doi: 10.5028/jatm.2012.

04033912

A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites

in Aerospace Applications
Anahi Pereira da Costa1, Edson Cocchieri Botelho1,*, Michelle Leali Costa2, Nilson Eiji Narita3, José
Ricardo Tarpani4

1
Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho– Guaratinguetá/SP – Brazil
2
Instituto de Aeronáutica e Espaço – São José dos Campos/SP, Brazil
3
EMBRAER– São José dos Campos/SP, Brazil
4
Universidade de São Paulo – São Carlos/SP, Brazil

Abstract: Reinforced thermoplastic structural detail parts and assemblies are being developed to be included in
current aeronautic programs. Thermoplastic composite technology intends to achieve improved properties and low cost
processes. Welding of detail parts permits to obtain assemblies with weight reduction and cost saving. Currently, joining
composite materials is a matter of intense research because traditional joining technologies are not directly transfer-
able to composite structures. Fusion bonding and the use of thermoplastic as hot melt adhesives offer an alternative
to mechanical fastening and thermosetting adhesive bonding. Fusion bonding technology, which originated from the
thermoplastic polymer industry, has gained a new interest with the introduction of thermoplastic matrix composites,
which are currently regarded as candidate for primary aircraft structures. This paper reviewed the state of the art of the
welding technologies devised to aerospace industry, including the ¿elds that Universidade Estadual Paulista -~lio de
Mesquita Filho and Universidade de São Paulo are deeply involved.
Keywords: Aircraft structural joint, Thermoplastic composite, Welding technology.

List of Symbols Tg Glass transition temperature

Tm Melting temperature
Q Heat generation UNESP Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho
I Electrical current USP Universidade de São Paulo
R Ohmic resistance
t Time
IR Infrared INTRODUCTION
ITA Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica
LBW Laser Beam Welding  &RQWLQXRXV¿EHUUHLQIRUFHGWKHUPRSODVWLFPDWUL[FRPSRVLWH
P Pressure laminates have shown great promise as materials for current and
PEEK Poly-etheretherketone IXWXUHDLUFUDIWFRPSRQHQWV:KHQFRPSDUHGWRWKHUPRVHW¿EHU
PES Poly-ethersulphone reinforced composite laminates, thermoplastic laminates are
PPS Poly-phenylenesulphide HDVLHUWRSURFHVVDVWKH\GRQRWUHTXLUHFRPSOH[FKHPLFDOUHDF-
PEI Poly-etherimide tion nor lengthy curing process, they are easily recycled and do
T Temperature QRWQHHGUHIULJHUDWLRQIRUVWRUDJHGLVSOD\LQJSUDFWLFDOO\LQ¿QLWH
VKHOIOLIH7KHUPRSODVWLFFRPSRVLWHVDOVRH[KLELWYHU\ORZOHYHORI
Received: 05/07/12 Accepted: 03/08/12 moisture uptake, which means their mechanical properties are less
DXWKRUIRUFRUUHVSRQGHQFHHERWHOKR#IHJXQHVSEU degraded under hot/wet conditions, not to mention their higher
'HSDUWDPHQWR GH 0DWHULDLV H 7HFQRORJLD ) (* $Y $ULEHUWR GDPDJHWROHUDQFHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDQGJUHDWHUUHSDUDELOLW\SRWHQWLDO
Pereira da Cunha, 333 Bairro Pedregulho / CEP:12.516-410 – DVFRPSDUHGWRWKHUPRVHWWLQJPDWUL[ODPLQDWHV1LQJet al., 2007;
Guaratinguetá/SP – Brazil Sinmazçelik, 2006; Jayamol et al., 1998; Mallick, 1993).

