Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
SUBJECT NOTES
TABLE OF CONTENT
S. No Content Page No
1 Unit I Introduction to Urban Design 03-16
2 Unit II Historic Urban Form 17-49
3 Unit III Theorising and Urban Space 50-63
4 Unit IV Issues of Urban Space 64-90
5 Unit V Best Practices in Urban Design 91-100
6 List of Figures &Key Words 101-103
8 Previous Year Anna University Question Papers 104-105
9 Important 2 marks & 16 marks 106-107
Course description
In this semester students will learn about various vocabulary in urban design and related fields.
Students will learn about elements of urban design and it inter relation. Macro to micro scale linkages of
these elements. Various urban form and its evolution in different parts of the world. Urban design theories
of Jane Jacob, William Whyte, Kevin Lynch, Aldo Rossi & Gordon Cullen. They will explore about
various urban issues and solutions related to it. In the end chapter students will go through some case
studies in urban design and development.
Overall this subject will help the students to interrupt the settlements which they will doing in
their urban design studio.
Marks description
S. No Assessment Weightage (%)
1 Internal- I 20
3 External 80
Total 100
Internal-I
Assessment for this will be done through the Internal test, Mid-Term test, Class assignments and Model
exam conducted.
External
Through University examination conducted at the end of the semester.
SYLLABUS
TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
OUTCOMES
The students understood the role of urban design as a discipline, and its role in understanding and
interpreting a city. Various reading methods were explored, to understand the historical as well as present
urban form. They also looked at addressing urban design issues in terms of awareness creation as well as
with possible ways to address them.
REQUIRED READING:
1. A.E.J. Morris, “History of Urban Form before the Industrial Revolution”, Prentice Hall, 1996
2. Edmund Bacon , “Design of Cities”, Penguin, 1976
3. Gordon Cullen, “The Concise Townscape”, The Architectural Press, 1978
4. Michelle Provoost et al., Dutchtown, NAI Publishers, Rotterdam, 1999
5. “Time Saver Standards for Urban Design”, Donald natson, McGraw Hill, 2003.
6. Kevin Lynch, “The Image of the City”, MIT Press, 1960.
7. Rithchie.A, “Sustainable Urban Design:AnEnvironmentalApproach”, Taylor & Francis, 2000.
Components of urban space and their interdependencies- outline of issues/ aspects of urban space
and articulation of need for urban design- scope and objectives of urban design as a discipline.
ORIGINS
❖ Town’ is a noun and ‘town design’ would be the art of designing a physical object. One of the
UK’s
❖ modernist architect-planner-landscape architects (Sir Frederick Gibberd) wrote a book on
Town Design
❖ A ‘City’ is a place where people, and buildings, behave in ‘civil’, ‘polite’ or ‘considerate’
manner to each other
❖ ‘Urban’ (from the Latin urbs, meaning city), is an adjective so that ‘urban design’ is the art of
making a place more ‘city-like’
❖ ‘Urban Design’ is more process than product
❖ Therefore, URBAN DESIGN is not = TOWN DESIGN
➢ Urban design is concerned with the arrangement, appearance and function of our suburbs, towns
and cities. It is both a process and an outcome of creating localities in which people live, engage
with each other, and engage with the physical place around them.
➢ Urban design involves many different disciplines including planning, development, architecture,
landscape architecture, engineering, economics, law and finance, among others.
➢ Urban design operates at many scales, from the macro scale of the urban structure (planning,
zoning, and transport and infrastructure networks) to the micro scale of street furniture and lighting.
➢ When fully integrated into policy and planning systems, urban design can be used to inform land
use planning, infrastructure, built form and even the socio-demographic mix of a place.
➢ Urban design can influence the economic success and socio-economic composition of a locality—
whether it encourages local businesses and entrepreneurship; whether it attracts people to live
there; whether the costs of housing and travel are affordable; and whether access to job
opportunities, facilities and services are equitable.
➢ Urban design determines the physical scale, space and ambience of a place and establishes the built
and natural forms within which individual buildings and infrastructure are sited. As such, it affects
the balance between natural ecosystems and built environments, and their sustainability outcomes.
➢ Urban design can influence health and the social and cultural impacts of a locality: how people
interact with each other, how they move around, and how they use a place.
➢ Although urban design is often delivered as a specific ‘project’, it is in fact a long-term process
that continues to evolve over time. It is this layering of building and infrastructure types, natural
ecosystems, communities and cultures that gives places their unique characteristics and identities.
➢ The approximate hierarchical relationship between the elements of urban design, followed by a
brief definition of each of the elements. The section below provides basic explanations for terms
that are commonly used for urban design in the Australian context.
URBAN STRUCTURE
The overall framework of a region, town or precinct, showing relationships between zones of built
forms, land forms, natural environments, activities and open spaces. It encompasses broader systems
including transport and infrastructure networks.
These are like the nervous system of human body, which circulates blood and other nutrients. Urban
structure will decide the better connectivity in the city.
URBAN GRAIN
The balance of open space to build form, and the nature and extent of subdividing an area into
smaller parcels or blocks. For example, a ‘fine urban grain’ might constitute a network of small or detailed
streetscapes. It takes into consideration the hierarchy of street types, the physical linkages and movement
between locations, and modes of transport.
DENSITY + MIX
The intensity of development and the range of different uses (such as residential, commercial, institutional
or recreational uses).
HEIGHT + MASSING
The scale of buildings in relation to height and floor area, and how they relate to surrounding land forms,
buildings and streets. It also incorporates building envelope, site coverage and solar orientation. Height
and massing create the sense of openness or enclosure, and affect the amenity of streets, spaces and other
buildings.
The design of public spaces such as streets, opens spaces and pathways, and includes landscaping,
microclimate, shading and planting.
The scale of buildings in relation to height and floor area, and how they relate to surrounding land forms,
buildings and streets. It also incorporates building envelope, site coverage and solar orientation. Height
and massing create the sense of openness or enclosure, and affect the amenity of streets, spaces and other
buildings.
FACADE + INTERFACE
The relationship of buildings to the site, street and neighbouring buildings (alignment, setbacks, boundary
treatment) and the architectural expression of their facades (projections, openings, patterns and materials).
DETAILS + MATERIALS
The close-up appearance of objects and surfaces and the selection of materials in terms of detail,
craftsmanship, texture, colour, durability, sustainability and treatment. It includes street furniture, paving,
lighting and signage. It contributes to human comfort, safety and enjoyment of the public domain.
PUBLIC REALM
Much of urban design is concerned with the design and management of publicly used space (also referred
to as the public realm or public domain) and the way this is experienced and used.
The public realm includes the natural and built environment used by the general public on a day-to-day
basis such as streets, plazas, parks, and public infrastructure. Some aspects of privately-owned space such
as the bulk and scale of buildings, or gardens that are visible from the public realm, can also contribute to
the overall result.
At times, there is a blurring of public and private realms, particularly where privately-owned space is
publicly used.
SCALE
The size, bulk and perception of a buildings and spaces. Bulk refers to the height, width and depth of a
building in relation to other surrounding buildings, the street, setbacks and surrounding open space. For
example, a large building set amongst other smaller buildings may seem ‘out of scale’.
URBAN FORM
The arrangement of a built-up area. This arrangement is made up of many components including how
close buildings and uses are together; what uses are located where; and how much of the natural
environment is a part of the built-up area.
BUILDINGS
Buildings are the most pronounced elements of urban design - they shape and articulate space by forming
the street walls of the city.
Well-designed buildings and groups of buildings work together to create a sense of place.
PUBLIC SPACE
Great public spaces are the living room of the city - the place where people come together to enjoy the
city and each other.
Public spaces make high quality life in the city possible - they form the stage and backdrop to the drama
of life. Public spaces range from grand central plazas and squares, to small, local neighbourhood parks.
STREETS
Streets are the connections between spaces and places, as well as being spaces themselves.
They are defined by their physical dimension and character as well as the size, scale, and character of the
buildings that line them.
Streets range from grand avenues such as the Champs-Elysees in Paris to small, intimate pedestrian streets.
The pattern of the street network is part of what defines a city and what makes each city unique.
TRANSPORT
Transport systems connect the parts of cities and help shape them, and enable movement throughout the
city. The balance of these various transport systems is what helps define the quality and character of cities,
and makes them either friendly or hostile to pedestrians.
The best cities are the ones that elevate the experience of the pedestrian while minimizing the dominance
of the private automobile.
The landscape helps define the character and beauty of a city and creates soft, contrasting spaces and
elements.
Green spaces in cities range from grand parks such as Central Park in New York City and the Washington
DC Mall, to small intimate pocket parks.
The creative articulation of space is the most prominent aspect of urban design. The following artistic
principles are an integral part of creating form and spatial definition
• Order, Unity
• Balance, Proportion
• Scale, Hierarchy
• Symmetry, Rhythm
• Contrast, Context
• Detail, Texture
• Harmony, Beauty
Key elements of an urban design plan include the plan itself, the preparation of design guidelines
for buildings, the design of the public realm - the open space, streets, sidewalks, and plazas between and
around buildings and the public interest issues of buildings. These include massing, placement, sun,
shadow, and wind issues.
Urban design plans are prepared for various areas, including downtowns, waterfronts, campuses,
corridors, neighbourhoods, mixed-use developments, and special districts. Issues to be considered include
existing development, proposed development, utility infrastructure, streets framework, and sustainable
development principles.
Urban design plans require interdisciplinary collaboration among urban designers, architects,
landscape architects, planners, civil and environmental engineers, and market analysts.
The City of Baton Rouge, through the implementation of the Horizon Plan, has taken some bold steps to
preserve and enhance the appearance of the community through the adoption of sign, landscape, and
lighting ordinances. Additional elements addressed by urban design include parking and service areas,
transportation, building orientation, building materials, and fencing, which can increase property values.
The broad goal of urban design is to provide opportunities, behavioural and aesthetic, for all the
citizens of and visitors to a city or one of its precincts. These opportunities have to be accessible. What,
however, should the opportunities be and how does one deal with accessibility? Who decides? The
marketplace? The public policy question is ‘How far should the public sector intervene in the marketplace
in providing opportunities for what range of people?’ and then ‘How accessible should the opportunities
be?’ ‘For whom?’ ‘People in wheelchairs?’
Secondarily, if one accepts Maslow’s model, there is a need for people to feel comfortable in
engaging in the activities they desire and that are regarded by society as acceptable. Comfort has both
physiological and psychological dimensions. The concern is with the nature of the microclimate and with
the provision of feelings of safety and security as people go about their lives. Safety and security are
related to feelings of control over one’s privacy levels and over the behaviour of others towards one. How
much privacy are we prepared to give up in order to feel safe because we are under public surveillance?
Safety concerns are also related to the segregation of pedestrians from vehicular traffic flows and the
construction quality of the environment around us.
One design concern is to enhance the ambience of links (streets, arcades and sidewalks) and places
(squares, parks and roofs). The ambience of places and links is related to the provision of a sense of
security as well as to feelings of self-worth and being part of a worthwhile society. Ambience is also
related to the aesthetic qualities of a place, its layout and illumination, the activities that are taking place
there, and to the people engaged in them.
The artificial world does not exist in a vacuum. It exists in terrestrial niches formed by the climate,
geology, and flora and fauna of a place. One of the objectives of urban design is certainly to ensure that
this niche is not destroyed. The concern is, or should be, with improving its quality so that it functions
better as a self-sustaining system that, in return, enriches human experiences.
Urban design has replaced the "civic design" which dealt primarily with city halls, museums, streets,
boulevards, parks and other open spaces since 1960s. However, there is not a consensus about the
definition and boundaries of urban design.
Urban Design is,
• The process of giving physical design direction to urban growth, conservation, and change
• The design of cities - 'a grand design'
• The interface between architecture, landscape and town planning
• The complex relationships between all the elements of built and unbuilt space (DoE, 1996)
• The architecture of public space
Some theoreticians rather not to describe urban design but to explain what it is not:
• It is not land use policy, sign controls, and street lighting districts.
• It is not strictly utopian or procedural.
• It is not necessarily a plan for downtown, however architectonic, nor a subdivision regulation.
Descriptions explained above suggest that there is no easy, single, agreed definition of urban design.
However, we can determine the general framework of urban design.
The basis for a framework defining urban design can be grouped under six main headings according
to The Institute for Urban Design (IUD)’s criteria:
1. Historic preservation and urban conservation
2. Design for pedestrians
3. Vitality and variety of use
4. The cultural environment
5. Environmental context
6. Architectural values
Goals and principles describing urban design can be grouped under eight major headings:
•Place,
• Density,
• Mixed and compatible uses,
• Pedestrianization and human scale,
• Human culture,
• Public realm,
• Built environment
• Natural environment
• For example, when Kevin Lynch saw urban design as a branch of architecture Michael Southworth on
the other hand thought urban design as a branch of urban planning.
"It is easier to talk about urban design than to write about it… In between (planning and architecture), but
belonging neither to one nor the other, lies the magic world of urban design. We can recognize it by its
absence. It is inferred, suggested, felt."
• Another commentator Jonathan Barnett also recognizes the crucial role of urban design between the
urban planning and architecture.
"What is the difference between an urban designer and urban planner, or between an urban
designer and an architect?
An urban planner was someone who was primarily concerned with the allocation of resources according
to projections of future need. Planners tend to regard land use as a distribution of resources problem,
parceling out land, for zoning purposes, without much knowledge of its three-dimensional characteristics,
or the nature of the building that may be placed on it in the future. The result is that most zoning
ordinances and official land use plans produce stereotyped and unimaginative buildings.
Architect, on the other hand, designs buildings. A good architect will do all he can to relate the building
he is designing to its surroundings, but he has no control over what happens off the property he has been
hired to considered.
There is a substantial middle ground between these professions, and each has some claim to it, but neither
fills it very well. Land use planning would clearly be improved if it involved someone who understands
three-dimensional design. On the other hand, someone is needed to design the city, not just the buildings.
Therefore, there was a need for someone who could be called an urban designer."
The quality of the urban landscape is a major contributor to perceptions of the qualities of cities.
A city’s physical character is defined by the nature of its streets, squares and other open spaces in terms
of how they are shaped by enclosing elements (Goldfinger, 1942). The biological health of cities depends
on the interactions between the natural and the artificial. Few landscape architects since the era of Olmsted
have, however, engaged themselves in urban design. They have tended to shy away from dealing with
more than designing open spaces. They have been concerned only with select types of products (see
Chapter 5).
Architects, as architects, too have looked at urban design in terms of specific types of products:
buildings as objects rather than as space makers (see Chapter 6). The leadership in developing urban design
as a professional field has, nevertheless, come from architects with broader concerns. They have been
interested in the design of complexes of buildings, and what cities and neighbourhoods might be like.
Some of their ideas and conceptual schemes have been based on rationalist thought and others on empirical
observations about cities. Still other architects have, however, been highly pragmatic. They have been
concerned only with how to get projects initiated and carried through. Some of the projects reviewed here
may have been whimsical ego-trips but most, I would argue, have been based on a sense of idealism.
Part of the difficulty in defining the scope of urban design today is that each of the professions wants to
claim it as its own. Architectural societies give urban design awards to single buildings, landscape
architects to squares, and city planners to a wide variety of items. Urban design, however, involves all
these matters, not individually but in concert. It is a collaborative effort between public and private sectors,
between professions, and between practitioners and researchers. It deals with the four-dimensional
inhabited world.
