Adiabatic Temperature

Related terms:

Methane, Reaction Rate, Maximum Temperature, Temperature Change,

Temperature Gradient, Temperature Rise

Conduction of Heat in Mass Concrete, Boundary

Conditions, and Methods of Solution
Zhu Bofang, in Thermal Stresses and Temperature Control of Mass Concrete, 2014

2.8.2 Adiabatic Temperature Rise of Concrete

The adiabatic temperature rise of concrete is influenced by the kind and amount of
cement and admixture and the placing temperature. Generally it is determined by
tests. In case of no test results, it can be estimated as follows:
(2.50)

where
θ(τ)—the adiabatic temperature rise of concrete
W—amount of cement
F—amount of admixture
Q(τ)—heat of hydration of cement
c—specific heat of concrete
ρ—density of concrete
k—coefficient of reduction, k=0.25 for fly ash.
The curves of the adiabatic temperature rises of concretes with the same amount of
cements of different kinds are shown in Figure 2.14.
Figure 2.14. The curves of adiabatic temperature rise of concretes with the same
amount of cements of different kinds.

Curve Kind of Cement C3S (%) C3A (%) Fineness (cm2/g)

1 Early strength cement, Type III 56 12 2030

2 Common cement, Type I 43 11 1790

3 Moderate heat cement, Type II 40 8 1890

4 Type II cement 75%+fly ash 25%

5 Low heat cement, Type IV 20 6 1910

The relation between θ(τ) and age τ can be expressed by the following formulas:
Exponential formula
(2.51)

Hyperbolic formula
(2.52)

Complex exponential formula

(2.53)

where θ0 is the final temperature rise of concrete as τ→∞.

Equations (2.52) and (2.53) agree well with test results. Some examples are given in
the following:
Xiaowang dam, conventional concrete,
(2.54)
Longtan dam, RCC,
(2.55)

Yangtan dam, RCC,

(2.56)

Mangwan dam, RCC,

(2.57)

The exponential formula (2.51) is suitable for mathematical manipulation, but it

does not agree with test results. A new formula, which is suitable for mathematical
manipulation and agrees well with test results, is given by the writer in the
following:
(2.58)

where s, m1 and m2 are constants, and the initial values of them may be
(2.59)

where n is the constant in the hyperbolic formula (2.52).

Placing Temperature and Temperature Rise of Concrete

Lift due to Hydration Heat of Cement
Zhu Bofang, in Thermal Stresses and Temperature Control of Mass Concrete, 2014

4.6.2 Temperature Field due to Hydration Heat in Concrete Lift with

Cooling Pipe Computed by Finite Difference Method
The adiabatic temperature rise due to hydration heat is expressed by Eq. (4.21). The
mean temperature of a concrete cylinder with insulated surface and cooling pipe in
the interior is expressed by Eq. (4.24); the increment of U(t) is
(4.32)

Substituting for in Eq. (2.75), the finite difference equation

considering the effect of pipe cooling is derived in the following:
(4.33)

which may be used to compute the temperature in concrete lift with pipe cooling.
Example 2
Mass concrete is placed on rock foundation, one lift every 4 days, L=1.5 m,
a=0.10 m2/day, =0.10 m, =0°C, =0°C, p=0.0437 (1/day); the adiabatic
temperature rise is
Taking , ,
, and substituting into Eq. (4.33),
we get

The temperature on the surface point 1 is

and

The computed results are shown in Figure 4.12.

Figure 4.12. Temperature rise in concrete lifts on rock foundation due to hydration
heat, pipe cooling, and natural cooling of lift surface.

Simulation Analysis, Dynamic Temperature Control,

Numerical Monitoring, and Model Test of Thermal
Stresses in Massive Concrete Structures
Zhu Bofang, in Thermal Stresses and Temperature Control of Mass Concrete, 2014
16.4 Model Test of Temperature and Stress Fields of Massive
Concrete Structures
If the adiabatic temperature rise of concrete is , the
differential equation of heat conduction and the initial and boundary conditions of
the prototype are as follows:
Equation of heat conduction:
(16.1)

Initial condition:
(16.2)

Boundary condition:
(16.3)

If the adiabatic temperature rise of the material of the model is

, the differential equation and the conditions of the
model are:
Equation of heat conduction:
(16.1a)

Initial condition:
(16.2a)

Boundary condition:
(16.3a)

Let
(16.4)

where the subscript “m” represents the model.