J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012 255

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an important role in manufacturing of composite structures
in marine, automotive and aerospace industry. Mechanical
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metals or composite components. However, there are
disadvantages associated with these methods such as stress
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plate, electromagnetic induction, dielectric/microwave and IR
ZHOGLQJ0RX]DNLVet al., 2008; Botelho and Rezende, 2007;
Wang and Hahn, 2007; Jones, 1994; Loos et al., 1981).
Researches involving welding in composites in Brazil were
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USP. The work started in these universities with cooperation
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in Portuguese) focused on the mechanical and thermal
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PPS thermoplastic polymer) reinforced with continuous
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resistance welding technology whereas USP is advancing in
IR lamp welding methodology.
 7KLV SDSHU DLPHG WR H[DPLQH GLIIHUHQW ZHOGLQJ WHFK-
niques for thermoplastic composite laminates devised
to structural aerospace applications, focusing on recent
developments in this area.
HIGH PERFORMANCE THERMOPLASTIC
COMPOSITES FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
The automotive industry has traditionally produced a wide
range of thermoplastic parts with the advantage of shorter
SURFHVVLQJWLPHVDQGIXOO\DXWRPDWHGHTXLSPHQWV5D\
Botelho et al., 2005; Botelho et al., 2002; Botelho et al., 2001;
Todo et al., 2000).
 ,QWKHODWHVJODVVDQGFDUERQUHLQIRUFHGWKHUPRSODVWLF
3(,ODPLQDWHVZHUH¿UVWXVHGLQ)RNNHUMHWSODQH*XOIVWUHDP
* DQG * EXVLQHVV MHWV DQG$LUEXV %HOXJD WUDQVSRUW
DLUFUDIWDVWKHUPRIRUPHGÀRRULQJSDQHOV&RVWDet al., 2010;
Vieille et al., 2009; Young and Ye, 2005; Botelho et al., 2003).
More recently, thermoplastic composites have found utiliza-
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256 J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012
Costa, A.P. et al.
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et al., 2011; Rezende et al., 2011; Chevali et al., 2010; Bates
et al., 2009; Arici, 2007; Espert et al., 2004; Lee et al., 1993).
A wide range of high performance thermoplastic matrices
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studied and reported. Both of them are semi-crystalline poly-
mers, and crystallinity in high-performance polymers is quite
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mechanical properties. Crystallinity tends to increase stiffness
and tensile strength while amorphous areas are more effective
LQDEVRUELQJLPSDFWHQHUJ\7KHGHJUHHRIFU\VWDOOLQLW\LVGHWHU-
PLQHGE\PDQ\IDFWRUVLQFOXGLQJWKHW\SHRISRO\PHUDQGWKH
SURFHVVLQJFRQGLWLRQV1LQRet al., 2009; Mazur et al. 2008).
Today, joining thermoplastic composite structures
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composite usage is rapidly replacing metallic and thermoset
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fatigue loads applied to aerospace vehicles. Many welding
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UHLQIRUFHGWKHUPRSODVWLFSRO\PHUVEXWHDFKWHFKQLTXHKDVLWV
own advantages and pitfalls.
WELDING PROCESSES
In choosing a structural engineered material for aerospace
application, an important consideration is how easy is to manu-
facture, join, inspect, repair and replace it in service. One of the
many advantages of thermoplastic over thermoset composites
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reformed. In theory, using adequate temperature and P levels, a
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developed and evaluated for thermoplastic applications in the
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Fusion bonding
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,oƚ ŵĞůƚ ĂdŚĞsiǀĞs
^Ɖin ǁĞůding
sibƌĂƟon ǁĞůding
/nduĐƟon ǁĞůding
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,oƚ ƉůĂƚĞ ǁĞůding
,oƚ gĂs ǁĞůding
hůƚƌĂsoniĐ ǁĞůding iĞůĞĐƚƌiĐ ǁĞůding
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WKHUPRSODVWLFFRPSRVLWHV$JHRUJHVet al., 2001).
A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites in Aerospace Applications

