important concept in urban
meteorology as the building of tall structures, such as skyscrapers, has an effect
on roughness length and wind patterns.

Application For Surface Roughness Tester:

 Metal processing equipment and accessories, functional parts.

 Process equipment.
 General machinery and metal forming equipment.
 Surface engineering treatment.
 Metallurgical smelting, rolling and forging equipment. ...
 Pneumatic, hydraulic components and pressure vessels.
 Mold casting and precision manufacturing.
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Defects :-

 Porosity
 Crack
 Ovality

NOTE:

The main problem the palnt is facing in the cylinder liner is collar breakage issue which is
caused by ovality .To over come this problem the liner is under going to the heat
treatment.So, by this process the ovality i.e collar breakage issue has be resolved.

CHAPTER-5
SOLID WORKS MODEL AND ANSYS RESULT

We have designed the one of the cylinder liner which is manufactured in the industry with
the exact result and the material used for this is cast iron.

Coming to ansys we have done the steady state thermal analysis and static structural
analysis.The following images will show the result that we have obtained in the design
and analysis and the maximum stresses and maximum temperatures, So we have attached
the screenshots of ansys results and finally we have concluded our result by this analysis.

Temperature analysis:-
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Directional heat flux:-

Total Deformation:-
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Equivalent Elastic Strain:-

Maximum Principal Stress:-

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Saftey Factor:-
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CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSION:-

As the cylinder liner is the major component of the engine it should be analyzed with the
advantages and disadvantages, How the liner will withstand the loads and what are the
methods should be used manufacture and which methods to be used to minimize the costs
and the defects like porosity, crack, and collar breakage issues and also to know the
thermal analysis and liners total heat flux, total deformation, safety factor. As we know
that the liner has to be maintained the maximum strengths and we have to manufacture the
liner as per the required results the we obtained after the calculation or as per the customer
requirement . The main reason to use the cylinder liner is to make the engine reusable and
rebored easily and making it not to be complicated.

CHAPTER-7
RESULT:-

Hence we have worked on the cylinder liner machining processes and worked on the
machinery. Finally we have obtained the cylinder liner with out any defects and any
machining errors that occurs in the machining processes.
The result we have obtained through the ansys is given in the above figure.

CHAPTER-8

REFERENCES:-

 KYOCERA Cutting tools 2015

Link:- https://asia.kyocera.com/products/cuttingtools/wp-
content/uploads/2015/04/DC001-1EN-KAP-Digest-Catalog1.pdf

 https://www.irjet.net/archives/V5/i6/IRJET-V5I6120.pdf
 https://www.engineliner.com/manufacturing-process.html
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277307741_Characterization_of_Coated
_Diesel_Engine_Cylinder_Liner_Material_using_Surface_Metrology_Techniques
 https://www.irjet.net/archives/V2/i9/IRJET-V2I9105.pdf