Undoubtedly urban design cannot stand alone between these three main
professions. Urban design is an interdisciplinary concept and should be
considered with the other disciplines and professions such as Real Estate
Development, Economics, Civil Engineering, Law, Social Sciences and Natural
Sciences.
Western: morphology of early cities - Greek agora - Roman forum - Medieval towns-
Renaissance place making - ideal cities – Industrialization and city growth - the eighteenth-century
city builders Garnier’s industrial city - the American grid planning- anti urbanism and the
picturesque- cite industrielle- cite nuovo-radiant city.
Indian: evolution of urbanism in India- Temple towns - Mughal city form- medieval cities – colonial
urbanism- urban spaces in modernist cities: Chandigarh, Bhubaneshwar and Gandhi Nagar
subsequent directions – case studies.
INTRODUCTION
The historic urban context includes notably the site’s topography, geomorphology, hydrology and natural
features, its built environment, both historic and contemporary, its infrastructures above and below ground;
its open spaces and gardens, its land use patterns and spatial organization; perceptions and visual
relationships; as well as all other elements of the urban structure. It also includes social and cultural
practices and values, economic processes and the intangible dimensions of heritage as related to diversity
and identity.
TOWN PLANNING:
Even if not ‘designed’ in advance, all towns have a plan. Let’s look at some historic examples and see
what influenced their ‘plans’.
➢ Catal Huyuk, 6,000 BCE
➢ Iron Age Hut, 600 BCE
➢ Greek-Roman Town, 79 CE
➢ Medieval City, c1300 CE
➢ Baroque City, c1750 CE
[BCE=Before Common Era CE=Common Era]
A CITY C6000BCE
The world’s oldest city is said to be Catal Huyuk (pronounced ‘chatal hooyook’) in Central Turkey. Access
to the dwellings was from roof level. Living here, you had to behave in a much more ‘civic’ manner than
living in a rough hut on a bare hill.
PHOTOGRAPHS OF POMPEII:
The main features of Pompeii are exactly as
described by Vitruvius
➢ A grid of streets
➢ Pavements + stepping stones
➢ Water supply
➢ Drainage system
➢ Public buildings at important positions
Figure 17 Main Streets of Pompeii
➢ No windows
➢ Internal courts
Planning: origins:
• Now let us consider the word planning
• It comes from the activity of drawing a ‘plan’ in 2 dimensions on a flat surface
• Maps and Plans have a very important place in human history.
• They enable the organization of land, and travel, and the creation of empires.
• This type of ‘Planning’ produced the Baroque City
The Baroque City c 1750:
Baroque cities were dominated by stars of avenues, designed to glorify the autocrat and facilitate the
movement of soldiers and the firing of canon at revolting peasants.
Organising Principles: mostly single–objective
• Catal Huyuk, 6,000 BCE: Defence against nomadic herders
• Iron Age Hut, 600 BCE: Defence against other agriculturalists
• Greek-Roman Town, 79 CE: Defence against armies
• Medieval City, c1300 CE: Defence against knights
• Baroque City, c1750 CE: Defence against revolutionaries
• Industrial City, c1900: Defence against cholera
• 21st Century City, c2000: One could argue that the new organising principle will be Defence against
crime
Interim Conclusions
• City planning has been dominated by considerations of Engineering + Security
• When this fact was appreciated (e.g. by the Viennese architect Camillo Sitte The art of building
cities, 1889) it led to a campaign for architects to take responsibility for ‘Town Design’, ‘Civic Design’
and the ‘City Beautiful Movement’.
• Architects tended to see cities as ‘architecture writ large’, with buildings instead of rooms and
streets instead of corridors. It was a bit like arguing that a Beautiful Body is the main thing in life
WESTERN MORPHOLOGY
Introduction:
Urbanization in the last 200 years has strengthened links between culture, society, and the city
➢ “Urban explosion” has gone hand in hand with the industrial revolution
➢ Estimates demonstrate the world’s urban population more than doubled since 1950
➢ Urban population doubled again by 2000
➢ Over 50 percent of Earth’s population live in cities
Generalizations
❖ Urban growth comes from two sources
❖ Migration of people to the cities
➢ Higher natural population growth rates for recent migrants
➢ Because employment is unreliable, large families construct a more extensive family support
system
➢ Increases the chances of someone getting work
➢ Smaller families when a certain dimension of security is ensured
➢ Smaller families often occur when women enter the work force
World cities
❖ Cities over 5 million in population
❖ Over half of the world’s 20 largest cities are in the developing world
❖ Thirty years ago, the list of world cities was dominated by Western, industrialized cities
❖ Now the list is even more dominated by the developing world
• In agricultural villages, all inhabitants were involved in some way in food procurement
• Cities were more remote, physically and psychologically, from everyday agricultural activities
❖ Food was supplied to the city
❖ Not all city dwellers were involved in actual farming
❖ Another class of city dweller supplied services — such as technical skills, and religious
interpretation
Religious
• Paul Wheatley suggests religion was the motivating factor behind urbanization
• Knowledge of meteorological and climatic conditions was considered to be within the domain of
religion
• Religious leaders decided when and how to plant crops
• Successful harvests led to more support for this priestly class
• Priestly class exercised political and social control that held the city together
• In this scenario, cities are religious spaces functioning as ceremonial centers
• First urban clusters and fortification seen as defenses against spiritual demons or souls of the dead
Multiple factors
• Distinction between economic, religious, and political functions were not always clear
• A king may have functioned as priest, healer, astronomer, and scribe
• In some ways secular and spiritual power was fused
• Attempting to isolate one trigger to urbanization is difficult, if not impossible
• It would be wiser to accept the role of multiple factors behind the changes leading to urban life
• Densities could reach 10,000 per square mile —comparable to today’s cities
Early cities, also called Cosmo magical cities, exhibited three spatial characteristics
Great importance accorded the symbolic centre of the city, which was thought to be the centre of the
known world
• Often demarcated by a vertical structure of monumental scale representing the point on Earth
closest to the heavens
• This symbolic centre, or axis mundi, took different forms
• The ziggurat in Mesopotamia
• The palace or temple in China
• The pyramid in Egypt and Mesoamerica
• The Stupa in the Indus Valley
This is the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the most important ceremonial building in Beijing’s Forbidden
City. The hall is set upon an auspicious number of three tiers. From the Gate of Supreme Harmony, the
emperor would be carried on his palanquin above the “dragon pavement,” carved with his dragon and
other auspicious symbols such as waves, mountains and clouds.
The Forbidden City marked the inner sanctum of the Imperial city, a model of harmony and moral order
expressing the Will of Heaven.
Ritual and cosmic correctness was imbued in city form through divination and orientation; cardinal
axiality and concentricity; and, square configuration defined by walls and gates
In Mesopotamia, this area was known as the citadel and housed the elite who lived in relative luxury
• Streets were paved, drains and running water were provided
• Private sleeping quarters, bathtubs, and water closets were provided
• Privileges did not extend to the city as a whole
Figure 22 Mesopotamia
Attempt to shape the form of the city according to the form of the universe
• Thought essential to maintain harmony between human and spiritual worlds
• Example of Ankor Thom in Cambodia
Just inside the city wall, huts of mud and reed housed the lower classes
• Early cities of the Nile were not walled, suggesting a regional power structure kept cities from warring
with each other
• In the Indus Valley, Mohenjo-Daro was laid out in a grid that consisted of 16 large blocks The most
important variations in living conditions occurred in Mesoamerica
• Cities were less dense and covered large areas
• Cities arose without benefit of the wheel, plow, metallurgy, and draft animals
• Domestication of maize compensated for technological shortcomings
• Maize yields several crops a year without irrigation in tropical climates
• People must have learned these traits through contact with city dwellers
• This scenario emphasized the diffusion of ideas and techniques
Diffusionists believe ideas and techniques from Mesopotamia were shared with people in the Nile and
the Indus River valley
Morphology Patterns seen in the city today are a composite of past and present cultures
Two concepts underlie our examination of urban landscapes
❖ Urban morphology — physical form of the city, which consists of street patterns, building sizes and
shapes, architecture, and density.
❖ Functional zonation — refers to the pattern of land uses within a city, or existence of areas with
differing functions.
GREEK CITY
Cities had two distinctive functional zones —the acropolis and the agora
The acropolis was similar in many ways to the citadel of Mesopotamian cities
❖ Had the temples of worship, storehouse of valuables, and seat of power
❖ Served as a place of retreat in time of siege
Physical separation of religious from secular functions implies the religious domain was no longer the
only source of authority
Acropolis
➢ Elevated temple district
➢ Contained various temples
➢ Architectural “vocabulary” used well into the 20th c. for banks, courthouses, town halls,
➢ Periodic processions to Acropolis also celebrated the polis.
Tension created between the religious and secular created what many consider to be one of the greatest
achievements of Western architecture.
Earlier Greek cities probably grew spontaneously without formal guidelines
❖ Some think many ceremonial areas were designed to be seen according to prescribed lines of vision
❖ The human aesthetic was given a degree of authority not given in Cosmo magical cities
In later Greek cities a more formalized city design and plan are apparent— example of Miletus in Ioma
(present-day Turkey)
❖ Laid out in a rigid grid system imposing its geometry on the physical site conditions
❖ Layout indicates an abstracted and highly rational notion of urban life
❖ Seems to fit well with the functional needs of a colonial city
Grid system shows religious and aesthetic needs had taken a secondary role to pressing demands of
controlling an empire.
ROMAN CITY
Roman cities
• Romans adopted many urban traits from the Greeks and the Etruscans, whom the Romans had
conquered and absorbed in northern Italy
• As the empire expanded, city life diffused into areas that had not previously experienced urbanization
France, Germany, England, interior Spain, the Alpine countries, and parts of eastern Europe
As the empire expanded, city life diffused into areas that had not previously experienced urbanization
Most cities were established as military (castra) and trading outposts
In England, the trail of city building can be found by looking for the suffixes -caster and -Chester
indicating cities founded as Roman camps
Roman city landscapes
• Gridiron street pattern was used in later Greek cities — example of Pavia, Italy
• The forum — a zone combining elements of the Greek acropolis and agora
Rome’s most important legacy was the Roman method for choosing city sites
❖ Consistently chose sites with transportation in mind
❖ Empire held together by a complicated system of roads and highways
❖ In choosing a new site for settlement Romans first considered access while other cultures
placed emphasis on defensive locations
❖ Numerous old Roman town sites were re-founded centuries later — Paris, London, and Vienna
Forum
• Bordered by everything important: temples, offices, jails, butcher shops
• Public processions and ceremonies took place there
• For a mainly pedestrian population, the surrounding colonnade was a very important urban design
feature
MEDIEVAL TOWN
Hirsch horn is Neckar, Germany
This town reveals three important features of urban morphology: castle, wall, and cathedral. Hirsch horn
castle caps the summit of a fortified spur in the bend of the Neckar River, affording a clear view of the
river and forested valley.
Site factors have also limited expansion forcing people to build onto the walls. Half-
timbering is evident in a number of buildings.
The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols
The fortress
❖ Usually cities were clustered around a fortified place
❖ Reflected in place names — German -burg, French -Bourg, English
❖ -burgh all meaning a fortified castle
❖ The terms burgher and bourgeoisie, originally referred to a citizen of the medieval city
The charter
❖ Governmental decree from a regional power granting political autonomy to the town
❖ Freed the population from feudal restrictions
❖ Made the city responsible for its own defence and government
❖ Allowed cities to coin their own money
❖ These freedoms contributed to development of urban social, economic, and intellectual life.
The marketplace
❖ Symbolized role of economic activities in the city
❖ City depended on the countryside for food and produce was traded in the market
❖ Centre for long-distance trade linking city to city
The wall
❖ Symbol of the sharp distinction between country and city
❖ Within the wall most inhabitants were free; outside most were serfs
❖ People inside were able to move about with little restriction
❖ Goods entering the gates were inspected and taxed
❖ Non-residents were issued permits for entry, but often required to leave by sundown when the gates
were shut
❖ Suburbs called faubourgs sprang up, and in time demanded to be included into the city
❖ If the suburbs were allowed to be part of the city, the wall was extended to include them
❖ At one end stood the fairly tall town hail
❖ Meeting space for city’s political leaders
❖ Market hail for storage and display of finer goods.
The cathedral
Problems created for contemporary urban life by medieval city morphology and landscape
❖ Streets were narrow, wandering lanes, rarely more than 15 feet wide
❖ Today, in 141 German cities, 77 percent of streets are too narrow for two- way traffic
Functional zonation of medieval cities differed from that of modern cities Example of coopers — people
who made and repaired wooden barrels
More prestigious groups lived in occupational districts near the city centre. Those involved in noxious
activities lived closer to city walls
INDUSTRIALIZATION
Industrialization- Impacts
The start of industrialization in 18th century had its effects such as;
❖ Growing urban population
❖ Rising production & pace of life
❖ Reactions affecting both natural & built environment
❖ Inventions like elevators & automobiles change the shape &size of our cities
❖ Working class struggles, division of labor
❖ Change in lifestyles
❖ Emergence of new working
❖ Changes in family structure
❖ Problems arose because of concentration of working-class people in poorly built housing near the
factories and mills
❖ Transportation system had to develop
At the end of 19th century governments assumed more responsibility for improvement of the cities in
Europe.
❖ Germany encouraged cooperative housing.
❖ British law empowered state and local authorities to build houses • British law empowered state
and local authorities to build houses
❖ for rent to the working class
❖ In 1871 in USA, Boson Co-operative Co started a scheme of rental
❖ housing for workers with big plots, large rooms& less Plot coverage
❖ City planning was initiated in North America by using zoning
❖ Regulations – building to be allowed, height limits & prohibited land uses
❖ As cities started getting congested, people moved to suburbs for • As cities started getting
congested, people moved to suburbs for better opportunities & clean environment
Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B
36 AR 6911 URBAN DESIGN
The main patterns are grids. However the part with living quarters is kept narrow to minimize distances to
nature. This is also the reason why there is no explicit park within the city. In the centre of the town is a
large civic centre.
❖ The grid patterns are not 'stamped' all over the city. The design of the civic centre is based on a
disposition of buildings around a central axle. This shows elements of classic design. On the other
hand, all buildings are free standing and the open spaces are enormous. In the whole of the plan there
are few squares, let alone enclosed squares.
❖ The living quarters show an innovative new type of building block with free standing houses and 'urban
villas' (although using this word in this respect is an anachronism) on an 'island' between streets. This
type of building block had been taken up in recent urban design in the Netherlands.
❖ The result is that there are no enclosed streets. Trees form very much part of the design. Indicating the
more important streets and losely planted within the blocks.
❖ Garnier has a lot of drawings showing public space in living quarters, indicating that he cared about
everyday living conditions. For the civic centre he only shows the buildings. This suggests that he did
not consider the design of public space around public buildings to be a very important matter.
Station
Pavilion type architecture in a large space. The design is very futuristic for its time and the style looks as
if it foreshadows the architecture of the 1950's, especially the awning. München’s main station has an
awning from the 1950's that reminds of Garnier’s design.