 6HYHQPDLQZHOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVDUHGHVFULEHGEHORZDFFRUG- automotive, aerospace, energy, medical and packaging. In

ing the order they appear in the schematic provided in Fig. 1.
Ultrasonic welding
Ultrasonic welding is a process in which high frequen-
particular, aerospace industry employs this methodology to
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parameters and process windows to produce high quality
ZHOGV6LGGLTDQG*KDVVHPLHK.UJHUet al., 2004).
FLHVDUHXVHGW\SLFDOIUHTXHQFLHVUDQJHIURPWRN+]  /DS MRLQW VKHDU VWUHQJWKV RI RUGHU RI  03D KDYH EHHQ
in order to induce molecular motion, thus creating friction, LQIRUPHG IRU 336FDUERQ ¿EHU ODPLQDWHV ERQGHG XOWUDVRQL-
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components using ultrasonic welding depends on material
physical properties, frequency and amplitude of ultrasonic
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LQGLVWLQFWO\WRDPRUSKRXVZHOGLQJWHPSHUDWXUHEHWZHHQWKH
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Lockheed-Georgia to weld together thermoplastic/graphite tape
PDWHULDOIRUWKH&+HUFXOHVDLUFUDIW/HY\et al., 2008).
Induction welding
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frequency. All ultrasonic welding systems are composed of
Induction welding utilizes inductive heating for melting
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ultrasonic generator to provide and control the ultrasonic GHVFULEHGE\(T.DJDQDQG1LFKROV, 2005):
HQHUJ\$JHRUJHVet al..UJHUet al., 2004; Yousef-
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pour et al., 2004; Siddiq and Ghassemieh, 2008; Levy et al., Q = I ǜ R ǜ t 
2008; Ageorges and Ye, 2002).
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LQPDQ\LQGXVWULDOEUDQFKHVLQFOXGLQJHOHFWULFDOFRPSXWHU WLPHtRKPLFUHVLVWDQFHR), and the square of the induced
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2005; Yousefpour et al., 2004; Stokes, 2003; Velthuis and
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thermoplastic composites:

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et al., 2004; Ageorges et al., 2001; Ageorges et al., 2000). LQKHUHQWUHVLVWDQFHKHDWLQJRI¿EHUV0RVHUet al., 2008);

J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012 257
 Costa, A.P. et al.

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laminates. A capacitor is then created and dielectric heat- DEO\WRWKRVHPDQXIDFWXUHVE\DXWRFODYHFRFRQVROLGDWLRQ
ing occurs due to the movement of charge and rotation of  7KHH[DPSOHVDERYHVKRZWKDWLQGXFWLRQKHDWLQJFDQEH
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LQWKHFDVHRIZRYHQIDEULFV7KLVWKHRU\H[SODLQVZK\ Microwave welding
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reported in the literature to weld thermoplastic composites
.Xet al., 2003; Wise and Froment, 2001; Chung-Yuan et al.,
1999; Vodicka, 1996).
 0RVWWKHUPRSODVWLFGRQRWH[SHULHQFHDWHPSHUDWXUHULVH
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to microwaves and an applied P melting of the surrounding
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SURFHVV<RXVHISRXUet al..Xet al., 2003; Wise and
Froment, 2001; Chung-Yuan et al., 1999; Vodicka, 1996).
The particular advantage of microwave welding over other
1LFKROV
A special type of induction welding is the so-called
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the joining parts. The Emaweld-process is fast compared to
conventional induction welding. However, due to the metal
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in the welding zone thus reducing the mechanical properties
RIWKHMRLQW+RXet al. 1999).
 $VIRUYLEUDWLRQZHOGLQJVLQJOHODSMRLQWVKHDUVWUHQJWKVRI
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and Froment, 2001).
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what are normally straight-line heating tasks in the welding of
¿OPVDQGVKHHWLQJ.Xet al., 2003; Wise and Froment, 2001;
Chung-Yuan et al., 1999; Vodicka, 1996).
 +HDWLQJLQDPLFURZDYH¿HOGHVVHQWLDOO\WDNHVSODFHE\WKH
following physical processes, depending on the target material:
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ing resistance and induction welding showed that, under HOHFWULFDOO\FRQGXFWLYHPDWHULDOVKHDWLQJWKURXJKWKH0D[ZHOO
equivalent heating conditions, induction welded specimens :DJQHUHIIHFWPXOWLSKDVHPDWHULDOVEOHQGV¿OOHGPDWHULDOV
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 *UXPPDQ$LUFUDIW/DERUDWRULHV.DJDQDQG1LFKROV KLJKWHPSHUDWXUHVHOHFWURQSRODUL]DWLRQ.Xet al., 2003; Wise
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)$DLUFUDIWKRUL]RQWDOVWDELOL]HUOHDGLQJHGJHGHPRQVWUDWLRQ welding of joint elements with low, medium and high

