Literary Genres

 Drama. Stories composed in

verse or prose, usually for
theatrical performance,
where conflicts and emotion
are expressed through
dialogue and action.
 Fable. ...
 Fairy Tale. ...
 Fantasy. ...
 Fiction. ...
 Fiction in Verse. ...
 Folklore. ...
 Historical Fiction.
 Characteristics of 21st
Century Learners
 They demonstrate
independence. ...
 They build strong content
knowledge. ...
 They respond to the varying
demands of audience, task,
purpose, and discipline. ...
 They comprehend as well as
critique. ...
 They value evidence. ...
 They use technology and
digital media strategically
and capability
 Poetry, Prose, Drama, Non-Fiction,
and Media: The Five Main Types of
Literature
 Categorizing Literature. Back in
ancient Greece, literature was
divided into two main categories:
tragedy and comedy. ...
 Poetry. ...
 Prose. ...
 Drama. ...
 Non-Fiction. ...
 Media. ...
 Other Types of Literature. ...
 Some Resources.
These 21st-century
skills are more important to
students now than ever
before. ... Our Framework
for 21st Century Learning,
informed by this far-reaching
partnership, emphasizes the
4Cs – communication,
collaboration, critical thinking
and creativity – skills that all
learners need for success in
school, work and life.
Genres are often divided into
subgenres. Literature is
divided into the classic three
forms
of Ancient Greece, poetry,
drama,
and prose. Poetry may then
be subdivided into
the genres of lyric, epic,
and dramatic.
The lyric includes all the
shorter forms of poetry, e.g.,
song, ode, ballad, elegy,
sonnet.
The four main literary
genres are poetry,
fiction, nonfiction,
and drama, with each
varying in style, structure,
subject matter, and the use
of figurative language. The
genre raises certain
expectations in what the
reader anticipates will
happen within that work
 They became known as the
“Four Cs”:
 critical thinking,
 communication,
 collaboration, and.
 creativity.

Creativity and Innovation.

Communication and
Collaboration. Research and
Information Fluency. Critical
Thinking, Problem Solving,
and Decision Making.
The outer ring of the
framework represents the
emerging 21st Century
Competencies necessary
for the globalised world we
live in. These are: Civic
Literacy, Global Awareness
and Cross-Cultural Skills;
Critical and Inventive
Thinking; Communication,
Collaboration and
Information Skills
The 21st
century in literature refers
to world literature produced
during the 21st century. The
range of years is, for the
purpose of this
article, literature written
from (roughly) the year 2001
to the present
.

Reading is collaboration
between the reader, the text,
and the purpose. We all want
students to be
engaged readers who love
to read, choose to read, and
have the skills and strategies
to read even when text is
difficult

The skill of reading is one

of the most important we
teach our children. It is a
lifeskill that enables them to
extend their concepts, gain
information as the basis for
other learning and to gain
access to the magical world
of fantasy.
The first tenet of 21st-
century
skills is fostering creativity
and innovation. ... These
ties into the “critical thinking
about problem solving”
component of 21st-century
skills. Students need to
think for themselves and
solve problems in terms of
project-based learning.
They need to come up with
alternative ideas
 21st Century skills are 12
abilities that today's
students need to succeed
in their careers during the
Information Age.
 Critical thinking.
 Creativity.
 Collaboration.
 Communication.
 Information literacy.
 Media literacy.
 Technology literacy.
 Flexibility.
In today’s globalized,
technology-mediated society,
a course on contemporary
literature can be especially
useful for exploring national,
ethnic, linguistic, and socio-
political issues, in addition to
serving as a model of
connected and active
student learning.
Nonetheless, teaching
literature in the 21st century
also poses challenge to
teachers and curriculum
developers specifically on
finding ways to represent
current writers from diverse
regions and to connect
literary works to students’
personal and communal
lives, across cultural and
national boundaries.
In this light, the authors aim to contribute in addressing the
challenge by crafting this textbook entitled, “21st Century
Literature from the Philippines and the World.” The book is
anchored on the curriculum guide provided by the Department of
Education for the Grade 11 subject 21st Century Literature from
the Philippines and the World which aims to engage students in
appreciation and critical study of literature encompassing their
various dimensions, genres, elements, structures, contexts, and
traditions.

This book is based on theories regarding communicative,

differentiated, and collaborative learning. It uses a task-based
approach to help the student grasp all the nuances of the texts,
and includes tasks that will help them construct knowledge and
create meaning for themselves. It was written to encourage a
student-centered environment. It includes activities where
students can be sources of knowledge. Worksheets and guide
questions will be provided to help students analyze literary texts
on their own. This book also includes background information that
will help students appreciate the context of what they have read,
and ultimately apply what they have read to their lives.

The book adopted the textbook format designed by Marikit Tara

A. Uychoco. The book is divided into two sections: Philippine
Literature and World Literature with an introductory discussion on
the nature of literature (definition, major genres, and its
development in Philippine history). Each section has an
introduction and is divided into several units. Each unit is
composed of different lessons or modules. Each module consists
of the following parts:

Motivation: These are questions that elicit what the students

know prior to the lesson

Pre-Reading: These are activities designed to capture the

students’ attention and stimulate their interest using the inquiry
process.

Guide Questions: These questions are able to explore the text

further and help the students’ process and explain what they just
read.

After Reading: This provides students with activities to build their

own understanding after reading the text. They may also be the
transference of learning to unfamiliar situations.

Evaluation: This segment helps the student show what they have
learned from the text.

Enrichment: These activities help students apply their knowledge

in an original way.
Background information on the various authors, the themes
presented in the literary works, and literature on the regions or
countries involved are included for readers to get to know the
subject material better, and broaden their knowledge on the
different world and Philippine literature available.