The grid has been used continuously throughout the world as a development pattern since
Hippodamus first used it at Piraeus, Greece in the 5th century BC. A lot happened over the next 2,000
years after that, but in 1682 William Penn used the grid as the physical foundation for Philadelphia. With
that, the grid began its new life in the new America. Penn’s instructions for laying out his orthogonal plan
were simple:
Be sure to settle the figure of the town so as that the streets hereafter may be uniform down to the
water from the country bounds…This may be ordered when I come, only let the houses built be in a line,
or upon a line, as much as may be…
Penn’s use of the grid may have been influenced by Richard Newcourt’s plan for London following
the fire of 1666. However, Penn may have utilized the grid for its indexical qualities. The grid by its very
nature has no built-in hierarchy. What better way to promote the Quaker value of equality than to build it
into the very foundation of your new town. Philadelphia was the first city to use the indexical system of
numbers for north-south streets and tree names for east-west streets. Because of this coordinate system,
the intersection at 12th/Walnut has no more or less social or political meaning than that at 18th/Cherry.
Every plot of land is essentially equal to every other.
Over 100 years after Philadelphia, Thomas Jefferson executed the purchase of the Louisiana Territory.
Following the acquisition of such a vast territory came the challenges of subdividing, selling, and
occupying it. It was impossible to survey the entire area ahead of time so Jefferson devised a system that
would make platting and selling achievable from a distance. Jefferson answered with the grid in the Land
Ordinance of 1785. The Ordinance divided the entire western territory into townships, sections, quarter-
sections, and so on. A system of Euclidean geometry made this possible. Having never stepped foot on
their property, someone could point to a map, make a purchase, and start their wagon westward knowing
precisely where they were going. Today, a cross-country flight will easily show the physical
ramifications of Jefferson’s decision to subdivide our territory upon the grid. The vast majority of
America’s western land is so arranged in logical lattice-work.
Following the precedent of Philadelphia, the grid has been used extensively in a number of American
cities in every one of our now 50 states. Each of these cities, with their own purposes and reasonings,
adopted the grid as their foundation with varying outcomes. In Chicago, the grid was used as a vehicle to
maximize both the speed of development and financial speculation. In San Francisco, the grid flatly
ignored topography and created a city of dramatic hills and valleys. In Paragonah, Utah, the grid was
executed to promote the doctrine of Mormonism. But perhaps most famous of all-American grids is that
found in Manhattan. In 1811, the Commissioners adopted a master street plan that would come to define
the city of New York centuries later. One of the greatest understatements of the 19th century was made
by one of the commissioners at the time:
It is improbable that (for centuries to come) the grounds north of Harlem Flat will be covered with
houses.As we know now Manhattan did grow and it grew well beyond all expectations within only a
single century. The grid was there to accommodate that growth.
In the 1920s, the roles of both the federal government and the States in the development of towns and
cities were refined and codified. Amongst all of the legal changes, two documents stand out: the Standard
City Planning Enabling Act (SCPEA) and the Standard State Zoning Enabling Act (SSZEA). The
SSZEA specifies the creation, adoption, and use of a zoning map. The SCPEA, on the other hand, specifies
the components of a municipal master plan which is made up of a zoning map and a master street plan.
Unfortunately, over the last 80 years judicial interpretation over what constitutes a “master plan” has
allowed the zoning map to replace the master street plan. Without a master street plan the grid is essentially
impossible to execute. Thus, our American grid’s recent history has been a stagnant one. Finally, today,
we find ourselves in a situation where our cities develop piece-meal on a lot-by-lot basis. Because a zoning
ordinance only regulates private property and does not–and legally cannot–provide for the public
framework of cities, development is rendered essentially unplanned, unwalkable, and unsustainable. A
reemergence of the American grid is warranted in order to restore much needed order to the places we
call home.
ANTIURBANISM:
Anti-urbanism is a discourse of fear of the city, produced and reproduced via a variety of negative
representations of urban places, and drawing its power from deeply entrenched pro urban and pro-rural
sentiment. Industrialisation was the force which triggered anti-urban representations, as the rampant,
unchecked urbanization that characterised the industrial city was widely perceived to be a profound moral
upheaval, an unwelcome disruption to traditional values, and the intensification of urban malaise. Whilst
anti-urbanism is a widespread discourse, it is particularly advanced in the United States, partly because of
the influence of major intellectual figures who all treated the city with suspicion. This article uses the art
of Edward
Hopper to explain the power of the anti-urbanism discourse, and its implications. It concludes by offering
some comments on recent accusations that writers such as Mike Davis are reproducing anti-urban
discourse in their popular work on contemporary urbanization.
Anti-urbanism is best defined as a discourse of fear of the city, and something fuelled by the impact
of images of urban dystopia we see in a variety of media, cinematic, literary, artistic, photographic – and
in the case of the Qashqai, corporate – representations of urban places. It is a discourse that has been
around for a long time, in conjunction with the emergence of the industrial city, and often constructed in
relation to the ‘good city’ of the ancient Greeks, and especially the perceived virtues of rural life. Anti-
urbanism is particularly advanced in the United States in a variety of guises, from the celebration of rural
small-town kinship and community to the fact that Los Angeles has been completely destroyed 138 times
in various motion pictures from 1909 to 1999! Critical analyses of anti-urbanism are vital if the material
consequences of widespread urban fears are to be exposed and challenged. As cultural geographers have
argued for a long time now, if we leave powerful representations unquestioned, then supposedly fixed
‘evidence’ about how a society is organized can very easily become treated as overwhelming evidence of
how it ‘should’, or ‘must’ be organized.
Evolution of urbanism in India – Temple towns – Mughal city form – Medieval cities – colonial urbanism
– urban spaces in modernist cities: Chandigarh, Bhuvaneshwar and Gandhi Nagar subsequent directions.
INTRODUCTION:
The development of Indian architectural has been influenced by its long history, extremely varied
geographical and environmental conditions across the country. The consequent cultural diversity is
exemplified in the form of the towns and cities which have involved over time across the country.
The first phase of urbanization in the Indus valley is associated with the Harappa civilization dating back
to 2350Bc. The two cities of Mohanjodaro and Harappa represent the climax of urban development. This
great urban civilization came to end at about 1500 B.C, possibly as a result of Aryan invasion.
The second phase of urbanization in India began around 600 BC. This period saw the formation of early
historical cities and also the growth of cities in number and size especially during the Mauryan and post
– Mauryan eras.
The temple towns of Madurai and Srirangam in South India, re presents a cosmic vision of hierarchically
layered reality; the plan is formed by concentric geometries around defined centers.
In contrast a more organic pattern can be found in the weaver’s town of Chander in Central India. This
town, first established in the 15th century A.D., has a plan defined by the natural topography and a social
order representative of the broad divisions of caste in medieval Indian society.
In the early part of the 18th century A.D. resulted in the development of the city of Jaipur in Rajasthan,
west-central India. The plan for the city is based on a nine square mandalass adapted to take advantages
of the natural features of the site.
The Mughal period stands out as a second-high watermark of urbanization in India (the first occurring
during the Mauryan period), when many of India’s cities were established. The early part of British rule
saw a decline in the level of Indian urbanization. During the latter half of British rule, Indian cities
regained some of their last importance; further, the British added several new towns and cities, in addition
generating newer urban forms in the existing cities.
BUILDING TOPOLOGY
• Private houses
• Housing complexes
• Public buildings
PUBLIC BUILDINGS
• Markets / public meeting – held in large open areas
• Great public bating places
• Granaries / Great halls
CITY PLANNING
The Manasara and Mayamata discuss the following stages in town planning:
• Examination of soil
• Selection on site
• Determination of directions
• Division of ground to squares
• The offerings
• Planning the storey’s
• Construction of Buildings
• Construction of Gateways
• Construction of Temples
• Construction of royal places
The planning comprised of:
• Grama – Village Planning
• Griha – House planning
• Nagara – Town planning
• Durga – Planning of Forts
• Prasada – Planning of big Buildings
Mandalas have certain points known as marmas which are vital and viler- able energy spots on
which nothing should be built. They are determined by certain proportional relationships of the
squares and the diagonals.
Classification of Towns:
• Nagara – District Headquarters
• Rajasthani – Royal Capital
• Pathare – Commercial town
• Druga – Small Industrial town
• Kheta – Town – local industries
• Kharveta - Big Industrial town
• Senamukha – Suburban military town
• Skandavara – Military town
• Athaneya – Headquarters – fortified town
• Dronamukha – Market town
• Kotamakoraka – Hill/Forest Settlement
At the entrance, gate ways was projected – consisted of two wooden posts with horizontal bamboo bars
raised high enough for cattle to pass. From these bamboo gateways – tranana, characteristic Buddhist
archway was derived.
The Vedic village had certain distinct characteristic that influenced subsequent architectural production –
the barrel vaulted roof, the palisade railing.
Chardis – House with a thatched roof. Harmyam – a house of brick and stone
Gotra – a multi – dwelling complex with sheds for animals
• Groups of small villages banded together and small ‘cities’ began to take shape.
• In general, the cities of the Vedic period were rectangular in plan and divided into four quarters by
two main thoroughfares interesting at right angles, each leading to a city gate.
• One of these quarters contained the citadel and another housed the residential area.
• A third quarter was reserved for the merchants and the last for tradesmen who could display their
wares.
Only residential and occupational structures were built during Vedic period. Temples and religious
structures – not erected, as Aryans did not believe in idol worship.
In the south Indian cities like Madurai, Trichy, Srirangam, Thanjavur, Chidambaram, Kumbakonam the
temple dominates the plan at the centre. The scared monuments were constructed to dominate the
surrounding area providing a focal point for the town or city.
HISTORY OF MADURAI
Madurai was the seat of the Pandean kingdom around 600 BCE. The city remained under control of cholas
until 13th century. Madurai was under the Delhi sultanate till 1378. Madurai was taken over by the Nayaks
from the Vijayanagar in 1559 and stayed under Nayaks till 1736. In 1801 the EAST INDAI COMPANY
took control of Madurai. In 1837 the city expanded to accommodate the growing population by
demolishing the fortifications around the temple.
MUGHAL CITIES
Mughal Indian Cities:
• The provincial cities gradually grew as in case of Burhanpur. Apart from the provincial cities, which
are the provincial Capitals or headquarters there are the other cities and towns that sometimes become
very important because of their trade connection or strategic connection or any other factors. Surat
was one of those because of its port; Cambay too.
• Market towns / kasba – These grow simply because of the neighboring regional situations. These are
the towns where the villages combine to have some kind of a trading centre and they grow because of
particular economic, social or religious reasons.
• Religious towns – Example Gaya, Ajmer (incase of the Muslims), Mathura Vribdavan (in case of the
Vaishnavites. There were different kinds of cities and in Mughal India no city is similar to another
except in certain broad features.
• Small Cities along the road sometime coming up or declining depending of the trade, commerce
including political casualties.
• In Mughal India unlike that of the Sultanate India, a land is attached to the city itself whether it is a
port town, whether it is a market town or whether it is a capital town.
• So therefore, there is the question of the growth of the suburban. So therefore, for the growth of the
morphology, one would have to see the internal as well as the external factors.
The cities, with the exception of Shahjahanabad were unplanned with overlapping residential, commercial
and industrial land uses.
GORDON CULLEN
TOWNSCAPE
Gordon Cullen (1914-1944) studied architecture at the Royal Polytechnic Institution, but never qualified
as an architect. He started his career working as a draughtsman in various architectural practices. He then
returned to Britain and joined the Architectural Review as Assistant Editor in
1946. He later became writer on planning policy and contributed numerous editorials and case studies in
urban and rural planning.
His major contribution to the field of urban design is his 1961
Townscape.
"Townscape" is the art of giving visual coherence and organization to the jumble of buildings, streets and
spaces that make up the urban environment.
This book deals with the “art of relationship” between the various components of the urban landscape.
The purpose of this art is “to take all the elements that go to create the built environment: buildings, trees,
nature, water, traffic, advertisements, and so on, and to weave them in such a way that drama is released”.
Cullen's approach to urban design is therefore primarily visual, but it is also based on the physical
relationship between movement and the environment: “the scenery of towns is often revealed in a series
of jerks or revelations.”
Most interesting of all are several groups of pictures (of Oxford, Ipswich, and Westminster) showing the
changing view as a person walks along a street, under an archway, through a group of buildings. These
sequences, representing what Cullen calls ‘serial vision’, show how the townscape unfolds as one walks,
and how new buildings and vistas appear in a series of revelations.
Cullen's book is a fine example of the importance of using specific vocabulary when describing the built
environment:
Serial Vision
Serial Vision is to walk from one end of the plan to another, at a uniform pace, will provide a sequence of
revelations which are suggested in the serial drawing’s opposite, reading from left to right.
This method of representation can be used as a tool for surveying, analysing and designing.
A serial vision is a series of sketches that represent the changes and contrasts in the character of the built
environment that one experiences when moving around the city.
The sketches should be shown along with a map identifying the ‘journey' and the viewpoints from which
the sketches are drawn.
In Cullen's own words, “the even progress of travel is illuminated by a series of sudden contrasts and so
an impact is made on the eye, bringing the plan to life”.
Place description is in a world of black and white the roads are for movement and the buildings for social
and business purposes.
There is, for instance, a typical emotional reaction to being below the general ground level and there is
another resulting from being above it. There is a reaction to being hemmed in as in a tunnel and another
to the wideness of the square. If, therefore, we design our towns from the point of view of the moving
person (pedestrian or car-borne) it is easy to see how the whole city becomes a plastic experience, a journey
through pressures and vacuums, a sequence of exposures and enclosures, of constraint and relief. Content
concerned with the intrinsic quality of the various subdivisions of the environment, and start with the great
landscape categories of metropolis, town, park, industrial, and wild nature.
In this last category we turn to an examination of the fabric of towns: color, texture, scale, style, character,
personality and uniqueness. Accepting the fact that most towns are of old foundation, their fabric will
show evidence of differing periods in its architectural styles and also in the various accidents of layout.
Many towns do so display this mixture of styles, materials and scales. Yet there exists at the back of our
minds a feeling that could we only start again we would get rid of this hotchpotch and make all new and
fine and perfect. We would create an orderly scene with straight roads and with buildings that conformed
in height and style. Given a free hand that is what we might do . . . create symmetry, balance, perfection
and conformity. After all, that is the popular conception of the purpose of town planning.
Focal Point: Focal point is the idea of the town as a place of assembly, of social intercourse, of meeting,
was taken for granted throughout the whole of human civilization up to the twentieth century.
Closure may be differentiated from Enclosure, by contrasting ‘travel’ with ‘arrival’. Closure is the cutting
up of the linear town system (streets, passages, etc.) into visually digestible and coherent amounts whilst
retaining the sense of progression. Enclosure on the other hand provides a complete private world which
is inward looking, static and self-sufficient.
Street Lighting Here we are concerned with the impact of a modern public lighting installation on towns
and not, primarily, with the design of fittings. Naturally it is impossible to disassociate the two since, as
in all townscape, we are concerned with two aspects: first, intrinsic design and second, the relationship or
putting together of things designed.
Outdoor Publicity One contribution to modern townscape, startlingly conspicuous everywhere you look,
but almost entirely ignored by the town planner, is street outdoor publicity. This is the most characteristic,
and, potentially, the most valuable, contribution of the twentieth century to urban scenery. At night it has
created a new landscape of a kind never before seen in history.
Here and There the practical result of so articulating the town into identifiable parts is that no sooner do
we create a HERE than we have to admit a THERE, and it is precisely in the manipulation of these two
spatial concepts that a large part of urban drama arises.