258 J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012
A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites in Aerospace Applications

dielectric loss factors using focused microwave energy OLWWOHDPRXQWRIPDWHULDODQGFDQEHDSSOLHGWRODUJHVWUXF-

:LVHDQG)URPHQW$W\SLFDOVFKHPDWLFRIWKHVHW
up is shown in Fig. 4. Joint elements with low-to-medium
GLHOHFWULFORVVIDFWRUVUHTXLUHQRHOHFWURPDJQHWLFDEVRUEHQW
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increases and reaches the polymer TmDVWKHERQGOLQHSDVVHV
underneath the focused microwave energy. Meanwhile,
tures. Good thermal insulation and a correct amount of input
energy can reduce the welding time and enhance weld qual-
LW\$JHRUJHVDQG<H&RVWD<RXVHISRXUet al.,
2004; Yang and Pitchumani, 2002a, Yang and Pitchumani,
E$JHRUJHVDQG<H;LDRet al., 1992). In this
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localized fusion occurs in the presence of P, resulting
in a weld. Joint elements with high dielectric loss factor
UHTXLUHHOHFWURPDJQHWLFDEVRUEHQWPDWHULDOVDWWKHLQWHUIDFH
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elements, and then evaporate, leaving a localized melting
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ERQGOLQHLQWKHSUHVHQFHRIP, producing a weld. Materials
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process, some of these materials evaporate and some remain
LQWKHZHOGDUHD.Xet al., 2003; Wise and Froment, 2001;
Chung-Yuan et al., 1999; Vodicka, 1996).
)LJXUH6FKHPDWLF VHWXS IRU PLFURZDYH KHDWLQJ <RXVHISRXU
et al., 2004).
The technique is still in the development stages and, as
such, there are currently no reported industrial applications.
However, it is anticipated that microwave welding may prove
WREHVXLWDEOHIRUMRLQLQJDXWRPRWLYHXQGHUERG\FRPSRQHQWV
and aerospace parts.
Resistance welding
 5HVLVWDQFHZHOGLQJKDVEHHQFRQVLGHUHGDYHU\SURPLVLQJ
joining technique for aerospace application. This process is
FDUERQVWULSLVSODFHGDWWKHLQWHUIDFHEHWZHHQWKHODPLQDWHV
WR EH MRLQHG 7KLV FRQGXFWLYH HOHPHQW LV FRQQHFWHG WR D
SRZHUVXSSO\DQGWKHQDVXI¿FLHQWI is applied so that Joule
ORVVJHQHUDWHVKHDWHQRXJKWRFUHDWHDERQGOLQH6WDYURY 
Bersee, 2005; Stavrov et al., 2003; Yang and Pitchumani,
2002A, Yang and Pitchumani, 2002B; Don et al.;LDR
et al., 1992). Figure 5 shows a schematic of the resistance
welding process.
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and Ye, 2002).
 7KHHOHFWULFDOFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHKHDWLQJHOHPHQW
and the power circuit is critical to the resistance welding
process. In order to introduce adequate current into the
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among others. Instead of using continuous power during the
SURFHVV WKH SRZHU FDQ EH DSSOLHG LQ WKH IRUP RI LQWHQVH
pulses. This process is called impulsive resistance welding
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ORVVHV%DOOHet al., 2009).
 7KLVZHOGLQJSURFHVVFDQDOVREHFDUULHGRXWXQGHUHLWKHU
constant load or displacement control. The method can
produce lap shear strength values greater than 33 MPa, and
KDVEHHQXVHGLQRUGHUWRZHOG3((.DQG3(,ODPLQDWHVE\WKH
86$LU)RUFH:DQJet al., 2006).
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J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012 259
 Costa, A.P. et al.