INTRODUCTION TO
PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
By Katrina Melissa Cruz

Philippine literature
withstood time and periods
and has evolved through
generations. For every
period that passed, different
genres appeared, and these
literary works rooted from all
regions reflecting their
culture, society and lifestyle.
The early stages of Filipino
Literature consist of the Pre-
Spanish period, the Spanish
period and the Propaganda
and Revolutionary Periods.
In the Pre-Spanish period,
literature was in oral form as
technology of printing wasn’t
available yet. Works such as
epics, legends,
folklore, salawikain, bugtong,
sawikain, songs such as
the Oyayi or Hele are passed
on from generations to
generations and they are still
well-known up to this day as
they are being taught in
schools. Philippine Literature
changed during the Spanish
Period. It was centered on
Christian faith. Pre-Spanish
literary types continued to
develop; however, there was
a gradual shift of interest
from nature and natural
phenomena to the lives of
the saints, hymns, miracles
and invocations based on
the teachings of the Catholic
Church. The works during
this time are imitative of the
Spanish theme, forms, and
traditions. The corrido, awit,
dalit, cenaculo, moro-moro,
duplo and karagatan, and
zarzuela are reflective of the
said characteristics.
Religious matters were in
prose as novenas and prayer
books, biographies of the
saints, tales and novels. The
Filipinos were able to retain
their native traditions and
poems in the field of poetry
reflected as lyrical folksongs
and riddles. Some examples
of songs are Bahay Kubo,
kundiman, and
tapat. Francisco Baltazar
also was popular during this
time because of his “Florante
at Laura”. Events such as
the exposure of the Filipinos
to Europe’s liberal idealism,
the opening of the Suez
Canal, the Spanish
Revolution in 1868, and the
martyrdom of Gomburza led
to Filipino nationalism. This
gave birth to two movements
during this time – the
Propaganda movement and
the Revolutionary
movement. The Propaganda
movement was reformatory
in objective and its members
are college students mostly
based in Spain. The primary
propagandists were Jose
Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar,
and Graciano Lopez-Jaena.
The exposure of the evils of
the Spanish rule in the
Philippines was because of
Rizal’s Noli Me Tangere and
El Filibusterismo and has
paved the way to a
revolution against Spain. Del
Pilar’s essays and editorials
in Diariong Tagalogwhich he
founded with Lopez-Jaena’s
articles in La
Solidaridad which he was an
editor reflected nationalism
that was dominant at this
time.
The Revolutionary
movement took over as the
propagandists failed to get
many reforms. This was of
course more violent, and it
demands complete
independence from Spain.
The Katipunan was founded
by Andres Bonifacio who
was inspired by Rizal’s
novels. The articles written in
tagalog (which was a form of
revolution) was published in
the Kalayaan, the newspaper
of the society. The literature
at that time was more
propagandistic than literary
as the situation and events
at that time needed such
purpose for liberation.
The three periods mentioned
are the core of our history
and literature. History has a
very important role in
literature as literature not
only reflects facts with
aesthetic language but more
importantly, it displays the
ideas and feelings of the
people living at that time. Not
only does literature exhibit
history but so as the hope
that people have. It shows
what they hope for the
nation, or for themselves,
may it be about nationalism,
love, or other aspects going
on in life. As the Philippines
underwent a lot of history, as
well as changes, literature
also evolved. In the similar
case as the first three
periods, literary genres also
evolve depending on the
influence, state and the
condition that our country is
in. From epics to folksongs,
to the cenaculo and Noli Me
Tangere, to Tagalog and
English short stories, essays,
poetry, to the Palanca
Awards entries, drama and
film, to Wattpad and blogs –
these are all reflective of the
history, evolution, and
developments or mishaps of
the Filipino nation. Each
period has its own distinct
genre and unique artists that
everyone remembers.
21st century literature per se,
is anything that was written
and published in the year
2000s. It is a bit too early to
give a definite and elaborate
description of the 21st
century literature in the
Philippines and the world. It
is possible, however, to
approach contemporary
literature as a reaction to and
dialogue with existing forms
of expressive culture. As we
engage in technology more
and more, we create and
discover more existing forms
of expressive culture as well.
We have a wide range of
resources through the
internet and this gave
opportunities to people,
especially the youth, to begin
writing and expressing their
thoughts, ideas, and
feelings. A perfect example
would be WattPad. It
became popular to the
Filipino youth in 2006.
The idea is to create an e-
book reading application, as
e-books are becoming in
demand during that time,
however, the founders
thought that it would be time
consuming to maintain their
own catalogue, so they
decided to let the community
decide what they want to
read, and they can also
upload their works and
content into the application.
This had made it possible for
the youth to read more and
to start creating their own
compositions.
It has become a network.
Here are more examples of
literary genres in the 21st
century Philippine literature:
Creative nonfiction
It’s a rich mix of flavors,
ideas, and techniques, some
of which are newly invented
and others as old as writing
itself. Creative non-fiction
can be an essay, a journal
article, a research paper, a
memoir, or a poem; it can be
personal or not, or it can be
all of these.
 Some of the creative
nonfiction in the Philippines
are:
1. “The Cardinal’s Sins, the
General’s Cross, the Martyr’s
Testimony, and Other
Affirmations” by Gregorio C.
Brillantes
2. “Manananggal Terrorizes
Manila and Other Stories” by
Jessica Zafra
3. “Sapay Koma” by Jhoanna
Lynn Cruz
Hyper poetry
Hypertext poetry and
hypertext fiction are new
genres of literature that use
the computer screen as
medium, rather than the
printed page. The literary
works rely on the qualities
unique to a digital
environment, such as linked
World Wide Web pages or
effects such as sound and
movement. Hypertext
“poetry” can consist of
words, although not
necessarily organized into
lines and stanzas, as well as,
sounds, visual images,
movement or other special
effects. Although the poem
may be dazzling with
sounds, perhaps of a
lawnmower, while the words
“mowing,” “stop,” “Sunday,”
and “morning” floats across
your computer screen in
pseudo-three-dimensional
letters, one will have been
hard pressed to identify the
use of any formal poetics.
Mobile phone text tula
A cell phone novel or mobile
phone novel is a literary work
originally written on a cellular
phone via text messaging.
This type of literature
originated in Japan, where it
has become a popular
literary genre. However, its
popularity has also spread to
other countries
internationally, especially to
China, United States,
Germany, and South Africa.
Chapters usually consist of
about 70-100 words each
due to character limitations