An example in India: the approach from the Central Vista to the Rashtrapathi Bhawan in New Delhi. There
is an open- ended courtyard composed of the two Secretariat buildings and, at the end, the
Rashtrapathi Bhawan. All this is raised above normal ground level and the approach is by a ramp. At the
top of the ramp and in front of the axis building is a tall screen of railings. This is the setting. Travelling
through it from the Central Vista we see the two Secretariats in full, but the Rashtrapathi Bhawan is
partially hidden by the ramp; only its upper part is visible. This effect of truncation serves to isolate and
make remote. The building is withheld. We are here and it is there. As we climb the ramp the
Rashtrapathi Bhawan is gradually revealed, the mystery culminates in fulfillment as it becomes
immediate to us, standing on the same floor. But at this point the railing, the wrought iron screen, is
inserted; which again creates a form of Here and There by means of the screened vista.
Concerning Optics
Let us suppose that we are walking through a town; here is a straight road off which is a courtyard, at the
far side of which another street leads out and bends slightly before reaching a monument. Not very unusual.
We take this path and our first view is that of the street. Upon turning into the courtyard, the new view is
revealed instantaneously at the point of turning and this view remains with us whilst we walk across the
courtyard. Leaving the courtyard, we enter the further street. Again, a new view is suddenly revealed
although we are traveling at a uniform speed. Finally, as the road bends the monument swings into view.
The significance of all this is that although the pedestrian walks through the town at a uniform speed, the
scenery of towns is often revealed in a series of jerks or revelations. This we call serial vision.
Examine what this means. Our original aim is to manipulate the elements of the town so that an impact on
the emotions is achieved. A long straight road has little impact because the initial view is soon digested
and becomes monotonous. The human mind reacts to a contrast to the difference between things, and when
two pictures (the street and the courtyard) are in mind at the same time, a vivid contrast is felt and the
town becomes visible in a deeper sense. It becomes alive through the drama of juxtaposition. Unless this
happens, the town will slip past us featureless and inert.
There is a further observation to be made concerning serial vision. Although from a scientific or
commercial point of view the town may be a unity, from our optical viewpoint we have split it into two
elements; the existing view and the emerging view. In the normal way this is an accidental chain of events
and whatever significance may arise out of the linking of views will be fortuitous. Suppose however, that
we take over this linking as a branch of the art of relationship; then we are finding a tool with which human
imagination can begin to mold the city into a coherent drama. The process of manipulation has begun to
turn the blind facts into a taut emotional situation
Concerning Place
This second point is concerned with our reactions to the position of our body in its environment. This is
as simple as it appears to be. It means for instance, that when you go into a room you utter to yourself the
unspoken words, “I am outside IT, I am entering IT, I am in the middle of IT”. At this level of
consciousness, we are dealing with a range of experience stemming from the major impacts of exposure
and enclosure (which if taken to their morbid extremes result in the symptoms of agoraphobia and
claustrophobia). Place a man on the edge of a 500 ft. (152 m) cliff and he will have a very lively sense of
position, put him at the end of a deep cave and he will react to the fact of enclosure.
Since it is an instinctive and continuous habit of the body to relate itself to the environment, this sense of
position cannot be ignored; it becomes a factor in the design of the environment (just as an additional
source of light must be reckoned with by a photographer, however annoying it may be). I would go further
and say that it should be exploited.
In a town we do not normally have such a dramatic situation to manipulate but the principle still holds
good. There is for instance a typical emotional reaction to being below the general ground level and there
is another resulting from being above it. There is a reaction to being hemmed in as in a tunnel and another
to the wideness of the square. If therefore, we design our towns from the point of view of the moving
person (pedestrian or car – borne) it is easy to see how the whole city becomes a plastic experience, a
journey through pressures and vacuums a sequence of exposures, of constraint and relief.
Concerning Content
Accepting the fact that most towns are of old foundation, their fabric will show evidence of differing
periods in its architectural styles and also in the various accidents of layout. Many towns display this
mixture of styles materials and scales.
Yet there exists at the back of our minds a feeling that could we only start again we would get rid of this
hotchpotch and make all new and fine and perfect. We would create an orderly scene with straight roads
and with buildings that conformed in height and style. Given a free hand that is what we might do… create
symmetry, balance, perfection and conformity. After all, that is the popular conception of the purpose of
town planning.
But what in this conformity? Let us approach it by a simile. Let us suppose a party in private house, where
are gathered together half a dozen people who are strangers to each other. The early part of the evening is
passed in polite conversation on general subjects such as the weather and the current news. Cigarettes are
passed and lights offered punctiliously. In fact, it is all an exhibition of manners, of how one ought to
behave. It is also very boring. This in conformity. However, later on the ice begins to break out of the
straightjacket of orthodox manners and conformity and real human beings begin to emerge. It is found
that Miss X’s sharp but good natured with is just the right foil to major Y’s somewhat simple exuberance.
And so on. Its beings to be fun. Conformity gives way to the agreement to differ within a recognized of
behaviour.
KEVIN LYNCH
Keywords:
Analysis method, districts, edges, image, landmark, nodes, paths, planning, urban design, way
finding.
This analysis limits itself to the effects of physical, perceptible objects. There are other influences of image
ability, such as the social meaning of an area, its function its history, or even its name. These will be
glossed over, since the objective here is to uncover the role of form itself. It is taken for granted that in
actual design form should be used to reinforce meaning and not to negate it.
The contents of the city images, which are preferable to physical forms, can conveniently be classified
into five types of elements: paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks. Indeed, these elements may be
of more general application, since they seem to reappear in many types of environmental images. These
elements may be defined as follows:
1. Paths
Paths are the channels along which the observer customarily, occasionally or potentially moves. They may
be streets; walkways transit lines, canals, railroads. For many people, these are the predominant elements
in their image. People observe the city while moving through it, and along these paths the other
environmental elements are arranged and related.
2. Edges
Edges are the linear elements not used or considered as paths by the observer. They are the boundaries
between two phases, linear breaks in continuity: shores, railroad cuts, edges of development walls. They
are lateral references rather than coordinate axes. Such edges may be barriers, more or less penetrable,
which close one region off from another; or they may be seams, lines along which two regions are related
and joined together. These edge elements, although probably not as dominant as paths are for many people
important organizing features, particularly in the role of the holding together generalized areas, as in the
outline of a city by water or wall.
3. Districts
Districts are the medium to large sections of the city, conceived of as having two dimensional extents,
which the observer mentally enters “inside of” and which are recognizable as having some common,
identifying character. Always identifiable from the inside, they are also used for exterior reference if
visible from the outside. Most people structure their city to some extent in this way, with individual
differences as to heather paths or districts are the dominant elements. It seems to depend not only upon
the individual but also upon the given city.
4. Nodes
Nodes are points, the strategic spots in a city into which an observer can enter and which are the intensive
foci to and from which he is travelling. They may be primarily junction’s places of a break in
transportation, a crossing or convergence of paths, moments of shift from one structure to another. Or the
nodes may be simply concentrations, which gain their importance from being the condensation of some
use of physical character, as a street corner hangout or an enclosed square. Some of these concentration
nodes are the focus and epitome of a district, over which their influence radiates and of which they stand
as a symbol. They may be called cores; many nodes of course, partake of the nature of both junctions and
concentrations. The concept of node is related to the concept of path, since junctions are typically the
convergence of paths, events on the journey. It is similarly related to the concept of district, since cores
are typically the intensive foci of districts, their polarizing center. In any event some nodal points are to
be found in almost every image, and in certain cases they may be the dominant feature.
5. Landmarks
Landmarks are another type of point reference, but in this case the observer does not enter within them,
they are external. They are usually a rather simply defined physical object: building, sign, store or
mountain. Their use involves the singling out of one element from a host of possibilities. Some landmarks
are distant typically seen from many angles and distances, over the tops of smaller elements, and used as
radial references. They may be within the city or at such a distance that for all practical purposes they
symbolize a constant direction. Such are isolated towers; golden domes great hills. Even a mobile point
like the sun, whose motion is sufficiently show and regular may be employed. Other landmarks are
primarily local, being visible only in restricted localities and from certain approaches, these are the
innumerable signs, store fronts, trees, door knob and other urban detail, which fill in the image of most
observers. They are frequently used clues of identity and even of structure and seem to be increasingly
relied upon, as a journey becomes more and more familiar.
The image of a given physical reality may occasionally shift its type with different circumstances of
viewing. Thus, an expressway may be a path for the driver, an edge for the pedestrian. Or a central area
may be a district when a city is organized on a medium scale and a node when the entire metropolitan area
is considered. But the categories seem to have stability for a given observer when he is operating at a given
level.
None of the element types isolated above exist in isolation in the real ace. Districts are structured with
nodes, defined by edges, penetrated by paths and sprinkled with landmarks. Elements regularly overlap
and piece one another. If this analysis begins with the differentiation of the data into categories, it must
end with their reintegration into the whole image. Our studies have furnished much information about the
visual character of the element types. This will be discussed below. Only to a lesser extent, unfortunately
did the work make revelations about the interrelations between elements, or about image levels, image
qualities or the development of the image.
Perhaps the best way of summarizing the method to recommend a technique of image analysis developed
as the basis of a plan for the future visual form of any given city.
The procedure might begin with two studies. The first would be a generalized field reconnaissance by
two or three trained observers, systematically covering the city both on foot and by vehicle, by night and
day and supplementing this coverage by several “problem” trips as described above. This culminates in a
field analysis map and brief report, which would deal with strengths and weakness and with general pattern
as well as parts.
A parallel step would be the mass interview of a large sample, balanced to match the general population
characteristics. This group which could be interviewed simultaneously or in several parts, would be asked
to do four things.
1. Draw a quick sketch map of the area in question, showing the most interesting and important features
and giving a stranger enough knowledge to move about without too much difficulty.
2. Make a similar sketch of the route and events along one or two imaginary trips, trips chosen to
expose the length and breadth of the area.
3. Make a written list of the parts of the city felt to be most distinctive the examiner explaining the
meaning of parts and distinctive.
4. Put down brief written answers to a few questions of the type “where is _ located?”
JANE JACOBS
Key Words:
City block, diversity, density, neighbourhood, pedestrian, streets urban scale.
With reference to the book – The Death and Life of Great American Cities by Jane Jacobs The Death and
Life of Great American Cities is a 1961 book by writer and activist Jane Jacobs. The book is a critique of
1950s urban planning policy, which it holds responsible for the decline of many city neighborhoods in the
United States. Jacobs frames the sidewalk as a central mechanism in maintaining the order of the city.
To her, the sidewalk is the stage for an "intricate ballet in which the individual dancers and ensembles
all have distinctive parts which miraculously reinforce each other and compose an orderly whole."
Jacobs posits cities as fundamentally different from towns and suburbs principally because they are
full of strangers “because of the sheer number of people in small geographical compass." A central
challenge of the city, therefore, is to make its inhabitants feel safe, secure, and socially integrated
in the midst of an overwhelming volume of rotating strangers. The healthy sidewalk is a critical
mechanism for achieving these ends, given its role in preventing crime and facilitating contact with
others.
Safety
The healthy city sidewalk does not rely on constant police surveillance to keep it safe, but on an "intricate,
almost unconscious, network of voluntary controls and standards among the people themselves, and
enforced by the people themselves." Noting that a well-used street is apt to be relatively safe from crime,
while a deserted street is apt to be unsafe, Jacobs suggests that a dense volume of human users deters most
violent crimes, or at least ensures a critical mass of first responders t o mitigate disorderly incidents. The
more bustling a street, the more interesting it is for strangers to walk along or watch from inside. In other
words, healthy sidewalks transform the city's high volume of strangers from a liability to an asset. They
form the first line of defense for administering order on the sidewalk, supplemented by police authority
when the situation demands it. Jacobs draws a parallel between empty streets and the deserted corridors,
elevators, and stairwells in high-rise public housing projects. They are open to the public but shielded from
public view, and thus "lack the checks and inhibitions exerted by eye-policed city streets.
Jacobs recommends a substantial quantity of stores, bars, restaurants, and other public places
“sprinkled along the s idewalks" as a means to this end. She argues that if city planners persist in ignoring
sidewalk life, residents will resort to three coping mechanisms as the streets turn deserted and unsafe:
• Move out of the neighborhood, allowing the danger to persist for those too poor to move anywhere
else,
• Retreat to the automobile, interacting with the city only as a motorist and never on foot,
• Cultivate a sense of neighborhood “Turf", cordoning off upscale developments from unsavory
surroundings using cyclone fences and patrolmen.
Contact
Sidewalk life permits a range of casual public interactions, from asking for directions and getting advice
from the grocer, to nodding hello to passersby and admiring a new dog. "Most of it is ostensibly trivial but
the sum is not trivial at all." The sum is "a web of public respect and trust," the essence of which is that it
"implies no private commitments" and protects precious privacy. In other words, city dwellers know that
they can engage in sidewalk life without fear of "entangling relationships" or over sharing the details of
one's personal life. Jacobs contrasts this to areas with no sidewalk life, including low-density suburbia,
where residents must either expose a more significant portion of their private lives to a small number of
intimate contacts or else settle for a lack of contact altogether. In order to sustain the former, residents
must become exceedingly deliberate in choosing their neighbors and their associations. Arrangements of
this sort, Jacobs argues, can work well "for self-selected upper-middle-class people," but fails to work for
anyone else.
Assimilating Children
Sidewalks are great places for children to play under the general supervision of parents and other natural
proprietors of the street. More importantly, sidewalks are where children learn the "first fundamental of
successful city life: People must take a modicum of public responsibility for each other even if they have
no ties to each other." Over countless minor interactions, children absorb the fact that the sidewalk's natural
proprietors are invested in their safety and well-being, even lacking ties of kinship, close friendship, or
formal responsibility.
Jacobs states that sidewalks of thirty to thirty-five feet in width are ideal, capable of accommodating any
demands for general play, trees to shade the activity, pedestrian circulation, adult public life, and even
loitering. However, she admits that such width is a luxury in the era of the automobile, and finds solace
that twenty-foot sidewalks - precluding rope jumping but still capable of lively mixed use - can still be
found. Even if it lacks proper width, a sidewalk can be a compelling place for children to congregate and
develop if the location is convenient and the streets are interesting.
Biography:
Born : October 1, 1917, West Chester, Pennsylvania.
Died : January 12, 1999, New York City.
Nationality : American.
Education : Princeton University.
Occupation : Sociologist, Urbanist, Writer, and People watcher.
Notable works : The Organization Man, The Social Life of small Urban space.
Quotes:
“The streets is the river of life of the city, the place where we come together, the pathway to the center”.
Perspectives:
1. The social life of public place:
Whyte wrote that the social life in the public spaces contributes fundamentally to the quantity of life of
individuals and society as a whole.
Project Methodology:
• Observation.
• Analyzing the films.
• Gender.
• Charting how people used the space.
• Cheching against hypothesis, previously set.
• Creating circulation pattern from dawn to dusk.
• Taking notes during different times during the day.
• Filming.
• Couples or in groups.
• Interviewing people.
Design criteria:
• Movable chairs (benches are less desirable).
• Seating area should be approximately 10% of the total open space.
• Protection from sun, wind and noise (use trees and water).
• Availability of food (snacks bars, vendors, tables and chairs).
• Related to the street, near the action.
• Triangulation : presence of people or things that include strangers to talk with each other.
ALDO ROSSI
INTRODUCTION
• He was an Italian architect and designer
• Theory, drawing, architecture and product design.