Substitution of Eq. (17.51) into Eqs. (16.1)–(16.3) yields
(16.1b)

(16.2b)

(16.3b)

Comparing Eqs. (16.1b)–(16.3b) with Eqs. (16.1a)–(16.3a), it is clear that, in order to

make the temperature field of the model similar to that of the prototype, the
following conditions of similarity must be satisfied:
(16.5)

(16.6)
There are eight parameters and four equations in Eq. (16.5), thus four parameters
may be given freely and the other four parameters must be computed by Eqs.
(16.5) and (16.6). For example, let , from
Eq. (16.6), we have:

In order to satisfy the similarity conditions, for the period of annual variation (P=1
year) in the prototype, the period of variation in the model is
year=1d; for the duration of cold wave in the prototype, in the model
; in the prototype β=80 kJ/(m2 h °C), in the model,
β=4.40 kJ/(m2 h °C). These conditions are possible to be fulfilled in the model, but
it is difficult to make the rate of hydration heat in the model . Thus, it
is possible to make a model test of the temperature field for the period of
operation and it is difficult to conduct a model test of the temperature field for the
period of construction.
In the construction period, the thermal stresses are related to the modulus of
elasticity and unit creep which are functions of time and age . It is
difficult to make and to satisfy the similarity conditions. So it is
difficult to do a model test for thermal stress in the period of construction.
The modulus of elasticity of concrete is nearly constant in the period of operation,
so it is possible to do a model test for elastic thermal stress of mass concrete in the
period of operation. Because the creep of concrete is difficult to satisfy the
similarity condition, it is difficult to do a model test for viscoelastic thermal stress
even in the period of operation.
In 2010, one engineer had made a 1:7 model test for the thermal stresses in the
period of construction, and the material for model is also concrete, so
, from Eq. (16.5), . Thus, the model
must have the same dimensions as the prototype, and the model with is
not similar to the prototype.

Pipe Cooling of Mass Concrete

Zhu Bofang, in Thermal Stresses and Temperature Control of Mass Concrete, 2014

17.7.5 The Elastocreeping Self-Stress Due to Pipe Cooling and

Hydration Heat of Cement
Assuming that the adiabatic temperature rise is , both the initial temperature
of concrete and the water temperature are zero, the elastocreeping stress at the
inner surface of concrete is
(17.113)

Under the action of hydration heat and pipe cooling, the mean temperature of
concrete first increases and afterward decreases and the surface stress first is
tensile and afterward becomes compressive. Let in Eq. (17.113), the final
compressive stress at the inner surface of concrete may be estimated as follows:
(17.114)
where is the coefficient of temperature rise due to hydration heat given
in Figure 17.20, is time of temperature drop, approximately , Kp
is the stress relaxation coefficient. In the early age, the temperature will increase
and induce some compressive stress which will offset part of the tensile stress
produced in the late age; is a coefficient to consider this factor.
For example, pipe spacing 1.5 m×1.5 m, , , Kp=0.40,
, from Eq. (17.114), the compressive stress at the surface
of a hole at late age is −0.86 MPa.
Of course, the residual compressive stress at the inner surface of concrete induced
by the hydration heat at early age will offset one part of the tensile stress due to
pipe cooling at late age.

Natural Gas Conversion VI

Shikong Shen, ... Changchun Yu, in Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis, 2001