on cell phones.
Chick lit
This is genre fiction, which
“consists of heroin-centered
narratives that focus on the
trials and tribulations of their
individual protagonists”. The
genre often addresses
issues of modern
womanhood – from romantic
relationships to female
friendships to matters in the
 workplace – in humorous
and light-hearted ways.
Some of the chicks lit in the
Philippines are:
1. Spotlight New Adult by
Mina V. Esguerra
2. Tall Story by Candy
Gourlay
3. All’s Fair in Blog and War
by Chrissie Pariah
Speculative fiction
It covers all stories from
fantasy to science fiction to
slipstream to magic realism
to urban fantasy — so on
and so forth. In other words
(or in other worlds), it
encompasses all the stories
that are removed from the
reality that we are currently
living in. As the introduction
states, “speculative fiction is
a type of story that deals with
observations of the human
condition but offers the
 experience through a
different lens…and
challenges us to see what
tomorrow could be like or
what the mythic past of our
imagination actually is.”
Some of the speculative
fiction in the Philippines are:
1. Smaller and Smaller
Circles by FH Batacan
2. Sink by Isabel Yap
3. The Secret Origin of Spin-
Man by Andrew Drilon
Flash fiction
Flash fiction goes by many
names, including
microfiction, microstories,
short-shorts, short short
stories, very short stories,
sudden fiction, postcard
fiction and nanofiction. While
it can be difficult to pinpoint
an exact definition of flash
fiction based on word count,
consideration of several of its
features can help provide
clarity, like its brevity, length,
background and purpose.
 Some of the flash fictions in
the Philippines are:
1. 100 Mislay, by Bacon M.
Balde Jr.
2. Karapote: Antolohia Dagiti
13 a Nasuerte A Caritas, by
Ariel S. Tabag
Blog
A blog (shortening of
“weblog”) is an online journal
or informational website
displaying information in the
reverse chronological order,
with latest posts appearing
first. It is a platform where a
writer or even a group of
writers share their views on
an individual subject.
Graphic novels
The ‘graphic novel’ has
existed as an art form
arguably from the time our
species learned how to paint.
However, the term has only
been in use since the 1960’s,
and though it’s often a hotly
debated issue, it’s generally
accepted that a graphic
novel is a longer work or
collection of works presented
in ‘comics’ style.
 Some of the graphic novels
in the Philippines are:
1. The Mythology Class
(Nautilus comics) by Arnold
Arre
2. Light (Anino comics) by
Rob Cham
3. Sixty Six (Anino comics)
by Russell Molina
4. Maktan 1521 by Tepai
Pascual
Contemporary writers often
consciously draw inspiration
and ideas from the writers
who have come before them.
As an outcome, many works
of 21st literature deal with
the events, movements and
literature of the past in order
to make sense of the current
times. In addition, the
technological developments
of the 21st century have
directed other writers to
theoretically write about the
future, usually to comment
on the present and suggest
introspection.
There are various themes
and topics that the
contemporary literature
addresses. One of which is
Identity. With increasing
globalization, intersections of
cultures and more vocal
discussions of women’s
rights and LGBT rights,
identity has become a
common theme in 21st
century literature. In a world
that is now able to exchange
ideas more quickly than ever
before via the Internet and
other technological
advancements, people have
relatively more freedom to
draw from multiple cultures
and philosophies and
question the concept of the
self and its relation to the
body, brain and “soul.”
Another theme is history and
memory. Often
contemporary literature
explores the notion of
multiplicities of truth and
acknowledges that history is
filtered through human
perspective and experience.
Another main theme is
technology. Today,
technology is more
integrated into people’s lives
than ever before. Dreams of
what technology could
potentially help people
become and anxieties
regarding the demise of
humanity because of
technology can be seen in
21st century literature.
Additionally, many 21st
century works of literature
explore what it means when
all of humanity’s experiences
are filtered through
technology. These are just
among many themes that
21st century literature
covers. Among these are of
course, love, sex, family,
religion, but approached in a
different way. They are more
liberal and unfiltered in a
sense, just like the world we
live in. For this reason, the
language and tone that are
commonly used doesn’t
really follow a rule just like
the traditional and classical
works, as long as it is able to
express and convey the
authenticity and the essence
of the meaning of the work
and the identity of the
characters. Examples of this
would be the works of Bob
Ong, Ricky Lee, and Bebang
Siy. The poems of Maria
Cecilia dela Rosa are perfect
examples of 21st century
literature as she conveys a
different flavor and turn to
her works.
The previous periods had
already established canon
writers and their works
which, until now, are being
studied in schools and
universities. As times
change, people need to
innovate and become more
aware of the present time
and condition, as well as the
events that recently directed
us to be at the current
circumstances that we stand.
Modernization, invention,
expression and a wider point
of view are results of the
arising awareness people
have. Modern day Filipinos,
as well as the youth of today
becomes more conscious of
what’s happening, primarily
because of easier access to
education and technology.
Print, we might say, is
gradually dying but our
appetite for information
continues to grow and of
course literature, along with
technology still thrives. All of
this paved the way to the
21st century Literature, with
various genres, themes and
voices. The Philippines
continues to develop in many
aspects and as a liberal and
democratic country, we are
part of the worldwide
innovation of ways on how to
exchange and share ideas
about the present events
which have much similarities
in each country.
Since we are in the age of
technology, we use them to
impart and experience
literature to make it more
interesting especially to the
young ones. They grew up
using technology as a
primary learning tool and for
them to be more engaged in
literature, technology such
as the internet and gadgets
play a huge role for them in
acquiring knowledge and
information.
Literature continues to
change with society and
although we are in the 21st
century and are binded with
technology, authors are still
trying to address absolute
human questions in new
ways and therefore,
reconcile them with the ever-
changing technology that
surrounds us; hence, the
birth of the different 21st
century literary genres.
In the new educational
system that the Philippines is
currently under which is the
K+12 program, students are
also entitled to learn the new
literary genres that we have
in the 21st century. In this
guide, we will find the
different characteristics of
the 21st century literature in
the Philippines and their
genres, along with their
representative texts that
tackles their relevance to our
current situation.
UNIT I: LITERATURE FROM THE
ILOCOS REGION
Module 1: Life and Death