• He was the first Italian to receive the Pritzker Prize for architecture in 1990.
• In 1955 he had started writing for, and from 1959 was one of the editors of, the architectural
magazine Casabella-Continuità.
• In 1966 Rossi published his seminal publication The Architecture of the City, which quickly
established him as a leading international theoretician.
GENIUS LOCI
1. It highlights the uniqueness of each and every place that cannot reproduce the same sense or the
expression in another place. With these discussions “Genius Loci” one of the oldest mythologies exists in
Late Roman emerged gradually in urban design.
2. It creates orientation and identity to the place.
• Orientation facilitates the person to identify where he is and keep himself safe in the context.
• Identification is needed to receive character and the spirit of belongingness to the place over the time
when the place evolves.
• He tries to see Genius Loci in terms of the strong connection between the time and the space.
COLLECTIVE MEMORY
One can say that the city itself is the collective memory of its people and like memory is associated with
objects and places. The city is the LOCUS of the collective memory.
• The Architecture, landscape and the artifacts become part of the memory.
• Memory becomes the guiding thread of the entire complex urban structure and is this respect
architecture of urban artefacts in distinguished art and later it is an element that exists for itself alone.
IMPORTANT WORK
Teatro del Mondo -Venice Italy
• Built earthily on the edge of the water, it is a light floating octagon theatre.
• Its structure expresses the solid certainty of inert matter, against the fluid, watery agitation of life
around.
• Determined to survive in memory the way its masonry withstands time, and it hides its timeless
monumentality behind a casual conjunction of schematic pieces bordering on the picturesque in the
coloristic cube of the seaside tavern.
• The mineral impassivity of its geometry is what freezes its forms in a still landscape.
• The idea was to recall the floating theatres which were so characteristic of Venice and its carnivals in
the 18th century
• He often employed archetypal forms in an attempt to re-establish a connection with the collective
memory of the urban environment.
• The form includes a conical dome, and a composition of basic geometry, often seen in all his designs.
• Volumes - cube, cylinder, and prism and their elemental identities as towers, columns, ... out of his
theoretical base came designs that seem always to be a part of the city fabric, rather than an intrusion.
PLACE MAKING
The presented data is derived from a net study on the various works under taken by Project for Public
Spaces (PPS) and Metropolitan Planning Council (MPC) located in Chicago.
Place Making is a people-cantered approach to the planning, design and management of public spaces.
But simply, it involves looking at, listening to, and asking questions of the people who live, work and play
in a particular space, to discover needs and aspirations. This information is then used to create a common
vision for that place. The vision can evolve quickly into an implementation strategy, beginning with small-
scale, do-able improvements that can immediately bring benefits to public spaces and the people who use
them.
Place Making can be used to improve all of the spaces that comprise the gathering places within
a community—its streets, sidewalks, parks, buildings, and other public spaces—so they invite
greater interaction between people and foster healthier, more social, and economically viable
communities.
But Place Making is not just the act of building or fixing up a space; it is a process that fosters the
creation of vital public destinations—the kind of places where people feel a strong stake in their
communities and commitment to making things better. Place Making capitalizes on a local
community’s assets, inspiration and potential, creating good public spaces that promote people’s
health, happiness, and economic well- being. As a PPS survey of its members suggests, this
process is essential even sacred to people who care about the places in their lives.
6. Develop a vision.
A vision for a public space addresses its character, activities, uses, and meaning in the community. This
vision should be defined by the people who live or work in or near the space.
8. Triangulate.
The concept of triangulation relates to locating elements next to each other in a way that fosters activity.
For example, a bench, trash receptacle, and coffee kiosk placed near a bus stop create synergy because
they are more convenient for waiting bus passengers and pedestrians than if they were isolated from each
other.
More than just creating better urban design of public spaces, Place Making facilitates creative patterns of
activities and connections (cultural, economic, social, and ecological) that define a place and support its
ongoing evolution. PPS wants to show planners, designers, and engineers how to move beyond their habit
of looking at communities through the narrow lens of single-minded goals or rigid professional disciplines.
“We have to turn everything upside down, to get it right side up. From a top-down approach, to a
community-led approach that focuses on places. So that people can create good places for themselves by
discovering their own abilities or identities. “And hopefully get a sense of ownership.
What makes some spaces succeed while others fail? In part, it is having a variety of things to do in one
spot. When the space becomes more than the sum of its parts, it becomes a place. For example, an area in
a park that has a fountain, playground, somewhere for parents to sit in the shade, and a place to get
something to drink or eat will attract people to stay there for more than a few minutes and return. If the
park had a library across the street, with an outdoor area that had storytelling hours for kids and exhibits
on local history, people would come to both the library and park again and again. Easy access to a bus
stop or bike trail and proximity to residential areas are additional components that cumulatively add up to
a very successful place.
Sociability
This is a difficult but unmistakable quality for a place to achieve. When people see friends, meet and greet
their neighbours, and feel comfortable interacting with strangers, they tend to feel a stronger sense of place
or attachment to their community—and to the place that fosters these types of social activities.
URBAN IDENTITY
The essence of urban identity, firstly, it is important to respond to a question like; the essence for whom?
The observations of an inhabitant, the pleasures of a tourist, the standpoint of a politician or the vision of
a planner, about the essence of urban space and its identity can be so variable. Since the reasons are
countless, practices and perceptions are different, so as the meanings for people distinguishes. The
experiences, emotions, memory, imagination, present situation, and intention can be so variable so a
person can see a place in several distinct ways.
Relph deals with the viewpoint of the communities on place identity that for different groups and
communities of interest and knowledge, places have different identities. A particular city can present a
different identity to those living in its slums, its ghettos, its suburbs; and to planners, and citizen s action
groups.
According to Güvenç, urban identity issue should be defined as the perceived impression of people about
urban pattern. As he points out, the one that has the identity is not the urban space but the people who live
within. In that sense, it is important to emphasize the relationship and affectionateness between people
and urban space. The inhabitants in a town, their lifestyles, perceptions, relations with urban space and
with each other, the balances, and harmony between people and their built environment are important by
the means of their interaction with urban space.
One of the patterns that Alexander defines as, identifiable neighbourhood points out the needs of people
belonging to an identifiable spatial unit, as he states, people want to be able to identify the part of the city
where they live as distinct from all others.
According to Lynch, it is also a support for the sense of belonging to some place-attached group, as well
as a way of marking behavioural territory.
While dealing with the meaning of place, Schulz points out the psychic function of the concept that It
depends on identification, and implies a sense of belonging. It therefore constitutes the basis for dwelling.
We ought to repeat that man s most fundamental need is to experience his existence as.
Lynch deals with a concept of physical legibility in urban space, which is something crucial for a beautiful
city and a clear image that gives people a sense of emotional security, allows better orientation, and
establishes the harmonious relationship between the one and the physical environment. He expresses the
environmental image as the outcome of this two-way process between the observer and his environment.
That is why, Lynch evaluates the city as, ... not a thing in itself, but the city being perceived by its
inhabitants.
While examining the essence of place, Relph also points out the powerful relationship between community
and place, as each reinforces the identity of one another. Identity is a basic feature of our experience of
places, which both influences and influenced by those experiences. According to him, in identifying the
places, the identity of the person or a group is as important as the identity of that place. While questioning
the condition of experiencing a place from outside or inside, he uses the terms insaneness and outsideness.
Through the formation of an urban identity, the reflections of historical, natural, socio-cultural, and spatial
involvements on urban space constitute an idea about a place throughout the time. The house we born, the
street we participate in time, the neighborhood and the city that we have given meanings with our
understanding and experiences, contains most of the images and reflections about history, culture and
identity as well. The distinctive spatial evidences of cities, which stay alive throughout the time, turn out
to be the survivors and significant signs of that urban identity. In a sense, a unique urban character matures
and develops layer by layer in long periods, interrelated with the lifestyle of the inhabitants, their cultural
identity, traditions, language, and religion. Therefore, in examining the formation of the issue, the
historical, socio-cultural and functional dimensions of urban identity are also going to be stated, however,
the emphasis is about to deal with the morphological dimension of the urban identity in particular. In that
sense, through the analysis about the formation of urban identity, the approaches on the morphological
and perceptional dimensions of urban space will essentially be taken into consideration. Lynch s
evaluation about the elements of urban design also gives clues about the raw materials of urban identity.
Spaces, the visible activities in the city, network of spatial sequences, communications, textures, and
surfaces of urban scene, environmental bases; plants as fundamental landscape materials and man- made
details in urban space are the elements and materials of urban design.
As a conclusion, the sustainability of urban identity should be seen as the priority of the town. As if, the
development of tourism and expansion of second housing can be restricted in the town and in the whole
peninsula, and investments are directed to the environmental protection, urban quality and conservation
of the historical, architectural and spatial values and meanings, then the earnings of those savings will turn
to be a memorable and unique urban environment in mind in the long term.
What makes a city or a place different in our mind? In which circumstances do we talk about the identity
of a city? What are the characteristics of a city with identity? By answering these questions, the aspects,
which contribute to urban identity, are going to be emphasized.
In analyzing the environmental image, Lynch considers three components, which are identity,
structure, and meaning. He describes identity, which is something identified as a distinctive object
from other things, as a separable entity, not equivalent with something else but in a sense of
individual and unique. In defining the structure and meaning, Lynch points out the spatial relation
of the object with the observer as well as its practical or emotional meaning for the observer. He also
evaluates identity issue as one of the criteria of urban design as well and defines the characteristics
of a place with, clear 13 perceptual identity, recognizable, memorable, and vivid character, which
engages of attention and differentiates from other locations.
URBAN SPRAWL
DISADVANTAGES:
• Pollution increases in these areas, which has serious environmental impacts.
• Bad air quality can cause respiratory problems.
• The lack of exercise, as there aren’t walk ways and bike ways available, therefore obesity increases.
• Cars and motorbikes dependency, as these are the only way to move around, causing again a rise in
obesity and an increase in health issues.
• Worse health care.
INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
The classical view: Agrarian crisis accelerates urban growth – leads to exodus from villages. Overall
mobility of migrants stagnates.
2001: Share of total migrants in the country has increased slightly from 27% to 29% during the 90s but
this is less than 31% in 1961.
The total urban population is still as big as 287.56 million which is almost equal to the total population of
the United States.
Big cities have not been able to absorb labour and investments within the formal sector of economy leading
to problem of slums and informal economy. 21% of urban population lives in slums. Nearly 40-50 per
cent of people live in slums of Mumbai.
Urban planning has tried density control through physical planning but failed to check in- migration or
address the issue of basic services.
Social and environmental impacts of these trends are severe as there is also high level of inequity in the
provision of basic services in cities. Poor are pushed to periphery.
If cities grow big, its scale and density also makes waste treatment, recycling facilities, and public transport
more efficient. But they also exceed their ecological limits. But efficiency gains are limited in Indian cities
due to poor urban governance.
The issue is not about growth but about distribution, equity and urban governance.
Air pollution and mobility crisis: Cities are being built for a small group of car owners, disregarding the
mobility needs of the majority of urban population. Pollution and congestion costs high.
Solid waste and hazardous waste: 120,000 tons of garbage every day in Indian cities. But very limited
disposal, re-use and recycling capacities. Waste to energy remains a non-starter. Colonization of land for
waste disposal is leading to conflicts.
Water and waste water: Per capita water supply ranges from 9 lpcd to 584 lpcd across urban India. Only
72 cities have partial sewerage facilities and 17 have some primary treatment facilities.
Energy crisis: Wide gap in demand and supply, wastage. One third of India consumes 87% of nation’s
electricity, hence energy inefficient. But heavily built cities like Tokyo and New York use less energy per
capita than rural residents.
Advantages of LA method:
Adequate amounts of land for urban uses can be rapidly generated. To expedite acquisition, some states
allow private developers to assemble land. In many cases, developers use extralegal means (non- formal
offers) to secure farmers' consent. The benefit of appreciation of land value on its being converted to urban
use accrues to the development authority.
Disadvantages of LA method
In this method, farmers are essentially thrown off their land. Unable to wisely invest the money received
as compensation for their land and deprived of a means of livelihood, they have to join the pool of urban
labor. This process adds to familiar urban problems: Growth of slums, increase in crime rates, and
increased informal-sector economic activity. The development process is slow. Any person who needs
land for urban use has to approach the urban development authority. The development authority ends up
becoming a bottleneck for development. Development agencies using the method of bulk land acquisition
end up being powerful large-scale land developers, controlling vast urban resources. This is likely to breed
corruption and is antithetical to the emerging paradigm, where government plays a facilitator’s role.
• In this method, the public planning agency or development authority temporarily brings together a
group of landowners for the purpose of planning, under the state- level town or urban planning act.
As there is no acquisition or transfer of ownership involved, there is no case for paying compensation.
• A master plan of the area is prepared, laying out the roads and plots for social amenities. The
remaining land is reconstituted into final plots for the original owners. The size of the final plot is in
proportion to the size of the original plot, and its location is as close as possible to the original plot.
• A betterment charge based on the cost of the infrastructure proposed to be laid is levied on the
landowners. Infrastructure is then provided utilizing these funds.
Advantages:
All the land, except whatever is needed for infrastructure development and social amenities,
Remains with the original owner. The development agency plays a limited role in ensuring planned urban
growth. The increment in land value resulting from the development accrues to the original owner
whenever the land is sold and developed for urban use. Thus, the benefit of development goes to the
original owner instead of the development agency. The original owner is not displaced in the process of
land development and continues to enjoy access to the land resource. Thus, the negative impact of the
process of urbanization on farmers (original owners) is minimized.
Disadvantages
Time consuming, – land pooling or readjustment schemes is unduly complicated and cumbersome.
Betterment charges are levied at the time of Plan passing. – . Due to the inordinate delays in finalizing
schemes, the betterment charges levied on finalization of the scheme do not meet the cost of the
infrastructure provided.
GENERIC FORM
INTRODUCTION
Generic form is the relationship between architectural form, political theory, and urban history by
generic we mean what is common within the general condition of the city. By common we mean
how to transform the latent generic condition of the city into a collective sphere, beyond the idea
of it being simply a public and private space.
GENERIC ARCHITECTURE
The term generic refers to an undifferentiated common quality which is prior to the individual. Thus
the category of generic is strongly linked with the category of labor. In architecture a fundamental
manifestation of this condition is the concept of typical plan. A typical plan is a spatial scheme that
is designed to maximize production in its interior. Yet the concept of typical plan can also be
generalized as the very architectural paradigm of modernity.
In order to govern the uncertainties and the unforeseeable development implicit in the process of
production, the spatial frame in which production occurs have to be reduce to the least formal
complexity. Thus, standardization is not, as many assume, only a matter of mass production.
Standardization of (architectural) space is the response to the uncertainty and precocity implicit in any
form of production.
The result of this condition was radical and intelligible in modernity. Think of the factory space
with its reduced spatial aesthetic, or the austere architecture of social housing. In the last forty years
the growing ethos of up-rootedness implicit in the even more generic nature of contemporary labor
has been countered with an architecture made of redundant differences.
These redundant differences can be assumed as the ideological and symbolic mask to the ethos of
the generic implicit in the nature of contemporary labor. To unmask such condition and to define a
contemporary generic architecture as the manifestation of a common sphere will be the main task of
the unit.