3.1 Evaluation of catalysts for combustion of methane under lean

oxygen condition
To keep the adiabatic temperature rise in the combustion reactor below 800 °C, the
evaluation of catalyst was carried out under lean oxygen condition (the ratios of
CH4 to O2 = 8:1~6:1). Table 1 shows the results for various catalysts for the
combustion of methane. The ignition temperature for the perovskite catalyst is
higher than that for the Pd-Pt/γ-Al2O3 catalyst. Although the Pd-Pt/γ-Al2O3 catalyst
exhibits higher activity, some partial oxidation products, such as CO and H2, in
addition to CO2 and H2O, were formed due a to lack of oxygen. To test the catalytic
performance of the catalyst at high temperature and lean oxygen concentrations,
the catalyst was also tested at 700 °C. The results in Table 1 show that a large
amount of CO and H2 is formed over the Pd-Pt/γ-Al2O3 catalyst at a reaction
temperature of 700 °C, while only a small amount of CO is formed over perovskite
catalysts under the same reaction conditions. It is well know that supported Pd, Pt
catalysts have high activity for partial oxidation of methane, while perovskite type
oxides catalysts have high activity for deep oxidation of methane. Therefore the
La0.7Ca0.3Fe0.3Mn0.7O3 catalyst was selected for combustion of methane. The
experiment data in Fig.2 show that when the reaction pressure is raised to over
1.6 MPa, CO disappears in the products over La0.7Ca0.3Fe0.3Mn0.7O3 catalyst, which
implies that high pressure favors the deep oxidation of methane. The test of 100 hr
on stream at 700 °C, GHSV=30000/h, CH4/O2= 8 and 0.1 MPa show that the
activity of La0.7Ca0.3Fe0.3Mn0.7O3 catalyst is stable. The carbon deposit on the used
catalyst is 0.8 wt% after 100 hr run. These results show that the
La0.7Ca0.3Fe0.3Mn0.7O3 catalyst is more suitable for the complete oxidation of
methane at high temperature and lean oxygen conditions than other catalysts.

Table 1. Evaluation results of various catalysts for combustion of methane*.

Selectivity, %
Ignition Temp. Conv. of CH4,
Catalysts °C % CO2 H2O CO H2

Pd-Pt/γ-Al2O3 325 (477)** 6.68 82 98 18 2

 Selectivity, %

Catalysts Ignition Temp. °C Conv. of CH4, % CO2 H2O CO H2

Pd-Pt/γ-Al2O3 700 (750) 10.68 34 43 66 57

La0.7Ca0.3MnO3 360 (522) 6.25 100 100 0 0

La0.7Ca0 3MnO3 700 (817) 6.43 89 100 11 0

La0.7Ca0.3Fe0.3Mn0.7O3 360 (521) 6.25 100 100 0 0

La0.7Ca0.3Fe0.3Mn0.7O3 700(820) 6.39 93 100 7 0

*
Reaction condition: CH4/ O2 = 8, GHSV=30,000 hr-1 and 0.1 M Pa.
**
In bracket shows highest temperature of the catalyst bed.

Fig. 2. Effect of reaction pressure on the combustion of CH4 at 700 °C and

GHSV=3 105 h- 1

Critical Temperatures for the Thermal Explosion of

Chemicals
Takashi Kotoyori, in Industrial Safety Series, 2005

2.5 An alternative method to derive the adiabatic temperature

increase equation
The derivation method of the adiabatic temperature increase equation, which is
introduced in the preceding section, is very difficult to understand. First of all, we
cannot understand very well the reason why dimensionless numbers, such as θ, δ
and τ, are needed to derive the equation. Fortunately, however, we have an
alternative method to derive, though qualitatively, the equation in a far simpler
manner.
When charged in the open-cup cell, or confined in the closed cell, in accordance
with the self-heating property of the chemical, and subjected to the adiabatic self-
heating test started from a Ts, * 2 cm3 of a chemical of the TD type warms up to
the Ts within tens of minutes; thereafter, it continues to self-heat over the Ts at a
very slow, but virtually constant, rate depending on the value of Ts in accordance
with the Arrhenius equation. That is, a condition that the value of dT/dt remains
virtually constant holds within a narrow range of temperature immediately above
the Ts, i.e., in the early stages of the self-heating process of 2 cm3 of a chemical of
the TD type subjected to the adiabatic self-heating test started from a Ts (Fig. 4). *

Figure 4. The linear approximation of the self-heating process or curve, in the early
stages, of 2 cm3 of a chemical of the TD type charged in the open-cup cell, or
confined in the closed cell, in accordance with the self-heating property of the
chemical, and subjected to the adiabatic self-heating test started from a Ts.

The above phenomenon is as a matter of course a direct consequence of a fact that

the effect of the concentration of a chemical of the TD type on the rate of the
exothermic decomposition reaction, in the early stages of the self-heating process,
of the chemical is virtually of the zeroth order.
If the value of dT/dt of 2 cm3 of a chemical of the TD type charged in the open-cup
cell, or confined in the closed cell, in accordance with the self-heating property of
the chemical, and subjected to the adiabatic self-heating test started from a Ts
remains virtually constant within a narrow range of temperature immediately
above the Ts, the right-hand side of Eq. (50), which is derived at once from Eq. (38),
must also take a constant value, C.
(50)

The following definite integral then becomes possible,

(51)

The result is,

 (52)

Eq. (52) is nothing else but Eq. (42).