Hot plate welding WKHUPRSODVWLFSRO\PHUPDWUL[FRPSRVLWHV<RXVHISRXUet al.,

2004; Ageorges et al., 2001).
 7KHUPDOZHOGLQJLVDIXVLRQERQGLQJPHWKRGRORJ\WKDWEDVL-  0DLQDGYDQWDJHVRI,5VRXUFHVDUHWKHLUDELOLW\WRIDVWKHDW-
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interface causing a decrease of viscosity thus allowing polymer ULVNVWKXVDOORZLQJKLJKSURGXFWLYLW\UDWHVRIUHSURGXFLEOH
chains to interdifuse as the surfaces are held tightly together, with strong joints in automated systems. For instance, retention
IXUWKHUVORZFRROLQJIRUMRLQWFRQVROLGDWLRQ<RXVHISRXUet al., RIRISRO\PHUEXONVWUHQJWKKDVEHHQUHSRUWHGIRU
2004; Ageorges et al., 2001; Ageorges et al., 2000).
Inside of this concept, hot plate or hot-tool welding is one of
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LVDVLPSOHUHOLDEOHDQGHFRQRPLFDOZD\RISURGXFLQJVWURQJ
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Besides high consistent, low scattered mechanical properties
of IR welded joints, which is translated in high structural
UHOLDELOLW\ DV FUXFLDOO\ UHTXLUHG LQ KLJKGHPDQGLQJ FRPSR-
nent devised to aeronautical industry, huge potential of this
PDQXIDFWXULQJWHFKQLTXHFDQEHIRUHFDVWLQWKHDHURQDXWLFDO
HQYLURQPHQWE\YLUWXHRILWVJUHDWÀH[LELOLW\DQGFDSDELOLW\
WRMRLQODUJHÀDWDQGFXUYHGDUHDV3RWHQWHet al., 1993; Chen,
WHWUDÀXRURHWK\OHQHFRDWHGKRWPHWDOSODWHLQRUGHUWKHLQWHUIDFH 2000; Miller, 2006). In the other hand, a main shortcoming of
WR EH ZHOGHG WR PHOW :KHQ QHFHVVDU\ DGHTXDWH P PXVW EH IR welding is the detrimental effect of colorants and pigments
DSSOLHGWRHQIRUFHWKHKRWWRRODJDLQVWWKHODPLQDWHV)LJ,Q
FDVHRIH[FHVVLYHPWKHPHOWZLOOEHSUHVVHGLQWRWKHÀDVKDQG
LQVXI¿FLHQWDPRXQWRIPHOWHGPDWHULDOZLOOUHPDLQRQVXUIDFHV
Often mechanical stops are employed to prevent squeezing the
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weld’. In case of too little pressure, full contact and thus good
KHDWFRQGXFWLRQEHWZHHQKRWSODWHDQGMRLQLQJSDUWVPLJKWQRW
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the quality of the end product. Darker polymers are espe-
cially prone to display overheating surface degradation due
to low IR energy transfer rates down through melting zone,
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SRVVLEOHODPLQDWHGHFRQVROLGDWLRQDQGZDUSLQJGXULQJKHDWLQJ
stage, as well as thermal residual stresses development along
FRROLQJVWDJH6ZDUW] 6ZDUW]3RWHQWHet al., 1993;
Chen, 2000; Ageorges et al., 2001;.DJDQ Bray, 2003;
hot element is removed and melted surfaces are pressed against
each other until consolidation occurs. Small parts demand
EHWZHHQWRVHFRQGVWREHZHOGHGZKHUHDVODUJHSDUWVWDNH
at least 30 minutes to guarantee a good connection. Risks of
VXUIDFHFRQWDPLQDWLRQDUHDPRQJVWWKHPDLQGUDZEDFNVRIWKLV
WHFKQLTXH$JHRUJHVet al., 2001; Ageorges et al., 2000).
IR welding
 ,5 ZHOGLQJ LV DQRWKHU VRPHZKDW QHZFRPHU WR WKH ¿HOG
RI QRQFRQWDFW WHFKQLTXHV IRU MRLQLQJ ILEHU UHLQIRUFHG
)LJXUH 6FKHPDWLFRIWKHKRWSODWHZHOGLQJ<RXVHISRXUet al., 2004).
260 J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012
Grewell et al.*UHZHOO %HQDWDU
 %DVLFDOO\ WKH WHFKQLTXH FRPSULVHV WKUHH VXEVHTXHQW
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and Benatar, 1995). Figures 7 to 9 feature some important
aspects related to IR radiation welding, particularly in regard
to the welding system operation, applied thermomechanical
F\FOHDQGFRQWDFWLQWHUIDFHEHKDYLRURIWKHUPRSODVWLFMRLQW
Laser welding
In order to produce integral composite structures and thus
PDNHWKH¿QDOFRPSRVLWHFRPSRQHQWPRUHFRVWHIIHFWLYHWKH
H[SORUDWLRQRIWKH/%:DOUHDG\DSSOLHGWRPHWDOOLFSDUWVFDQ
EHXVHIXOLQWKHFDVHRIMRLQLQJHLWKHUWKHUPRSODVWLFSRO\PHUV
or thermoplastic composite components. Thermoplastic poly-
PHUVKDYHORQJPROHFXODUFKDLQVKHOGWRJHWKHUE\VHFRQGDU\
FKHPLFDOERQGVZKLFKDOORZVWKHPWREHKHDWHGDQGUHPHOWHG
Through the activation of this physicochemical mechanism,
WKHUPRSODVWLFVFDQEHMRLQHGXVLQJDZLGHYDULHW\RIIXVLRQ
DQGLQWHUOD\HUERQGLQJSURFHVVHV/DEHDVet al., 2010; 3UDE-
hakaran et al., 2006; Grewell et al., 2004).
A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites in Aerospace Applications