Text: Short Story, “Dice” by Ricos Rey Catapang

Supplementary Reading:
Short stories in English by Ilocano writers
Module 2: Diversity and Differences

Text: Essay, “Uniquely Talented” by Nivea

Urdas

Media for Activities:

Short film “Identity” produced by PUSH: Future
Short film “Different,” by Tahneek Rahman

Module 3: Space and Migration

 Text: Poem, “Ipapanaw iti Maikasangapulo a
Balay” by Mighty C. Rasing

Media for Activities:

Maalaala Mo Kaya “Doll House”

Supplementary Reading:
Short stories in English by Ilocano writers

Module 4: Modernization
 Text: Poem, “(No) Maysaakon a Sangsangaili” by
Ariel S. Tabag

Media for Activities:

Film Viewing, “Avatar (2009)”

UNIT II: LITERATURE FROM

THE CORDILLERAS

Module 1: Self-Image
 Text: Short Story, “Maricel” by Monica
Macansantos

Media for Activities:

Short movie clip, “I’m Truly Sorry”
Build your Avatar at Bullying No Way
Read about bullying at Bullying No Way

Module 2: The Gods, the Spirits, and the

Faithful
 Text: Short Story, “The Ampasit” by Rachel
Pitlongay

Supplementary Reading:
Indigenous Beliefs

Module 3: Legacy
 Text: Short Story, “Lola Felicing’s Strawberry
House” by Martin Masadao

Media for Activities:

360 Virtual Tour Destination
Sample Brochure

Supplementary Reading:
Strawberries in La Trinidad

Module 4: Ethos
 Text: Short Story, “Chewing ‘Moma,’ Swallowing
Culture” by Freda Dao-Ines

Media for Activities:

Create a blog and post

Supplementary Reading:
Chewing Moma

INTRODUCTION TO
WORLD LITERATURE
By Katrina Melissa Cruz
LITERATURE FROM THE WORLD
World literature started out to be an ideal or ambition. Goethe
said, “The era of world literature is at hand, and everyone must
contribute to accelerating it.” Centuries later, this statement
remains to be true. World literature is a market that must be
sustained as the circulation of literature is somehow still
experiencing some challenges and debates such as the
considerations to be taken note of when letting a work be included
as world literature and of course, regarding the issue of
translation. The challenges on circulation, however, are not as
grave as the recent years. Today in the 21st century, because of
technology and freedom of expression, as well as our growing
need for information, we continue to accelerate world literature as
more and more people contribute to it.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe is a German poet, playwright, novelist,

scientist, statesman, theatre director, critic, and amateur artist, considered
the greatest German literary figure of the modern era. The idea of World
Literature came from him as his interest to Chinese literature, among
others, flourished. Goethe searched for an alternative to both metropolitan
culture and German nationalism since the German artists and intellectuals
responded to the metropolitan culture, which is French literature, through
nationalist initiative. Goethe found the solution to be world literature.

World literature started out to be an ideal or ambition. Goethe said, “The

era of world literature is at hand, and everyone must contribute to
accelerating it.” Centuries later, this statement remains to be true. World
literature is a market that must be sustained as the circulation of literature
is somehow still experiencing some challenges and debates such as the
considerations to be taken note of when letting a work be included as world
literature and of course, regarding the issue of translation. The challenges
on circulation, however, are not as grave as the recent years. Today in the
21st century, because of technology and freedom of expression, as well as
our growing need for information, we continue to accelerate world literature
as more and more people contribute to it.
There are many factors for a literary piece to be qualified as World
Literature, let alone to be called “literature”, per se. World literature is used
to refer to the sum total of the world’s national literatures, but usually it
denotes the circulation of works into the wider world beyond their country of
origin. To be considered world literature, it has to speak to people of more
than one nationality, hence it transcends borders. Often used in the past
primarily for masterpieces of Western European literature, world literature
today is increasingly seen in global context because in the present time,
countries are experiencing similar situations and somehow, they are all
linked together. Literature went through profound changes in the 20th and
21st centuries, partly in that of technology, communication and warfare.

As we went through World War II and the rapid expansion of technology

and communication, artists are more likely to share new ideas and express
themselves than they had ever had in history. There is more freedom then
until now. Experimentation in writing from the early century continued, and
as writers had more access to ideas from other cultures, they had more
with which to experiment. And now, when ideas are shared in an instant,
writers have a nearly unbounded ideas and topics from which to choose
and the freedom to question any assumption.

The early literary genres that were developed are still being studied and
read until today such as poetry, drama, fiction, essay, and epic. From these
genres, as we live in the internet age and the continuous blooming of
technology happens, literary genres continue to develop and grow, and
they are not limited to the above mentioned. In addition, 21st century
literature is in progress and thriving now along with the genres to be able to
accommodate the present resources and lifestyle we have, especially for
the students who now have a different learning process and resources.

In the modern vernacular, 21st century literature is associated with its

academic context, pertaining to the enduring works of fiction, philosophy,
history, etc. that have been studied for generations and molded the
foundations of our thought. Yet literature by its definition comprises all
written works, a truth that has never been more applicable than in our
current internet age, when the written word is more accessible and
democratic than ever before.
The 21st century reader grew up using technology as a primary learning
tool and this made them skilled in navigating and interpreting digital formats
and media messages. They have literacy skills which consists of
technological abilities such as the use of the keyboard, internet navigation,
ability to communicate and interpret coded language and decipher
graphics. 21st century literature deals with current themes and issues and it
also reflects a technological culture, it also breaks traditional writing rules;
hence, themes and issues we are going through now are freely written,
expressed, and conveyed through technology. For this reason, genres such
as IM and blog format books, digi-fiction, doodle, creative non-fiction,
manga, and graphic novels, among others are emerging.

Students, readers and writers alike need to develop proficiency with the
tools of technology and build associations with others to pose and solve
problems collaboratively and cross-culturally. They also need to design and
share information for global communities to see various purposes. They
must manage, analyze, and synthesize a manifold of streams of
synchronized information. They should create, critique, analyze, and
evaluate multi-media texts. Hence, the internet serves as a tool for efficient
expressiveness and sharing of ideas and information. Social media,
blogsites, and marketing sites such as Amazon and Rakuten that freely lets
people publish their works as electronic books enables and encourages us
to bring out our creativity. They are avenues for people to write and read
different kinds of works with various relevant themes and issues happening
around us and they become part of the 21st century literature.

It is essential for the students’ awareness to be raised, as well as their

interest to the social and cultural conditions we have now. It is important for
students to be more socially and culturally conscious of what the world
needs to be able to shape what is in store for the future and with the help of
technology, as long as they get to use it well with the help of education,
they may be able to do so.
Literature from Asia and the Middle East
By Doane April Chungalao

The vast amounts of Asian literature dates back throughout history with the
beginning of songs, poems, and historically written artifacts. Many Asian
literature, both classical and contemporary, consist of religious themes,
spirituality, values, and war.

Because of the number of countries found in Asia, a select few shall be

represented in the following texts together with those from the Middle East.
Indian author Ruskin Bond’s story “Dust on the Mountain” deals with
environmental issues and subtle themes that represent the take on
environmental issues in India. Japanese author Haruki Murakami’s “Mirror”
represents the identity issues experienced by many people across the
globe.

These stories, including “Khamsin on the Hills” by Elisha Porat and “The
Abandoned Village” by Hassan Blasim representing the Middle East
address the different themes determined in this unit.