Magnetocaloric Effect in Specially Designed Materials

Daniel Salazar-Jaramillo, ... V.A. Chernenko, in Magnetic Nanostructured Materials,
2018

7.2.3.2.1 Direct Determination of the ΔTad(T) Curve Using a

Temperature Sensor
The principle for the direct measurement of the magnetic field-induced adiabatic
temperature change ΔTad is simple and intuitive. It consists in attaching, in
intimate contact, a low-mass temperature sensor to the specimen under study and,
keeping it under adiabatic conditions, applying (remove), as fast as possible, an
external magnetic field from zero to a certain value (or vice versa) [26,50–53].
However, in practice, the attainment of trustable measurements is difficult. In that
sense two conditions must be fulfilled. The first is a good thermal contact between
the temperature probe and the specimen under study; to accomplish this both the
mass of the probe should be well below that of the specimen and the contact
between the probe and the specimen surface should be as good as possible. The
second condition is a good adiabaticity; for that, both the sample must be under
vacuum [50,51] and thermally insulated and the magnetic field changed as fast as
possible (≈ 0.5–2.0 Ts− 1); the latter is obtained by moving the sample in and out of
the magnetic field region using a pneumatic actuator (i.e., to change the magnetic
field from 0 to μ0H and vice versa). As temperature probes, tiny thermocouples
[typically copper (T-type) or Chromel-Constantan, E-type of 0.2 mm in diameter]
[26,51,53] or small Cernox sensors (commercialized by Lakeshore Cryotronics)
[50,52], have been used. When a thermocouple is used it is located either between
two sample plates or inside a hole made in the sample. Although a large magnetic
field can be generated by a superconducting magnet [50], taking into account that
from the viewpoint of application the maximum magnetic field of interest varies
between 1 and 2 T, most of the constructed apparatus use as magnetic field source
a conventional electromagnet [51,53] or a Nd-Fe-B Halbach permanent magnet
array [26,52]. At last, the sample temperature must be varied in the range of
interest with a desirable accuracy of over 0.1 K and the proper functioning of all
these systems is proved by measuring the measurements on a polycrystalline Gd
reference sample. Fig. 7.5 shows the sketch of a simple experimental setup for
direct ΔTad(T) measurement and its sample holder with an integrated resistive
heater [53].
Fig. 7.5. Sketch of an experimental set-up (A) and sample holder (B) of a home-
built simple system to measure ΔTad(T) up to μ0H = 1.7 T [53]. The magnetic field is
produced by an electromagnet and a T-type thermocouple, inserted between two
sample plates, measures the T change of the sample when a pneumatically
operated piston inserts/extracts the sample-holder to/from the region of constant
field between the polar pieces. The mass of the thermocouple is much lower than
that of the studied sample that is under vacuum (10− 3 mbar) and wrapped with an
insulating tape. A resistive electric heater, built on the sample holder, changes the
sample temperature.
Reproduced with permission from Trans Tech Publications from P. Álvarez-Alonso et al., Simple set-
up for adiabatic measurements of magnetocaloric effect, Key Eng. Mater. 644 (2015) 215–218,
permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.

Reactive Chemicals
In Lees' Loss Prevention in the Process Industries (Fourth Edition), 2012

Exotherm Characterization
Some parameters characterizing an exotherm are:
1. exotherm onset temperature;
2. adiabatic temperature rise;
3. heat of reaction;
4. rate of temperature rise (also known as the self-heat rate);
5. rate of heat generation;
6. rate of pressure rise;
7. velocity constant, activation energy, and pre-exponential constant;
8. adiabatic induction time.
Some of these parameters can be determined from DSC or DTA tests. Most of
these parameters can be obtained from an adiabatic Dewar flask test or ARC test.
Frurip (2007) provides a thorough analysis of DSC for hazard evaluation.
Gas and Vapor Cloud Explosions
Rolf K. Eckhoff, in Explosion Hazards in the Process Industries, 2005