Over the years architectural form will be addressed precisely in terms of its ability to construct and
represent the idea of common space. Because of this, the unit will insist on issues of architectural
form, composition, syntax and materiality. It is our conviction that only by engaging with form in its
deepest, most elemental condition is it possible to trace architecture’s political motivation
CHALLENGE
The creation of a clustering of ill defined, simplistically nondescript towers juxtaposed with bold
architectural gestures, that would, according to the Any time’s, “a centre of urban experimentation as well
as one of the world’s fastest growing metropolises.”
INCOHERENCE
INTRODUCTION
The Integration Paths of the Barrios of Caracas is a two years research project supported by the German
Research Foundation (DFG) and conducted at the Department of Spatial Planning in Developing
Countries. It deals with the evaluation of upgrading policies implemented in informal settlements in
Caracas as a means to integrate them into the urban fabric of the city.
Major elements are infrastructure development and organized participation of the communities in the
planning and implementation process. The project started in November 2004 and will finish at the end of
2006.
The city of Caracas, Venezuela, has one third of its inhabitants living in informal settlements, known as
barrios. These are precarious settlements developed outside the framework of urban regulation and
growing continuously on invaded and non-urbanized land on hazardous sites.
Built by the inhabitants themselves these settlements have gone through a consolidation process which
assures their permanence in the urban landscape. The inhabitants of the barrio, being spatially segregated
and socially excluded from the surrounding formal city, must not only struggle with the lack of access to
urban basic services and infrastructure, but also with insecure property rights, ambiguous citizenship,
unemployment, high crime rates, and powerlessness in the urban decision-making process.
This situation poses spatial integration and socioeconomic inclusion of the barrios as major challenges to
urban planning and politics. Urban governance must ensure justice and equal access to the benefits offered
by urban development to all urban dwellers, especially to those who have been deprived of their basic
human rights since decades.
Strategic Territorial Agendas for "Small and Middle-Sized Towns" Urban Systems
STATUSThe STATUS project is tackling the problem of incoherent urban and regional development in
South Eastern European and neighbouring countries by jointly developing an approach that can help cities
and regions in making integrated and sustainable urban agendas and place-based strategies by participatory
planning tools.
It aims to enrich the pool of development, regeneration and management tools in urban settlements
systems of the SEE program area. Cities in the XXI century face the challenge of being competitive and
maintaining a reasonable state of welfare at the same time.
Many cities in SEE area have a significant urban development deficit in terms of integrated strategies,
capacity and urban implementation tools. STATUS aims at reducing the widening development gap of
SEE cities in terms of quality of life and capability, compared to West European ones. STATUS prepares
the partner cities to design good strategies and policies in order to pursue more balanced territorial
development and ensuring global competitiveness.
The scale of urban networks and clusters of cities in the STATUS territorial partnership ranges from the
urban/ peri-urban (metropolitan areas, systems of urban settlements) to the sub-regional and regional level.
The STATUS project will collaborate in a true transnational setting to assist SEE cities authorities to
develop Strategic Territorial/Urban Agendas (ST/UA), as a tool for sustainable and integrated
development in line with 21st century standards.
It aims, by applying a participatory planning process, to implement, together with local actors, Urban
Centers (UCs) as places in where to shape cities strategic visions. This will result in shared local
development scenarios. Results, practices and emerging city networks (local and inter-communal) will be
archived and promoted in the SEE Web Platform (SEE-WP) which will constitute the memory of
implemented plans and policies, as well as the virtual platform through which to develop innovative and
smart solutions for the SEE cities of the future.
The developed outputs of the project (strategic urban agendas and urban centers) will assist the
participating cities in using cohesion funds in a more efficient manner and provide input for future
(cohesion funded) projects.
PUBLIC REALM
Public realm is defined as any publicly owned streets, pathways, right of ways, parks, publicly accessible
open spaces and any public and civic building and facilities. The quality of our public realm is vital if we
are to be successful in creating environments that people want to live and work in.
Public realm is defined as any publicly owned streets, pathways, right of ways, parks, publicly accessible
open spaces and any public and civic building and facilities.
The quality of our public realm is vital if we are to be successful in creating environments that people
want to live and work in.
The public realm includes all exterior places, linkages and built form elements that are physically and/or
visually accessible regardless of ownership. These elements can include, but are not limited to, streets,
pedestrian ways, bikeways, bridges, plazas, nodes, squares, transportation hubs, gateways, parks,
waterfronts, natural features, view corridors, landmarks and building interfaces.
The public realm is organized into four categories: parks, streetscapes, coastal areas and public places.
Definitions for these categories are as follows:
• Parks - Public open spaces within a community for recreational use. Parks may include natural areas
such as mountain ridges and wide systems.
• Streetscapes - The visual elements of a street including the road, sidewalk, street furniture, trees and
open spaces that combine to form the street’s character.
• Coastal Areas - All land areas along the water’s edge.
• Public Places - All open areas within a community visible to the public or for public gathering Or
assembly.
Public realm includes all the spaces between buildings that can be freely accessed; it encompasses all
outdoor areas including roads, parks, squares, pedestrian routes and cycle ways. Outdoor space should
stimulate the senses, yet remain human in scale. The condition and quality of our streets and spaces have
a major impact on our quality of life, it is therefore important to understand how design and quality
development can help to create successful places.
The City of Edinburgh Council recognized the importance of design in creating successful places in its
Public Realm Strategy for Fountainbridge1. The aim of this strategy document was to focus on the public
realm aspects of Fountain Bridge (previously a brewery) and to provide future developers with an
understanding of the planning authority’s aspirations and vision for the site.
The strategy built on the requirements of the pre-existing Development Brief for Fountain bridge, which
established the principle of redevelopment of the site to a mix of uses. The strategy therefore provided:
TRANSPORTATION
INTRODUCTION:
Transport or transportation is t h e m o v e m e n t o f p e o p l e , a n i m a l s a n d goods from o n e
Location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline and space. The field
can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles and operations. Transport is important because it enables trade
between persons, which is essential for the development of civilizations.
Transportation helps shape an area’s economic health and quality of life. Not only does the transportation
System provide for the mobility of people and goods, it also influences patterns of growth and economic
activity by providing access to land. The performance of the system affects public policy concerns like air
quality, environmental resource consumption, social equity, land use, urban growth, economic
development, safety, and security.
Transportation planning recognizes the critical links between transportation and other societal goals. The
planning process is more than merely listing highway and transit capital projects. It requires developing
strategies for operating, managing, maintaining, and financing the area’s transportation system in such a
way as to advance the area’s long-term goals.
Urbanization has been one of the dominant contemporary processes as a growing share of the global
population lives in cities. Considering this trend, urban transportation issues are of foremost importance
to support the passengers and freight mobility requirements of large urban agglomerations.
• Transportation in urban areas is highly complex because of the modes involved, the multitude of
origins and destinations, and the amount and variety of traffic. Traditionally, the focus of urban
transportation has been on passengers as cities were viewed as locations of utmost human interactions
with intricate traffic patterns linked to commuting, commercial transactions and leisure/cultural activities.
However, cities are also locations of production, consumption and distribution, activities linked to
movements of freight. Conceptually, the urban transport system is intricately linked with urban form and
spatial structure. Urban transit is an important dimension of mobility, notably in high density areas.
• Transportation planning is a cooperative process designed to foster involvement by all users of the
system, such as the business community, community groups, environmental organizations, the traveling
public, freight operators, and the general public, through a proactive public participation process
conducted by the Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), state Department of Transportation (state
DOT), and transit operators.
Transportation’s purpose is moving people and goods from one place to another, but transportation
systems also affect community character, the natural and human environment, and economic development
patterns.
A transportation system can improve the economy, shape development patterns, and influence quality of
life and the natural environment. Land use and transportation are symbiotic: development density and
location influence regional travel patterns, and, in turn, the degree of access provided by the transportation
system can influence land use and development trends.
Urban or community design can facilitate alternative travel modes. For example, a connected System of
streets with higher residential densities and a mix of land uses can facilitate travel by foot, bicycle, and
public transportation, in addition to automobile. Conversely, dispersed land development patterns may
facilitate vehicular travel and reduce the viability of other travel modes.
The concept of sustainability is accommodating the needs of the present population without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
As applied to the Transportation sector, planning for sustainability can incorporate a variety of strategies
to Conserve natural resources (including use of clean fuels), encourage modes other than single occupant
vehicles, and promote travel reduction strategies.
1. TRAFFIC CONGESTION:
Absence of efficiency in the provision and operation of transportation:
Examples: congestions on public transport means during morning and evening rush hours; motorized
traffic congestions in the central built-up areas.
2. INCONVENIENCE:
Inadequate accessibility and poor usability:
Examples: bad access to transfer stations; station buildings full of bumps and barriers; low service levels.
Urban transportation planning is the process that leads to decisions on transportation policies and
programs. In this process, planners develop information about the impacts of implementing alternative
courses of action involving transportation services, such as new highways, introduction of new modes of
public transport etc., or parking restrictions. The fundamental objective of transportation is to provide
efficient and safe levels of mobility required to support a wide spectrum of human needs for a
heterogeneous variety of societal groups. Because these needs, goals, and objectives are continuously
changing, transportation planning is also an ever-evolving process. The important steps of the
transportation planning process are as given below:
Step 1: Forecasting target year population and economic growth for the subject metropolitan area.
Step 2: allocation of land use and socio – economic projections individual analysis zones according to
land availability, local zoning and related public policies.
Step 3: specification of alternative transportation plans partly based on the result of Step 1 and Step 2.
Step 4: calculation of the capital and maintenance costs of each alternative plan.
Step 5: application of calibrated demand – forecasting models to predict target year equilibrium flows
expected to use each alternative, given the land use and socio – economic projection and the characteristics
of the transportation alternatives.
Step 6: conversion of equilibrium flows to direct user benefits, such as savings in travel time and travel
cost attributable to the proposed plan.
Step 7: comparative evaluation and selection of the best of the alternatives analysed based on estimated
costs.
GLOBALISATION
What is Globalization?
Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments
of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information
technology. Globalization is the free movement of exchange of culture, tradition, trade, investments and
services world over.
It has long back emerged as an international phenomenon which dissolves the standard understanding of
state boundaries and demographically has transformed nations by no bounds. The presence of work in the
multi-national corporations and livelihood opportunities in the urban centers makes the skilled and the
semi-skilled workers to migrate to the cities, thus creating a web of urbanized dwellings as a consequence
of the stream of globalization and convergence.
INTRODUCTION
Growth in population during the period of rapid industrialization and globalization in the 20th century was
accompanied by increased urbanization on a global basis. Although many critics blame globalization for
a decline of the middle class in industrialized countries, the middle class has been growing rapidly in
developing countries. This has led to increasing disparities in wealth between urban and rural areas. As a
result, mass movements in the countryside at times have expressed objections to globalizing processes.
For example, in 2002, in India, 70% of the population lived in rural areas and depended directly on natural
resources for their livelihood. By 2011, the majority of the world's population lived in industrialized urban
areas featuring nearby factories and business offices rather than in traditional rural areas where agricultural
activities predominate. Certain cities began to emerge as global cities generally considered to be important
centers of global economic activities.
Urbanization is such a phenomenon which has enabled intellectuals and policy makers to think more in
terms of its modes and conductions. It has created a holistic circumference of a homogenized life style. It
has led to temporal empowerment and shifted the basis of livelihood from the agrarian mode to the
industrial one.
In the words of Kiran Karnik, “Today more than half the world lives in urban areas and in India we are
close to the one third marks already and growing rapidly,” Urbanization and globalization are modern-day
facts of life. Today’s cities must compete with one another to attract capital. To do so, many local
authorities offer attractive financial incentives in addition to essential practical ones, such as well-
functioning infrastructure and urban services, communications systems, efficient transport, sufficient
housing and access to educational and recreational facilities.
But in the new “urban archipelago” of competitive cities linked by today’s globalized economy, the riches
are passed from one wealthy hand to another. The poor have been left behind.
The competition between cities has already begun in earnest. Cities have become salesmen for themselves.
The realization that regional economies are no longer linked through the production process to other
regions in the same nation-state has acted as a spur for cities to establish their own relations with
international capital and to lobby independently for European Union financial aid. By offering their
regions as cheap labour stations, they are capable of tapping into the rich vein of foreign direct investment
from around the world.
This intensifies inter-regional and international competition to attract capital. The battle for investment
and jobs engages the city in a ruthless war against its rivals, where the weapons are booster crusades, tax
breaks and incentives for international finance. This must be paid for through cuts in social services and
attacks on social conditions and living standards. A war of each city economy against every other—and
by extension every city against its working-class population—entails a relentless upbeat marketing of the
city's image. The workforce is always skilled and responsive, and investment is always inward.
In most developing countries cities globalization impact will vary greatly in extent and intensity over time,
spatially, within and between cultures and social class. Due to the weak financial base and technology,
developing countries will be at a disadvantage position in a world of globalised trading of industrial
products. Though this may vary within and among regions in developing countries.
Some towns and villages in the country have become so prosperous that only the wealthy can reside there.
Working class people in rural areas can no longer afford to live in the place of their birth because the price
of property has shot up due to the influx of wealthy commuters who work in the financial centre. Farm
cottages are being turned into holiday lets, forcing residents with less collateral to move away in search of
a tenancy.
Wealthy investors, often seeking a second home in the country, are buying up whole farms, because those
with less acreage have already been taken. They rent the surrounding land to working farmers who cannot
afford to buy the property themselves. There is a relentless growth of private sector provision for those
who can afford it, while those who cannot are left with decaying and neglected public services.
It has made so many changes in our lives that reversing it is not possible at all. The solution lies in
developing effective mechanisms that can check the extent to which it can impact the environment. It is
important that we put in some efforts to maintain harmony with the environment. The survival of human
race on this planet is dependent on the environment to such a large extent that we cannot afford to ignore
the consequences of our own actions.
INTRODUCTION
Urban conservation is an important part of modern heritage policies. For at least half a century, historic
cities have acquired an incomparable status in modern culture and in modern life; a status defined by the
quality of the architectural and physical environment, by the persistence of the sense of place, and by the
concentration of the historic and artistic events that form the basis for the identity of a people. Last but not
least, they have become the icons of global cultural tourism and coveted places for the enjoyment of a
different lifestyle and for cultural experiences for millions of people.
As the economic and social role of the historic city changes with time, as its own uses and functions are
less and less decided by its own inhabitants, but rather by global forces such as the tourism or real estate
industries, the meaning of urban conservation changes and needs to be reassessed.
Urban renewal is a program of land redevelopment in areas of moderate to high density urban land use.
The process has had a major impact on many urban landscapes, and has played an important role in the
history and demographics of cities around the world. Urban renewal involves the relocation of businesses,
the demolition of structures, the relocation of people, and the use of eminent domain (government purchase
of property for public purpose) as a legal instrument to take private property for city-initiated development
projects. This process is also carried out in rural areas, referred to as village renewal, though it may not be
exactly the same in practice.
WHY CONSERVATION?
The majority of India’s architectural heritage and sites are unprotected. They constitute a unique
civilization legacy. This unprotected heritage embodies values of enduring consequence to contemporary
Indian society. Conserving the ‘living’ heritage, therefore, offers the potential ways of conserving a
building. The living heritage also has symbiotic relationships with the natural environments within which
it originally evolved.