 /%: KDV EHHQ HQYLVLRQHG DV D VXLWDEOH WHFKQLTXH IRU /%:WHFKQLTXHUDWKHUWKDQDOWHUQDWLYHWHFKQRORJLHV/DEHDV
joining thin, as well as medium to thick thermoplastic et al., 2010). LBW allows joining thermoplastics, provided
components used in the aeronautic sector. Moreover, size, WKDWRQHRIWKHPDWHULDOVWRSPDWHULDOLVWUDQVSDUHQWWRODVHU
JHRPHWULFDO UHTXLUHPHQWV DQG VSHFL¿FDWLRQV RI DHURQDXWL-
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ERWK SDUWV HQVXUHV KHDWLQJ RI WKH WUDQVSDUHQW SDUW E\ KHDW
Figure 7. Schematic of infrared lamp welding system conceived
to join thermoplastic laminates highlighting the infrared
radiation source, polymer parts deployment and pressing
SODWHV <RXVHISRXU et al., 2004; Ageorges et al., 2001;
Potente et al., 1993).
Figure 8. Typical thermomechanical cycle of the infrared welding
V\VWHP GHSLFWHG LQ )LJ  <RXVHISRXU et al., 2004;
Ageorges et al., 2001; Potente et al., 1993).
Figure 9. Macromolecular interdiffusion mechanism occurring in
EHWZHHQWZRFRQWDFWLQJSDUWVGXULQJWKHLQIUDUHGZHOGLQJ
SURFHVVSRUWUD\HGLQ)LJVDQG<RXVHISRXUet al., 2004;
Ageorges et al., 2001; Potente et al., 1993).
J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., São José dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012
FRQGXFWLRQIURPWKHDEVRUELQJSDUW)LJ:HOGLQJRFFXUV
XSRQPHOWLQJDQGIXVLRQRIERWKWKHUPRSODVWLFPDWHULDOVDW
WKHLQWHUIDFH7KH/%:WHFKQRORJ\RIIHUVWKHSRVVLELOLW\RI
joining separate parts ensuring full continuity of the resin
system without the addition of an adhesive system and avoid-
LQJDOVRULYHWLQVWDOODWLRQOHDGLQJWRDQXPEHURIVXEVWDQWLDO
advantages, such as cost savings, weight reduction, and
PDQXIDFWXULQJF\FOHWLPHUHGXFWLRQDVZHOODVDFFHSWDEOH
ERQGVWUHQJWK/DEHDVet al., 2010).
Only few studies of the application of LBW process for
the joining of structural thermoplastic composites such as
FDUERQ3((.RUFDUERQ336DUHDYDLODEOHLQWKHOLWHUDWXUH
VRWKDWUHOLDEOHDSSOLFDWLRQRI/%:WHFKQRORJ\IRUMRLQLQJ
primary aeronautic parts made of thermoplastic composites
VWLOO UHTXLUHV VLJQL¿FDQW GHYHORSPHQW DQG LQYHVWLJDWLRQ
/DEHDVet al., 2010).
REMARKABLE CONCLUSIONS
 )URPWKLVPDQXVFULSWLWFDQEHFRQFOXGHGWKDWQRWRQO\RQH
MRLQLQJWHFKQRORJ\FDQEHDSSOLFDEOHWRDOOVLWXDWLRQV$OOMRLQ-
ing methodologies showed in this work present advantages and
GUDZEDFNVDQGWKH\PD\EHPRUHRUOHVVVXLWDEOHWRDSDUWLFXODU
)LJXUH /DVHUWUDQVPLVVLRQZHOGLQJWHFKQLTXH/DEHDVet al., 2010).
261