Literature from Africa

By Rhoda Mae Corda

The history of African literature dates back to Ancient Egypt and

hieroglyphs. These Ancient Egyptian beginnings in turn led to Arabic
poetry, which spread during the Arab conquest of Egypt in the seventh
century C.E. and through Western Africa in the ninth century C.E. Both
African and Arabic cultures continued to blend with the European culture
and literature to form a unique literary form.

The hardships Africa had to undergo in the long span of its history left an
impact on the themes of its literature. One hardship which led to many
others is that of colonization, which eventually led to slavery. Millions of
African people were enslaved and brought to Western countries around the
world from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. This spreading of African
people, largely against their will, is called the African Diaspora, a theme
common in African literature.

Sub-Saharan Africa developed a written literature during the nineteenth

and early twentieth centuries. This development came as a result of
missionaries coming to the area to build churches and language schools in
order to translate religious texts. This led to Africans writing in both
European and indigenous languages.
Though African literature’s history is as long as it is rich, most of the
popular works have come out since 1950, especially the noteworthy Things
Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe. However, looking beyond the most recent
works is necessary to understand the complete development of this
collection of literature.

The themes identity and differences were chosen for this chapter as these
are topics that are universally easy to relate with. On the other hand, the
themes depression and uncertainty about the future are themes that may
not necessarily be unique to Africa, but are considered to be of biggest
concerns to its people, yet easily relatable to most teens, regardless of
background.

“My Black is Beautiful (Woman)” and “My Black is Beautiful (Man),” by

Naomi Johnson (2012), “A Private Experience,” by Chimamanda Ngozi
Adichie (2009), “Inscape” by Yaa Gyasi (2015), and “War for God” by
Zaynab Quadri (2016) were selected as these poems and short stories best
reflect the different themes determined for this chapter.

Literature from Australia and the Pacific

By Doane April Chungalao

Australian Literature covers works not only those coming from the
European settlers, but also those of the indigenous tribes of the country, or
the Aborigines. Many Australian literature feature a strong sense of values
in the country that promote tradition and the celebration of the ethnic
culture. Some of the themes focus on the individual experiences of people
in the community, but also showcase a way of representation and
symbolism of issues of the country. Although the country is rediscovering
most of its classic literature, contemporary writings are celebrated just as
much.

The story “If You Don’t Like It” by Alejandra Martinez and the award-
winning poem “Wasteland” by David Campbell present a look into two
individuals’ everyday Australian lives, but also depict a characteristically
Aussie point of view on differences in race, age, and life lived down under.

Oceanic Literature presents a look into stories of the Pacific Islands. Most
available downloadable sources consist of the myths and legends of the
Pacific Islands that are popular in the international scene, such as “The
Legends of Maui.” However, many of the contemporary Oceanic literature
are hard to find and rarely appear as free sources over the internet.

As it is a struggle to support Oceanic literature, a number of Pacific Island

authors and writers promote other forms of contemporary literature to raise
awareness of the cultures of the Pacific Islands. The poems “I am Hine, I
am Moana” by Tina Ngata and “Prescribed Fire” by William Nu’utupu Giles
focus on identity and celebrate ethnicity while addressing the struggle of
many Pacific Islanders to promote truth about their practices and their
beliefs.\

Literature from North America

By Rhoda Mae Corda

Just like the case of other national literatures, North American literature
was shaped by the history of the country that produced it. For more than a
century, America was merely a group of colonies scattered along the
eastern seaboard of the North American continent where a few mission-
strapped souls ventured westward. After a successful rebellion against the
motherland, America became the United States, a nation. By the end of the
19th century this nation extended southward to the Gulf of Mexico,
northward to the 49th parallel, and westward to the Pacific. By the end of
the 19th century, it had taken its place among the powers of the world –
inevitably becoming involved in two world wars, alaong with the problems
of Europe and East Asia. Meanwhile, the rise of science and industry, as
well as changes in ways of thinking and feeling, wrought many
modifications in people’s lives. All these factors in the development of the
United States molded the literature of the country (GIles, Blair, and
Dickstein 2017).

The themes identity and differences were chosen for this chapter as these
are topics that are universally easy to relate with. On the other hand, the
themes bullying and the American Dream are themes that may not
necessarily be unique to North America, but are considered to be of biggest
concerns to its people, yet easily relatable to most teens, regardless of
background.

“It Is Important To Be Something” by Joshua Jennifer Espinoza (2015),

“Twin Study” by Stacey Richter (2007), “The Bully” by Roger Dean Kiser
(2014), “Mango Poem” by Regie Cabico (2014), and “This is America” by
Donald Glover (2018) were nominated as these poems and short stories
best reflect the different themes selected for this chapter.

Literature from Europe

Literature from Europe is what is generally classified as Western literature.
This is literature written in the context of Western culture in the languages
of Europe, including the ones belonging to the Indo-European language
family as well as several geographically or historically related languages
such as Basque and Hungarian. Western literature is considered one of the
defining elements of Western civilization. Western literature includes written
works in many languages.

It is impossible to speak of European literature without going into British

literature, or literature from the United Kingdom, as the famous “canonical
works,” such as the likes of Shakespeare, all came from this nation. But
Europe is so much more than just Great Britain, and as the continent
undergoes current upheavals in its governing structures, its literature
functions as a tool to both find a space for the individual stories each
country has to tell and work to unite a vulnerable Europe.
The selections in this unit took care to include writings from Eastern to
Western Europe, in order to maximize representation — after all, one
people’s and one country’s experiences are vastly different from the others.

Representing the more well-known European countries is the pseudonym

writer Elena Ferrante from Italy, with an excerpt from The Story of the Lost
Child, the fourth book in a series called the Neapolitan Novels. Another
excerpt comes from Bulgarian author Miroslav Penkov’s Stork
Mountain that tells of a homecoming, while young Catalan writer Núria
Añó’s short story, “2066. Beginning the age of correction,” shows a radical,
dystopian future. Rounding out the selections is Neil Gaiman, fondly
dubbed the “rock star” of modern British literature, with a poem entitled,
“The Day the Saucers Came,” from a collection of his short stories.

Literature from Latin America

Latin American literature is the national literatures of the Spanish-speaking
countries of the Western Hemisphere. Historically, it also includes the
literary expression of the highly developed American Indian civilizations
conquered by the Spaniards. Over the years, Latin American literature has
developed a rich and complex diversity of themes, forms, creative idioms,
and styles.