Our time is witness to the biggest human migration in history: urban areas now shelter more than half of
humanity. Urban areas are increasingly important as engines of growth and as centers of innovation and
creativity; they provide opportunities for employment and education and respond to people’s evolving
needs and aspirations. Rapid and uncontrolled urbanization, however, can result in a drastic deterioration
of urban environmental quality.
Urban heritage, including its tangible and intangible components, constitutes a key resource in enhancing
the livability of urban areas and sustaining productivity, in a changing global environment. The tangible
heritage includes historic buildings of all periods. Intangible cultural heritage, transmitted from generation
to generation, is constantly recreated by communities and groups, and provides them with a sense of
identity and continuity, thus promoting respect for cultural diversity and human creativity.
The result is that cities have been exposed to new pressures, among which the following:
• Rapid urbanization threatening the sense of place and identity of communities
• Uncontrolled, poorly conceived or badly implemented urban development
• Intensity and speed of changes, including global warming
.
Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B
83 AR 6911 URBAN DESIGN
WHAT IS RENEWAL?
The purpose of urban renewal is to improve specific areas of a city that are poorly developed or
underdeveloped. These areas can have old deteriorated buildings and bad streets and utilities or the areas
can lack streets and utilities altogether.
• It allows for special flexibility in working with private parties to complete development projects.
For a municipality to use urban renewal it must establish an urban renewal agency and it must adopt an
urban renewal plan
IMPORTANCE
Urban Renewal growing importance:
• Urban areas are becoming larger and older, so more and more renewal of urban fabric has to take
place.
• The constant expansion of urban areas into agricultural hinterland, while large quantities of urban
land and buildings are abandoned and left dilapidated.
POLICIES
• Slum Clearance - Demolition of tumble-down dwellings located in a slum (an area of sub-standard,
overcrowded housing occupied by the poor immigrants).
• Redevelopment - The demolition of an existing building and its replacement by a new building
•
• Rehabilitation - The repair and improvement of existing structurally sound property. Housing
Improvement - Improvements of dwellings by provision of essential basic amenities. Conservation -
To retain unchanged. Also meant as ‘Preservation’
URBAN CATALYST
INTRODUCTION
By definition a catalyst is a substance or vehicle that accelerates a reaction. In urban design, a catalyst
may be conceptualized as a project that will stimulate future development. Urban catalysts are new
redevelopment strategies comprised of a series of projects that drive and guide urban development.
Redevelopment efforts in the past, such as urban renewal and large-scale redevelopment projects, have
often jeopardized the vitality of downtowns.
The difference between the catalyst and these redevelopment strategies is that catalytic redevelopment is
a holistic approach, not a clean-slate approach, to revitalizing the urban fabric. Many cities have
considered urban catalysts as a means for revitalization. Among the most noted catalytic projects are sports
stadiums and arenas: however not all catalytic projects have to be designed at such a grand scale, nor do
all cities possess a threshold of support to successfully sustain such developments.
There are important differences between the term “catalytic” and the concept of the urban catalyst. The
urban catalyst concept, developed by Wayne Attoe (1977), has a value beyond any metaphorical phrase
such as “heart of the city”, a term that is often used to describe some catalytic projects. Many thinks of
catalysts as super developments and this may be valid in some cases where there is strong financial backing
and a solid public support.
However, it is more accurate to describe an urban catalyst as a smaller element or a group of elements, a
building and the space around it, for example— which will jump- start positive social and economic
redevelopment activity. An urban catalyst has a greater purpose than to merely provide a destination or
improve the appearance of an area. An urban catalyst should be an element that is shaped by the context
in which it is placed, and should in turn shape that context, with the purpose of reviving the urban fabric.
For an urban catalyst to be successful, the catalyst must not be a stand-alone element, but rather an element
within a framework that guides future development (Sternberg, 2002).
Sternberg (2002) identifies five ways in which catalysts can encourage surrounding developments.
1. Creating pedestrian traffic is the most important way that a project can encourage development. This
occurs when a catalyst acts as a primary destination that draws people to an area, creating demand for
secondary and periodic uses that fuel adjacent developments. This strategy can successfully provide a
variety of uses that will extend the life of a development.
2. Secondly, the development needs to be properly designed and linked to its surroundings visually and
physically.
3. Third, a development attracting pedestrian traffic can serve as an amenity even if the pedestrians do
not enter it.
4. A development’s character integrated with its ability to complement a streetscape helps create an
amenity that spurs development. A development can also influence a one’s perception of an area if it
survives in an area previously noted as derelict.
5. Lastly is the relevance of the project relative to its location—for example, an art theatre in a district
known for its artisans.
MARKET FACTORS
A project is vulnerable to external and internal risk at all stages. In the private sector, viability is measured
in terms of the balance between risk and reward. A major barrier for urban developments is that they may
not pay off, at least on the time scale that is set by investors. In the public sector, viability is normally
considered in terms of broader objective of achieving and maintaining a healthy economy, and value for
public money.
For an urban catalyst to be successful economically there needs to be a strong partnership between the
public and private business sectors. This partnership will allow strategic planning of elements that will
draw the most economic gain, allowing the development to be shaped by both the public and private
sectors. The local economy, fuelled by local business, should be considered in the makeup of catalytic
developments. It is important that catalysts economically stimulate the areas in which they are developed.
CONTEXTUAL FACTORS
1. Morphological-focuses on the layout and form of streets and the pattern of urban blocks. The
morphological dimension of public space deals with the configurationof urban form and space. One can
derive some principles that can ensure contextual compatibility with the existing fabric. For a development
to fit contextually there needs to be an understanding of how the site and the adjacent area evolved.
2. Social- introduces key issues concerning the relationship between space and society.It is difficult to
visualize space without social content and equally difficult to visualize society without a spatial
component. This connection is best conceived as a two-way process where people create and modify
spaces while simultaneously being influenced by space. Streets, squares, and other public spaces should
be designed in a manner to capitalize on flow of movement between catalytic developments, by providing
spaces that are meant as movement corridors as well as spaces that are meant to hold users and allow more
interaction.
3. Functional- supports urban design as a design process; because design criteria must be met
simultaneously to insure the design responds to its context.The functional dimension of urban spaces deals
with how places work and how urban designers can make spaces better. Catalysts need to respond to the
basic needs people seek to satisfy in urban space: comfort, relaxation, passive and active engagement, and
discovery. By responding to these needs a catalyst can offer a variety of uses and have a higher possibility
to generate activity.
4. Perceptual- address responses to how people observe, understand, and add meaning to the urban
environment.The perceptual dimension of urban design, deals with one’s awareness and appreciation of
place. A catalyst needs to be able to be perceived by its users. Catalysts should have enough image ability
that the project will become engrained in one’s cognitive map of the city, district, and neighbourhood.
Catalytic developments should be legible enough so that people perceive what the project means not only
to them, but to the context as well. This center will be beneficial to people in different ways, this difference
can become the seed of interaction later on.
5. Visual- pertains to the visual experience of the urban environment. Urban catalysts need to provide
movement cues for users by providing sequences of spaces for people to navigate through. This sequence
should allow people the chance to reflect on what they have experienced as well as speculate on what is
coming up in the sequence.
TRANSIT METROPOLIS
• Transit metropolis is a region where a ‘workable fit’ exists between transit services and urban form
• Perhaps compact mixed use development well suited to rail
• Perhaps flexible bus services well suited to dispersed development
• Viewed as a paradigm for sustainable regional development
• Adaptive Transit-places that have accepted spread out low density patterns of growth
Seek to appropriately adapt transit services and new technologies to these environments
Karlsruhe (dual track systems); Adelaide (track guided buses) and Mexico City (small vehicle
entrepreneurial services)
Strong Core Cities-integrating transit and urban development within a more confined central city context
• Provide integrated tram services around mixed traffic tram and light rail system
• Trams designed into streetscapes and coexist with pedestrian and bicycle traffic
• Examples: Zurich and Melbourne
DEVELOPMENT PATTERN
• The road and rail network forms basis for the development of urban pattern and structure
• Trends of past city growth determine direction of high, medium and low-density development
• Very difficult to reverse major development trends unless with strong and deliberate govt. initiatives
PUBLIC/COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION
The development of the city as support of human activities has resulted in a complex live laboratory in
permanent evolution. The same city which according to Lewis Mumford “…is also a conscious work of
art, and it holds within its communal framework many simpler and more personal forms of art."
The continuous growth process of cities, with its uninterrupted demands of natural resources consumption,
is related to serious environmental and social problems. By the end of the 20th century, this growing
process reached warning signs, regarding the effects resulting from uncontrolled urban expansion without
concern of appropriate infrastructure and facilities location. This alert also emerged as a result of the
globalization of urban planning process, in which interventions at different levels, supported by public and
private partnerships, were increasingly neglecting local and environmental specificities as well as
overlooking the population needs and its cultural identity.
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
Public participation is the involvement of people in the creation and management of their built And natural
environments. Its strength is that it cuts across tradition professional boundaries and cultures. The activity
of community participation is based on the principle that the built and nature Environment work better if
citizens are active and involved in its creation and management Instead of being treated as passive
consumers.
• No matter what the scale of proposal, development control can be thought of as a process of
negotiation: at its simplest, between the applicant and the local authority, with only rudimentary
involvement by the public. In the most complex cases it involves a process of 'trading off' between
parties, and high-profile public debate.
• Not Of the authorities, or the public’s interest in a proposal will be in its Visual form: they will also
wish to consider its functional content its impact on the environment (on traffic in particular) on the
economy.
• However, we are Concerned here with the visual modelling of proposals and the Ways in which the
traditional method of depositing plans and physical models is being replaced by digital methods which
have the potential to be developed as interactive tools for use in the negotiation process.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTICIPATION
• Although any given participation process does not automatically ensure Success, it can be claimed
that the process will minimize failure. Four essential characteristics of participation can be identified;
• Participation is inherently good.
• It is a source of wisdom and information about local conditions, needs and attitudes, and therefore
improves the effectiveness of decision making.
• It is a means of defending the interests of groups of people and of individuals, and a tool for studying
their needs, which are often ignored and dominated by large organizations, institutions, and their
bureaucracies.
• With the goal of achieving agreement about what the future should bring.
Contemporary planning theories acknowledge the value of community participation in the development
processes of our built environment, suggesting that community involvement has the potential to achieve a
more sustainable outcome. Research in this field indicates that citizen participation can generate trust,
credibility and commitment regarding the implementation of policies.
This paper investigates tools to measure the effectiveness of public participation and their influence on
urban development processes. Based on a literature review, a framework of indicators was developed,
which has been used to analyse the community participation process in the development of the ‘Greater
Christchurch Urban Development Strategy’, a collaborative initiative to develop a growth strategy for the
Christchurch region in New Zealand. Results from this case study suggest that there is a relationship
between the various indicators and the main findings can be summarized as follows:
(i) Most sectors of the community appear to have an interest in their built environment and urban
planning processes, provided that their involvement is encouraged by stimulating information and
expertise is provided to support their contributions.
(ii) Although no conclusions on the motivation of the various participants in the process were reached,
the professionals involved appear to have a strong interest in networking and the sharing of expertise
.
(iii) A commonality in the views of the public was observed, with a focus on the ‘big picture’ rather than
self-interests.
(iv) Collaborative planning was experienced as an effective technique for consensus building between
professionals.
(v) The quality of resources and allocation of time appear to be influential in a community participation
process.
(vi) Indications were given that process and product outcomes should not be evaluated separately.
Keywords: community participation, collaborative planning, urban development, public consultation.
HISTORY
In 1943, the Agache Plan was made by a French urbanist by the name of Alfred Agache. Since Curitiba
started growing more rapidly than anticipated, first zoning acts were passed in 1953 while the first mass
transit was planned in 1955. By the 1960s, the Agache Plan was barely in use and already required changes.
In 1965, there was a competition for someone to make the new master plan. Planner-Architect Jorge
Wilheim’s firm won the competition and the main thing that was different about his plans compared to
Agache was having “radiating axes” from the center of Curitiba (Figure 1), he inserted public transit and
had “mixed land-use” principles. Mixed land-use meaning housing integrated into the transit corridors.
The axes left the center of the city, as if to force growth in those particular directions because that is where
the transit would be placed. As you get further from these main axes roads, the housing gets less dense.
The plan was ultimately approved in 1966. [1] [2]
Along with the axes, zones were made in order for different types of structures to be built. Among the
zones, residential zones were put by public transit and there were certain areas that were similar to historic
districts established in order to get restoration done on important historical buildings. They are called
“special preservation units” and when those units are sold all earned money is only used on saving
buildings. There is also the Central Zone and Structural Sectors for commercial areas. There are actually
50 specific zone types in Curitiba as of the year 2000. One area that was not part of the Wilheim plan to
get developers interested in developing was in the southwest part of the city. This might not seem
controversial, but the fact that it had preferred topography and was not located by any of the water supply
watersheds meant the new residents were more than likely affluent. The southwest part of the city became
the priority while the rest of the city, especially the poorer southeast area with squatted homes became
subject to environmental injustices.
Curitiba is one of the most reputable cities in terms of sustainability achievements which can becategorized
into six integrated subjects: integrated urban planning, effective public transport system, local
environmental consciousness, pedestrian and public priority in the city, social justice concentration and
local waste management system (Mills, 2006).
Context
Historical spatial and governance foundation In the 1950s Curitiba was the modest 150,000 person capitol
of the Brazilian military-state of Paraná. Curitiba was the processing and distribution center for the
surrounding agricultural industry. At its peak during the 1960s, the state of Paraná produced 1/3 of the
world’s coffee (Scwartz, Hugh). After a series of frosts between 1952 and 1975 sent the industry into a
downward spiral, workers began turning to Curitiba in search of employment.
During this time Curitiba “was characterized by a shortage of electricity, telephones, and paved streets.
Only a third of the families living in Curitiba had access to sewers. And traffic was beginning to become
more of a problem in the downtown area.” In response to the influx of people, the mayor of Curitiba
initiated a Master Plan design competition for the growing capital city. The winning team consisted of
young idealistic planners and architects lead by Jaime Lerner.
The plan emphasized a star of boulevards, with most of the public services in downtown, an industrial
district and sanitation infrastructures (Rabinovitch and Leitman, 1996). In 1964, Jaime Lerner led a team
from the Universidad Federal do Parana for urban planning of Curitiba with a number of man objectives
including strict controls on urban sprawl, a reduction of traffic in the downtown area, preservation of
Curitiba's historical sector, and building a convenient and affordable public transport system based on
express buses (Moore, 2007). This plan was adopted in 1968 Instead of a few large-scale planning
proscriptions; hundreds of small-scale practical solutions were established to enhance urban qualities.
In 2010 the city was awarded with the "Globe Sustainable City Award'. Integrated urban planning
(political, social, environmental, economic, cultural and technical) and implementation of goals by
utilizing practical design solutions are key points in this achievement. Curitiba's Master Plan has integrated
urban development with transportation and land use planning. It limited the city area growth, whilst have
encouraged commercial activities along five transport axes radiating out from the city center (Rabinovitch,
1992).
The city center was partly closed to vehicular traffic and pedestrian streets were recreated. Mixed land use
based on high density residential buildings is allowed alongside to transport axes. The density limitation
of an area is directly based on its availability to public transportation. Linear development along the
"arteries" road cause a considerable decrease in downtown movement need as well as providing new
opportunities for commercial and light industries to be located near fast transport thoroughfares. A new
industrial city was built in the west side of the city near the sea shore where includes low-income public
houses as well (Smith and Raemaekers, 1998).