DSSOLFDWLRQ GHSHQGLQJ RQ LWV VSHFL¿F UHTXLUHPHQWV )XVLRQ
ERQGLQJPHWKRGVSUHVHQWDKXJHSRWHQWLDOIRUYROXPHLQWHQVLYH
applications in which short processing cycles are necessary.
7KHVHERQGLQJSURFHVVHVRIIHUDGGLWLRQDODGYDQWDJHVLQFOXGLQJ
reduced surface preparation requirements, reprocessing, recy-
FODELOLW\DQGLPSURYHGLQWHJULW\GXUDELOLW\$PRQJWKHYDULRXV
WHFKQLTXHVRIWKLVFDWHJRU\WKHPRVWPDWXUHRQHVDUHXQGRXEW-
edly the ultrasonic, induction and the resistance welding.
Process integration is a critical aspect of joining technol-
ogy. Particular requirements of each joining techniques should
EHFROODWHGLQGHVLJQVFRGHVLQRUGHUWRLQWHJUDWHWKHVHUHTXLUH-
ments at the very early stage of the design process.
 ,QVLGHRIWKLVFRQWH[WVLQFH81(63DQG863KDYHJHW
involved in development and/or application of welding technolo-
JLHVLQDHURVSDFH¿HOG(PSKDVLVRIWKHZRUNLQ81(63LVLQ
the development of the resistance welding technology associated
ZLWKWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOLQÀXHQFHRQWKHWKHUPDODQGPHFKDQL-
cal properties of thermoplastic laminates, whereas USP is in
the forefront of IR lamp welding methodology and advanced
destructive and nondestructive characterization of the joints.
 0RVW RI WKH GDWD LQ WKLV SDSHU ZHUH REWDLQHG IURP WKH
literature, since this manuscript is a state-of-the-art review.
Therefore, such data do not provide information for deals of
UHSHDWDELOLW\RUUHSURGXFLELOLW\DQGWKH\DUHXVHIXORQO\IRU
an initial mapping of potential techniques over a wide range
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Acknowledgements
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from Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo
Costa, A.P. et al.
Ageorges, C. et al.   ³$GYDQFHV LQ IXVLRQ ERQGLQJ
WHFKQLTXHV IRU MRLQLQJ WKHUPRSODVWLF PDWUL[ FRPSRVLWHV D
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Ageorges, C. et al.³([SHULPHQWDOLQYHVWLJDWLRQRIWKH
UHVLVWDQFHZHOGLQJIRUWKHUPRSODVWLFPDWUL[FRPSRVLWHV3DUW
,KHDWLQJHOHPHQWDQGKHDWWUDQVIHU´&RPSRVLWHV6FLHQFHDQG
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Arici, A.A., 2007, “Effect of hygrothermal aging on poly-
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&RPSRVLWHV9RO1RSS
Balle, F. et al., 2009, “Ultrasonic metal welding of aluminium
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$GYDQFHG(QJLQHHULQJ0DWHULDO9RO1RSS
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LRU RI UHLQIRUFHG SRO\SURS\OHQH DVVHPEOLHV´ &RPSRVLWHV
3DUW$9RO1RSS
Botelho, E.C. et al., 2005 “Processing and hygrothermal effects
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