During the first half of the 20th century, Latin American literature saw many
poets gaining recognition, among them Gabriela Mistral, Pablo Neruda, and
Octavio Paz, who all won Nobel Prizes. The genre saw a “boom” in the
1960s, with the likes of Gabriel Garcia Marquez and Julio Cortazar gaining
worldwide recognition, the former also winning a Nobel Prize. But perhaps
one of the most significant developments in literature from Latin America in
the latter part of the 20th century was the emergence of a host of
recognized women writers, such as Isabel Allende.

Since then, Latin American writers have broken away from the magical
realism that dominated writings of the region in attempts to look for
something original, turning instead to more “realistic” issues and methods
of capturing them. Contemporary Latin literature is now being shaped by
younger writers whose voices and manner of speaking are arguably a far
cry from their predecessors.

This unit attempts to encapsulate a balanced representation of the richness

and diversity of modern Latin American literature and culture, choosing
selected writers from both Central and South America, and who write in
either Spanish, Portuguese, French, Creole or English. Two of the writers
are female, and two are male, all of whom speak for and with the language
of shared experiences and the experiences that are unique to the region.

Included here are Dominican Latina writer Julia Alvarez with an excerpt
from her novel, In the Name of Salome, rising contemporary literature star
Yuri Herrera from Mexico with an excerpt from his groundbreaking
novel, Signs Preceding the End of the World, Pulitzer Prize-winning Junot
Diaz with one of his earlier short stories, “How to Date a Brown Girl (black
girl,white girl, or halfie),” and Haitian Edwidge Danticat’s short story,
“Ghosts.”

U N I T I : L I T E R A T U R E F R O M AS I A AN D T H E M I D D L E E AS T
Module 1: Identity

Text: Short Story, “The Mirror” by

Haruki Murakami
Supplementary Reading:
The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde

Module 2: Differences

Text: Poem, “Khamsin on the Hills” by

Elisha Porat

Module 3: Environmental Issues

I am silver and exact. I have no preconceptions.
Whatever I see I swallow immediately
Just as it is, unmisted by love or dislike.
I am not cruel, only truthful ‚
The eye of a little god, four-cornered.
Most of the time I meditate on the opposite wall.
It is pink, with speckles. I have looked at it so long
I think it is part of my heart. But it flickers.
Faces and darkness separate us over and over.
 Text: Short Story, “Dust on the Mountain” by
Ruskin Bond

Supplementary Reading:
The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers by J.R.R. Tolkien

Module 4: War, Spirituality, and Decision-Making

Text: Short Story, “The Abandoned Village”

by Hassan Blasim
Media for Activities:
Film Viewing, “The Others (2001)“

U N I T I I : L I T E R AT U R E F R O M AF R I C A
Module 1: Identity

Text: Poems, “My Black is Beautiful

(Woman)” and “My Black is Beautiful (Man)” by Naomi Johnson
Supplementary Reading:
“Everyday Use” by Alice Walker

Module 2: Differences

Text: Short Story, “A Private

Experience” by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie

Media for Activities:

Film Viewing, “Hotel Rwanda (2004)”

Supplementary Reading:
“The Sack” by Namwali Serpell

Module 3: Depression
 Text: Short Story, “Inscape” by Yaa Gyasi

Module 4: Facing the Future

Text: Short Story, “War for God” by Zaynab

Quadri

U N I T I I I : L I T E R AT U R E F R O M AU S T R AL I A AN D
T H E P AC I F I C
Module 1: Identity
 Text: Poem, “Prescribed Fire” by William
Nu’utupu Giles

Module 2: Differences

Text: Short Story, “If You Don’t Like It

Leave” by Alejandra Martinez

Media for Activities:

History of immigration from Uruguay

Module 3: Women’s Representation

Text: Poem, “I am Hine, I am Moana” by Tina Ngata

Media for Activities:

Poetry reading, “I am Hine, I am Moana”
Film Viewing, “Moana (2016)”

Module 4: Family and History

Text: Poem, “Wasteland” by David Campbell

Media for Activities:

History of Australia and Captain James Cook
U N I T I V : L I T E R AT U R E F R O M E U R O P E
Module 1: Identity

Text: Excerpt from The Story of the Lost

Child by Elena Ferrante

Supplementary Reading:
Neapolitan Novels by Elena Ferrante
Module 2: Differences

Text: Excerpt from Stork

Mountain by Miroslav Penkov

Media for Activities:

The Tower of Babel
Use Google Translate

Supplementary Reading:
Watch Korean Dramas

Module 3: Science and Technology

Text: Short Story, “2066.

Beginning the age of correction” by Núria Añó

Supplementary Reading:
Watch television shows “The 100” or “Altered Carbon”

Module 4: Unity and the European Union

 Text: Poem, “The Day the
Saucers Came” by Neil Gaiman

Media for Activities:

Read on the European Union

Supplementary Reading:
Read on mythologies of the world

U N I T V : L I T E R AT U R E F R O M N O R T H AM E R I C A
Module 1: Identity

Text: Poem, “It Is Important To Be

Something” by Joshua Jennifer Espinoza

Supplementary Reading:
“The Fat Girl” by Andre Dubus
Module 2: Differences

Text: Short Story, “Twin Study” by Stacey

Richter

Supplementary Reading:
Two Kinds by Amy Tan

Module 3: Bullying

Text: Short Story, “The Bully” by Roger

Dean Kiser
Supplementary Reading:
Read the poem “Words Hurt”

Module 4: The American Dream

Text: Poem, “Mango Poem” by Regie Cabico
Media for Activities:
Listen to the song “This is America” by Donald Glover/Childish
Gambino

Supplementary Reading:
“In the American Society” by Gish Jen

U N I T V I : L I T E R AT U R E F R O M L AT I N AM E R I C A
Module 1: Identity
 Text: Excerpt from In the Name
of Salome by Julia Alvarez

Supplementary Reading:
Read the entire novel, In the Name of Salome by Julia Alvarez

Module 2: Differences

Text: Excerpt from Signs Preceding the

End of the World by Yuri Herrera

Supplementary Reading:
Film Viewing, “Under the Same Moon (2007),” or “Desierto
(2015)”
How the Garcia Girls Lost their Accents by Julia Alvarez

Module 3: Race and Relationships

 Text: Short Story, “How to Date a Brown
Girl (black girl, white girl, or halfie)” by Junot Díaz

Supplementary Reading:
Find a women’s or men’s magazine that has a “how-to” article

Module 4: Drugs, Poverty and Violence

Text: Short Story, “Ghosts” by Edwidge

Danticat
Media for Activities:
Film Viewing, “On the Job (2013)”

Supplementary Reading:
History of Haiti

Mythology of the Ancient World

ancient-mythology.com provides a reference to the many
stories that have been formed by peoples from all over the Earth,
throughout all of time—from the fascinating legends and myths of
the Greeks to the warrior gods in Norse mythology. The
mythology and religion of a civilization says a lot about its people:
explore the history of the world through the stories people
told.www.Writing-Expert.com helps with academic papers.