The population has doubled since 1974, yet car traffic has declined by 30%. The system reduces the
fuelconsumption and air pollution as well as environmental costs of urban mobility. Roads are categorized
in four hierarchical types: structural (main axes), priority (traffic roads), collector (commercial streets)
and connector (industrial connection to axes) (Rabinovitch, 1992). They have a hierarchy regarding to
public transport accessibility and land use legislation. Urban terminals are built at the end of each express
bus lane with social services and smaller terminals which are located every 1400 meters. The innovative
and local public transport system is considered as the pioneer of urban development in Curitiba (Goldman
and Gorham, 2006).
In the early 1970s, when Brazil was welcoming mass industry, Curitiba accepted only non-polluting
industries. It also has constructed an industrial district containing a considerable amount of green space
that was called "Golf Course". Builders get tax breaks if their projects include green space (Rabinovitch
and Leitman, 1996). Curitiba is referred as the ecological capital of Brazil, with a network of 28 parks and
tree planted areas (in 1970, there was less than 1 square meter of green space per person, but in 2010 there
were 5 square meters. Citizen’s participation has a great role in this greenery development movement
Brendan. They have planted .5 million trees along city streets) it is a highlighted example of citizens
participation in urban environmental sustainability achievement. There is even a local environmental
legislation to control industries, which are desired to be located in the industrial city, to serve
environmental quality. In order to achieve the goal of having 52 square meters of green space per
inhabitant in 2010, the city has paid careful attention to preserving and improving its green areas. This
greenery strategy implementation is closely related to legislations, long term environmental vision and
citizen’s participation (Goldman and Gorham, 2006).
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
With the Iguazu River originating in Curitiba and due to the large population growth of Curitiba within
the latter part of the 20th century, there have been some unforeseen environmental issues to deal with. One
of the issues was Curitiba’s built environment growing into areas where they can easily be flooded by the
river After trying to canal the various parts of the river system by canalling both underground and in the
open, the city realized that they were not really solving the problem of flooding, but just moving the water
around the city. As a matter of fact, after dredging parts of the river, the depth only changed by 40cm. It
was decided by a group of planners that something else needed to be done to handle the flooding issue.
By working around a federal funding problem that said flood control money can only be used for
infrastructure for containing flood waters, they used that money to take care of the areas beside the river
by making them “protected wooded areas” and no longer permitted any type of building.
By the 1970s, Curitiba had 2 parks that sat beside rivers that totaled 2,000,000 square meters of open
space. In 1982, Curitiba had opened their largest river park, Iguazu Park, which had 8,000,000 square
meters. After Iguazu Park was established, Passauna Park was made to protect the Passauna River from
contamination and it is 43,000,000 square meters of wooded space.
Fast food type restaurants utilize real plates and real silverware, instead of disposable type containers. The
integration of these programs into the planning of the city has kept Curitiba's image polished as a
sustainable and forward-thinking city.
Detroit
• Detroit is the largest city in the state of Michigan and was settled in 1701. Its one of the oldest cities
in the Midwest.
• It experienced a disastrous fire in 1805 which nearly destroyed the city. After the fire, Judge laid out
a plan for Detroit, according to the ides of L’Enfant.
• The main thoroughfares radiated outward from the centre of the city like spokes in a wheel, with
Jefferson Avenue running to the Detroit River, Woodward Avenue running Perpendicular.
Industrialization
• Detroit's industrial boom in the later 19th century created a great stream of immigrants into Detroit.
• The first automobile factory in Detroit was opened in 1889. Soon the development of the automobile
industry started to boom which led to rising demands for labor, which were filled by huge numbers of
newcomers from Europe and the American South.
• Between 1900 and 1913, the city's population almost doubled. The landscape of the city also changed
dramatically.
• The Baroque city had become an industrial one, polluted, lacking order and congested.
• On Daniel Burnham’s recommendation Detroit City Plan and Improvement Commission appointed
Edward Bennett as the chief architect for Detroit’s City Beautiful Plan which is known as the 1915
Preliminary Plan of Detroit
• Some of the proposals in the Bennett’s plan for Detroit can be seen as an addition to the Woodward
Plan like the provision of additional diagonals running out from the city center to accommodate the
southeasterly and southwesterly traffic in the city. One diagonal that he proposed extended from the
Ar. Karthikeyan.K.H, M. Arch (UDD) | IX SEM, V YEAR, SEC B
96 AR 6911 URBAN DESIGN
Michigan Central station to the new Center of Arts and Letters. Another diagonal extended from the center
of Arts and Letters to Belle Isle Bridge.
• Bennett wanted that the traffic, instead of passing through the center of the city to be diverted to
thoroughfares on either side of Woodward Avenue so that it could reach its destination in the eastern or
the western section of the city.
• Bennett was also asked to develop a "broad scheme" for the arts center. Bennett set the library and
museum on axis to either side of Woodward Avenue, and surrounded them with nine secondary
structures housing schools of art and music as well as historical, horticultural, orchestral, and various
learned societies.
• The center's nine peripheral buildings framed the library and museum and created an enclave of
classical structures.
• Bennett also proposed height restrictions for adjacent buildings, thus protecting the center from being
overshadowed by other buildings.
• The most ambitious proposal of the plan was making of the entire Detroit River, from the head of
Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie, one great park.
• Bennett’s idea was to develop all of the islands in the river in a park-like fashion. Other city beautiful
components which Bennett proposed in the plan included a 200 acre forest park, the development of
the river front at the foot of the Woodward Avenue, development of a plaza in front of the Michigan
Central Depot and an avenue 200 feet wide leading from Michigan Avenue down to the Michigan
Central station
• The decades from 1920s to 1940s were Detroit’s glory days. The city saw extraordinary industrial
growth during World War II due to the production of artillery supplies for the Allied forces.
• The city added tremendous population in these years reaching a population of almost 1.85 million
(only in the city itself) in 1950 (History of Detroit, online web page).
• Around the same time Detroit’s City Plan Commission published the first comprehensive plan for the
city.
• After reaching a population peak in 1950, in the following years Detroit’s population started to
decrease dramatically. Consolidation of the automobile industry and the construction of the freeway
were the main cause for the population decrease.
• To stabilize the population the plan provides extensive goals for revitalizing the neighbourhoods. The
major physical development goals of the plan included conservation of the city's physical resources,
stopping the demolition of old structures, and special incentives for rehabilitating existing structures;
promotion of optimal reuse of vacant land; combat against neighborhood and commercial blight;
removal of blighted structures; and relocation of families into other neighbourhoods with better social
and physical conditions.
• The plan called the Central Business District (downtown) Detroit’s “gateway" and proposed
numerous goals to enhance its image. These goals included promoting downtown Detroit as a
“walking city” through the creation of a superior pedestrian environment and linking major activity
centers by pedestrian pathways, establishing a variety of downtown neighborhoods each with its own
unique character and by providing “people-oriented" landscaped open space in carefully planned
locations. The plan also had a major goal of historic preservation and encouraged restoration,
rehabilitation, and reuse of older building facades to reflect the original architectural character
• After years of decline, transforming Detroit into a resilient city might appear as an insurmountable
challenge. Hesitating between despair and enthusiasm, Detroiters try to build a better future. Shrinking
the city and developing urban farming have received significant media attention, but there are many
more solutions being tried out in order to reflate the city’s battered economy.
• Detroit, once one of the most productive industrial cities, put not only the US, but the majority of the
world on wheels. But the post-industrial era and decline of the auto industry, followed by the exodus
of the middle-class to the suburbs, has left a dilapidated centre and a sprawling urban area of de-
industrialized fabric and junk spaces.
• The Detroit Strategic Framework Plan is a comprehensive, action-oriented roadmap for decision-
making to improve the quality of life and business in Detroit.
• The project identifies productive efficiencies by establishing links between social, economic, and
ecological systems. These integrated solutions suggest new forms of urban living, new modes of
production in the city, and newly productive green infrastructures for the city at large.
➢ Besides urban agriculture, Detroit is exploring further potential sources of green growth. Developing
new technologies is one of the retained solutions for closing Detroit's "green gap". The North
American International auto show now puts a great emphasis on hybrid and electric cars, and once
again, non-profit organizations such as Warm Training Detroit try their best to promote clean
technologies.
1. A Space Becomes a Place– the concept of place making is absolutely essential in creating good
urban design. To go from being just any physical location to a place people feel connected to takes design
that considers human scale, culture, and the needs of that specific community as far as use, location,
design, and scale.
2. Built on the Past– every city has a history, and a great urban design will incorporate that into new
plans. Building on the existing not only saves materials, but helps to create a richer experience rather than
a completely new settlement with no character of its own.
3. Connected to the Landscape– it is incredibly important to consider the local ecology of a site before
designing it- local watersheds, plant life, and potential impacts the development will have on the land are
all vital in creating a good design.
4. Expect the Unexpected– a good design has definition and character, but doesn’t eliminate the
possibility of changes in use or additions to the design in later years.
5. Mix and Match– multiple uses in a small area keep “eyes on the street”, as Jane Jacobs would say,
keeping streets safer as people use them for different things throughout the day. Mixed-use designs also
bring in a wider variety of people, keep places interesting, and continue to thrive even if some uses
slowdown in the coming years.
6. Cohesion, Not Uniformity– what many Americans love about old European cities are all the stone
in old London or whitewashed plaster in Greece- but when we’ve tried to copy that in our suburbs, they
just look monotonous. A careful but not demanding palette and material list keeps a design looking
cohesive but not over designed and dull.
7. Economically Viable– though its a boring concept, its important to consider the budget you can
work with in creating a design. If you create something too extravagant, the entire plan won’t be built,
which could really backfire upon the entire design and the livability of the new development.
8. Equitable and Inclusive– designing for one socioeconomic class, whether in housing or retail, will
create more socioeconomic disparity than already exists, a boring street life, and an area that outsiders
don’t feel welcome in. A good design includes people of all walks of life.
9. Environmentally Conscious– using sustainable materials, considering the weather patterns, and
building with green technology are all important factors in design, especially when considering the many
problems with climate change and energy usage of today.
10. Focus on the People, Not the Car– for too many years, planners and designers focused on the
highway and the car, placing it in importance above the individual person. Wide sidewalks, vegetated
medians, street trees, and bulb-outs are all ways of making the pedestrian feel comfortable and slow cars
down. If you want your design to have decent street life, be financially stable, and connect to people of all
kinds, you need to put the pedestrian first.
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1 ELEMENTS OF URBAN DESIGN ............... 4 FIGURE 25 NETWORKING IN ROMAN CITY ........... 30
FIGURE 2 URBAN STRUCTURE .................................. 5 FIGURE 26 INDUSTRIAL CITY ................................... 35
FIGURE 3 URBAN GRAIN ............................................. 5 FIGURE 27 HOUSING- INDUSTRIAL CITY ............... 36
FIGURE 4 DENSITY + MIX ........................................... 6 FIGURE 28 STATION-INDUSTRIAL CITY................. 37
FIGURE 5 HEIGHT + MASSING ................................... 7 FIGURE 29 AMERICAN GRID IRON PLANNING ..... 38
FIGURE 6 FACADE + INTERFACE .............................. 7 FIGURE 30 TEMPLE TOWN OF SRI RANGAM &
FIGURE 7 DETAILS + MATERIALS ............................. 8 MADURAI ............................................................. 44
FIGURE 8 DETAILS + MATERIALS ............................. 8 FIGURE 31 VIEW OF MEENAKSHI TEMPLE,
FIGURE 9 PUBLIC REALM ........................................... 9 MADURAI ............................................................. 45
FIGURE 10 TOPOGRAPHY + LANDSCAPE ................ 9 FIGURE 32 TRADITIONAL PLAN OF MADURAI ..... 45
FIGURE 11 SOCIAL MIX ............................................. 11 FIGURE 33 SETTLEMENT PATTERN AND LAND
FIGURE 12 BUILDINGS + MASSING ......................... 11 USE OF MADURAI ............................................... 46
FIGURE 13 PIC SHOWING URBAN ELEMENTS FIGURE 34 FATEHPUR SIKRI PALACE PLAN .......... 49
INFLUENCING IN SHAPING THE CITY ........... 12 FIGURE 35 MENTAL MAP OF NEW JERSEY CITY .. 57
FIGURE 14 CATAL HUYUK........................................ 17 FIGURE 36 PLACE MAKING ....................................... 64
FIGURE 15 IRON AGE CAMP ..................................... 18 FIGURE 37 PLACE MAKING PRINCIPLES ................ 66
FIGURE 16 CITY OF POMPEII .................................... 18 FIGURE 38 ELEMENTS OF HIGH-QUALITY PUBLIC
FIGURE 17 MAIN STREETS OF POMPEII ................. 19 REALM .................................................................. 76
FIGURE 18 OTHER PLACES IN POMPEII ................. 19 FIGURE 39 TYPICAL ROAD SYSTEM- CASE STUDY
FIGURE 19 MEDIEVAL CITY ..................................... 19 1 .............................................................................. 92
FIGURE 20 PIC SHOWING VARIOUS CIVILIZATION FIGURE 40 TRANSPORT NETWORK- CASE STUDY 1
OF WORLD ........................................................... 23 ................................................................................ 93
FIGURE 21 COSMO MAGICAL CITY ........................ 24 FIGURE 41 PLAN OF DETROIT ................................... 95
FIGURE 22 MESOPOTAMIA ....................................... 25 FIGURE 42 CONCEPTUAL ZONING-DETROIT ........ 98
FIGURE 23 ACROPOLIS OF GREEK .......................... 27 FIGURE 43 ACTIVITY MAP= DETROIT..................... 99
FIGURE 24 GREEK CITY PLANNING........................ 28
Key words
UNIT I 17. Urban sprawl
1. Urban 18. Incoherence
2. Urban grain 19. Heritage
3. Urban structure 20. Leap frog
4. Scale 21. Urban planner
5. Materials 22. Town planning
6. Façade 23. Architect
7. Interface 24. Articulation
8. Height 25. Public Vs private
9. Massing
10. Public realm UNIT II
11. Topography 1. Morphology
12. Urban form 2. Agora
13. Social 3. Acropolis
14. Density 4. Forum
15. Mix use 5. Medieval
16. Population 6. Place making
11.(a). Discuss the need and scope of urban design as a discipline in India.
(Or)
(b) State the objectives of urban design and general characteristics of urban spaces.
14. (a). Explain the role of (i) Transportation (ii) zoning (iii) real estate in urban design.
(Or)
(b). Community participation is an important factor in urban renewal program. Explain with example.
15. (a). Through your case study of a developed country, Explain the role of Urban design Guidelines in
implementing the programme
(Or)
(b) State the issue and recommendations you had suggested for an urban space that you had undertaken
as case study for the course.
11.(a). Explain the Components of urban space and their inter dependencies.
(Or)
(b) State the objectives of urban design and general characteristics of urban spaces.
13. (a). Illustrate through sketches the concept of ‘serial vision’ as one of the key elements of urban design.
(Or)
(b) Describe the principles of Aldo Rossi with one example.
14. (a). Explain the role of (i) Transportation (ii) zoning (iii) real estate in urban design.
(Or)
(b). Explain place-making and identity with example
15. (a). Explain idea of urban catalyst, transit-metro polis with example.
(Or)
(b) State the issue and recommendations you had suggested for an urban space that you had undertaken
as case study for the course.