Biblical Stories
The Bible …
Celtic Mythology
Excalibur, Mabinogion, King Arthur …
Egyptian Mythology
Ra, Set, Osiris …
Greek Mythology
Zeus, Hades, Poseiden, Oedipus …
Japanese Mythology
Amaterasu, Izangi, Susano …
Mayan Mythology
2012, Kukulkan, Popol Vuh …
Mesopotamian Mythology
Anu, Sin, Marduk, Tiamat …
Norse Mythology
Odin, Thor, Ragnarok …
Roman Mythology
Jupiter, Saturn, Mars …
Zoroastrianism
Ahura Mazdah, Ahriman, Zarathushtra …

ancient-mythology.com

The Bible

The pages listed below constitute the entire text of the King
James Version of the Bible, including both the Old and New
Testaments.

The Old Testament of the King James Bible

 Genesis
 Exodus
 Leviticus
 Numbers
 Deuteronomy
 Joshua
 Judges
 Ruth
 First Book of Samuel (or The First Book of the Kings)
 Second Book of Samuel (or The Second Book of the Kings)
 First Book of the Kings (or The Third Book of the Kings)
 Second Book of the Kings (or The Fourth Book of the Kings)
 First Book of the Chronicles
 Second Book of the Chronicles
 Ezra
 Nehemiah
 Esther
 Job
 Psalms
 Proverbs
 Ecclesiastes (or The Preacher)
 Song of Solomon
 Isaiah
 Jeremiah
 Lamentations of Jeremiah
 Ezekiel
 Daniel
 Hosea
 Joel
 Amos
 Obadiah
 Jonah
 Micah
 Nahum
 Habakkuk
 Zephaniah
  Haggai
 Zechariah
 Malachi
The New Testament of the King James Bible

 Matthew
 Mark
 Luke
 John
 The Acts of the Apostles
 The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans
 The First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians
 The Second Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians
 The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Galatians
 The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Ephesians
 The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Philippians
 The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Colossians
 The First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Thessalonians
 The Second Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Thessalonians
 The First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to Timothy
 The Second Epistle of Paul the Apostle to Timothy
 The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to Titus
 The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to Philemon
 The General Epistle of James
  The First Epistle General of Peter
 The Second General Epistle of Peter
 The First Epistle General of John
 The Second Epistle General of John
 The Third Epistle General of John
 The General Epistle of Jude
 Revelations (The Revelation of Saint John the Devine)

The King James Version of The Bible

*
A brief note concerning The Bible's presence on a mythology
site

Celtic Mythology

Unlike the well-established religions of Greece, Rome and Egypt,

Celtic myth is more localized, with no universal pantheon.
References have been found to over 400 Celtic gods and
goddesses, many of whom were only recognized by small cults.

At one time, the Celts were spread throughout Europe as far as

Asia minor (modern Turkey). The Celts even occupied Rome for a
time, before the rise of the Roman Empire, and although they
were eventually brought into the Roman Empire, the Celtic people
maintained their own religious practices even after the spread of
Christianity.

During the Roman era, Celtic-speaking people inhabited Gaul, a

vast area of Europe where France, Belgium, Switzerland and
some surrounding areas are now located.

Much of the Celtic population merged with Roman and German

cultures, while others survived in the modern Celtic nations
around the British isles: Scotland, Ireland, Wales, the Isle of Man,
Cornwall and Brittany. Some Celtic populations also remain
elsewhere in England and Spain, while others migrated to the
Americas, in regions such as Cape Breton in Nova Scotia,
Canada.

Celtic Mythologies

 Gaulish Mythology
 Irish Mythology
 Scottish Mythology
Celtic Mythology Articles

 Arthur
 Excalibur
 Lugus
 The Mabinogion
 Owain
 Taranis

Egyptian Mythology

Ancient Egyptian religion focuses largely on nature, beginning

with the worship of animals. Animals were believed to represent
the gods, who were imagined by individual tribes in early Egypt.
Gradually, these sacred gods began to take human form with
more distinct characteristics, but most continued to be depicted
with the head of an animal.

Early Egyptians believed that Earth was a large disc. The flat
center was Egypt, and the mountain areas surrounding Egypt
were the rim of the disc. The heavenly skies existed above the
disc, and underneath was deep water, the underworld of the
Egyptians.

There are several creation myths of early Egypt. Some say that
the god Ptah created the universe through thought alone, others
say that the god Khnum created the disc of the world on a potter's
wheel. The most popular myth, though, involved Ra appearing out
of chaos and creating the cosmos through the birth of other gods.

 Amon
 Atum
 Book of the Dead
 Duat
 Geb
 Hathor
 Horus
 Isis
 Neith
 Nut
 Osiris
 Ptah
 Ra
 Serapis
 Set
 Geb
 Tefnut
 Thoth

Greek Mythology
The ancient Greeks created a vast mythology which has found its
way into the western psyche, and much of popular culture. The
numerous stories surrounding mythological figures in ancient
Greece shaped the lives of the people of ancient Greece, and
later Rome. Greek mythology is sometimes known as Classical
Mythology, especially when referred to in conjunction with Roman
myths.

The following is a list of the ancient greek gods, heroes and other
topics related to greek mythology.

 Agamemnon
 Ajax
 The Amazons
 Anteros
 Aphrodite
 Apollo
 Ares
 Artemis
 Athena
 Atlas
 Cerberus
 Chaos
 Clytemnestra
 Demeter
 Dike
 Dionysus
 Electra
 Eros
 The Fates
 The Furies
 Gaea
 The Gorgons
 Hades
 Helen
 Hephaistos
 Hera
 Heracles
 Hermes
 Homer
 The Iliad
 Io
 Kronos
 Laocoön
 Leto
 Medusa
 Minotaur
 The Odyssey
 Oedipus
 Oedipus Rex
 Ouranos
 Pandora
 Persephone
 Phoenix
 Poseidon
 Prometheus
 Rhea
 Sirens
 Sisyphus
 Themis
 The Titans
 Trojan War
 Zeus
Other articles

 Greek god and goddess names

Japanese Mythology

Japanese Mythology is largely derived from the state religion of

Shinto. While Buddhism has overtaken much of Japan, many
people still practice Shinto, mostly for tradition rather than actual
belief in the surrounding mythology.

 Amaterasu
 Izangi and Izanami
 the Orochi
 Shinto
 Susano
 Tsukiyomi

Mayan Mythology

The Maya are a native Mesoamerican civilization. Prior to the

arrival of European explorers and conquerors, the Mayan
civilization extended from southern Mexico across Central
America, with heavy concentration in the Yucatán Peninsula.

The area of the Maya first became inhabited around the tenth
century BCE. Despite the fact that the Mayan long-count calendar
(which is responsible for the 2012 speculation) begins in 3114
BCE, the development of clearly Mayan culture seems to begin at
about 1800 BCE. During the Classic Period, from 250–900 CE,
the Mayan population grew quickly and urbanized, organizing
themselves into city-states not unlike those of ancient Greece.

Towards the end of the Classic period, the Maya suffered a

decline. The possible reasons for this collapse include
overpopulation, revolt, war, disease and drought, and are not
widely agreed upon. Afterwards, the cities began to build again,
and several on the Yucatan Peninsula united under single rule for
a time.

The first contact between the Spanish and the Maya occured in
1511, and within 40 years the Spanish had conquered the Mayan
territory, as they had done with the Aztecs. Christianity has since
become the dominant religion in the area, but many surviving
Maya continue to value some of the traditional beliefs of the
Mayan culture.

Of all of the cultures native to the Americas prior to European

contact, the Maya are the only one with a fully-developed written
language. The Maya had a great deal of interaction with other
Mesoamerican civilizations, and as a result, their myths have
much in common with the mythology of the Aztecs and other
Mesoamerican religions.

 2012
 Huracan
 Kukulkan
 Popol Vuh

Mesopotamian Mythology

Mesopotamian mythology is essentially the combination of the

ancient Babylonian, Assyrian, Akkadian and Sumerian myths.
Each of these peoples developed their own religions, but due to
their proximity to one another, their mythology became intertwined
and are collectively presented in this section. Mesopotamian
mythology was also influenced by other surrounding cultures,
including the Hittites and the Phoenicians. Given this diverse
background, some areas of Mesopotamian myth are inconsistent,
as some groups and tribes held to some of their original beliefs,
while incorporating some of others.
The region once known as Mesopotamia is the area of
southwestern Asia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, an
area that is now modern-day Iraq. It is estimated that humans first
settled in the region before 5000 BCE. One of the most significant
areas of human civilization, Mesopotamia's importance went
down when its large irrigation system was destroyed by the
Mongols in 1258 CE. This area gave birth to many of the world's
modern religions, Islam, Judaism and Christianity, all of which are
rooted in these ancient religions.

 Abgal
 Apsu
 Anu
 Dagon
 Ea
 Enlil
 Enuma Elish
 Gilgamesh
 Ishtar
 Marduk
 Nabu
 Nimah
 Ningizzida
 Scorpion Men, The
 Shamash
 Sin
 Tiamat
 Zu

Norse Mythology

Norse Mythology (also Germanic, Nordic or Scandinavian

Mythology) is the mythology of Scandinavian peoples. Like many
ancient mythologies, the Norse myths were handed down verbally
for many years. Most of our understanding of Norse myths comes
from later recordings of the stories into written word.

The Norse people considered two major classes of gods: the Æsir
and the Vanir, as well as several other mythical beings, including
giants. Norse Mythology centers largely around the approaching
catastrophic doom of the gods, Ragnarok. All the Norse gods
know that Ragnarok is coming. They know what will happen, that
they (and their enemies) will die. Norse Mythology is somewhat
unique in this respect — the gods’ ultimate destiny on the
battlefield is a tribute to the warrior’s pride of the Vikings.

 Æsir
 Angrboda
 Bestla
 Bor
 Buri
 Einherjar
 Fenrir
 Fjorgyn
 Freyja
 Jormungand
 Loki
 Njord
 Odin
 Ragnarok
 Snorri Sturlson
 Thor
 Tyr
 Valhalla
 Vanir
  Ve
 Vigrid Plain
 Vili

Roman Mythology

The people of Rome adopted much of their pre-Christian religion

from the myths of the Hellenes (ancient Greeks). Although they
were their conquerers, the Romans recognized the many virtues
of Greek civilization and incorporated much of their culture,
including Greek mythologyinto their own. It’s thanks, in part, to the
Romans for the survival of Greek stories into the modern era, as
the Romans brought this tradition with them as they conquered
Europe, Northern Africa and Asia Minor.

Roman mythology, or Latin mythology, is a blend of ancient

Greek myths and existing religions of ancient Italy, including early
Roman and Etruscan civilizations. The mythology was reshaped
and expanded over the years by the great population of the
Roman Empire.

Roman gods, goddesses and figures

 Cupid
 The Furies
 Hercules
 Janus
 Juno
 Jupiter
 Justitia
 Mars
 Mercury
 Neptune
 Ops
  Pax
 Penates
 Quirinus
 Romulus and Remus
 Saturn
 Sol
 Tellus
 Venus
 Vulcan
Other articles

 Roman names for Greek gods

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism is an early monotheist religion that was founded

by Zarathushtra (Zoroaster to Greece, Zarthosht to India and
Persia). Zorostrianism religion is based on the Avesta, ancient
scriptures written in old Iranian which have been corrupted and
damaged over time. The religion is estimated to have begun
sometime around 1500 BCE.

Zoroastrianism appears to have begun as a spiritual expression of

a peaceful group of people in Persia, modern day Iran, who called
themselves people of righteousness (asha). These people had
enemies, a polytheist majority which they referred to as the
People of the Lie (druj). In its origins, Zoroastrianism began with a
single divine spirit, Ahura Mazdah. Gradually, six dieties were
named as aspects of Ahura Mazdah (called the Amesha
Spentas). As time went on, these abstract representations of the
single god were personnified in many texts, somewhat like
archangels. The Zoroastrian gods had opposing evil spirits with
whom they were constantly at war. The leader of these spirits was
known as Ahriman.
Zoroastrianism had some influence on Judaism, and
consequently, Christianity over the years. In 650 CE, Islamic
Arabs invaded Persia and many of the Zoroastrian followers fled
to India. An estimated 140,000 people still practice Zoroastrianism
today, mostly within India, but several remain in Iran, and some
have spread across to North America.

 Ahura Mazdah
 Avesta
 Ahriman
 Zarathushtra

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