2.1.4 Maximum Pressures Generated from Constant-Volume

Adiabatic Combustion of Premixed Gas/Vapor and Air
If the combustion occurs at constant volume, a pressure rise will result. The
adiabatic temperature rise at constant volume can be expressed as
(2.1)

where ΔE is the liberated combustion heat per mole at constant volume, Cv is the
mean specific heat of the gaseous system at constant volume, T1 is the initial gas
mixture temperature (prior to combustion), and T2 is the final temperature of the
combustion products and the nitrogen (from the air) after complete combustion.
Ideal T2 values computed using Equation (2.1) are most often somewhat higher
than experimental values, due to inevitable heat losses and non-ideal chemical
conversion in real experiments. However, assuming that an adequate T2 value can
be obtained (see Table 2-6), the corresponding constant-volume adiabatic pressure
rise can be estimated, using the equation of state (assuming ideal gases)

Table 2-6. Combustion Properties of Some Fuel Gas/Air Mixtures. Normal

Atmospheric Initial Conditionsa

Vol.%
fuel in Constant Constant Adiabatic flame
Fuel air volume pressure temperature

Max.pressure Expansion Constant Constant

[bar(g)] ratio E[-] volume [K] pressure [K]

Acetylene 7.75 8.80 8.38 2925 2542

Hydrogen 29.60 7.02 6.88 2755 2384

Ethylene 6.53 8.32 7.48 2740 2372

Butane 3.13 8.43 8.06 2639 2272

Propane 4.0 8.34 7.98 2633 2266

Ethane 5.67 8.21 7.87 2627 2261

Methane 9.51 7.60 7.25 2591 2227

a.
Source: Data from J.H.S. Lee, Physics of explosions, lecture notes, MeGill
University, Montreal. (1984): 249.

(2.2)
where P is pressure (absolute), T is temperature in Kelvins and n is total number of
moles of gas in the constant volume considered. A more detailed analysis is given
by Kuchta (1985). Table 2-5 and Table 2-6 give some experimental P2 values. The
data in the two tables originate from different sources and deviate somewhat.
Different fuel to air ratios in the experiments may be one reason for the
discrepancies.

Table 2-5. Highest Maximum Explosion Pressure (Gauge) for Combustion of

Premixed Fuel Gas/Air in a Closed 5 Liter Test Vesselab

Fuel bar(g) Fuel bar(g)

Acetylene 10.3 i-Butylalcohol 7.6

Ethylene oxide 9.9 Ethyl alcohol 7.5

Bensene 9.0 n-Butylalcohol 7.5

Acetone 8.9 n-Decane 7.5

Ethylene 8.9 Hydrogen 7.4

n-Hexane 8.7 Carbonmonoxide 7.3

n-Pentane 8.7 Methane 7.2

n-Butane 8.6 Toluene 6.8

Cyclohexane 8.6 Vinylchloride 6.8

n-Heptane 8.6 Metylbutadiene 6.6

Propane 8.6 Styrene 6.6

Propylene 8.6 Ammonia 6.0

i-Octane 8.1 Acetic acid 5.4

Carbon disulphide 7.8 Hydrogen sulphide 5.4

a.
The fuel gas/air ratio was varied until the highest explosion pressure had
been found for each fuel. Normal atmospheric initial conditions.
b.
Source: Data from H.H. Freytag, Handbuch der Raumexplosionen, Verlag
Chemie, Weinheim, Germany. (1965): 152.

Note that initial temperature T1 and pressure P1, deviating from normal
atmospheric conditions, will give correspondingly different P2 values. As a rule, the
maximum adiabatic explosion pressure (absolute) produced by a given fuel/air
mixture at constant volume, is proportional to the initial pressure (absolute) prior
to combustion. Hence, a gas mixture giving 8 bar (absolute) at atmospheric initial
pressure, will yield 16 bar (absolute) at 2 bar (absolute) initial pressure (1 bar
overpressure).
In the case of premixed gas explosions in a system of closed volumes in series,
coupled via comparatively narrow ducts or pipes, an explosion in one part of the
system can give rise to considerable pressure rise in the still unburned gas mixture
in other parts (pressure piling). When the flame front reaches and ignites such
precompressed gas volumes, very high pressure transients can result, in spite of
the fact that the entire system was at atmospheric pressure prior to the first
ignition.

Gas and Vapor Cloud Explosions

Rolf K. Eckhoff, in Explosion Hazards in the Process Industries (Second Edition),
2016

2.1.4 Maximum Pressures Generated from Constant-Volume

Adiabatic Combustion of Premixed Gas/Vapor and Air
If the combustion occurs at constant volume, a pressure rise will result. The
adiabatic temperature rise at constant volume can be expressed as
[2.1]

in which ΔE is the liberated combustion heat per mole at constant volume, Cv the
mean specific heat of the gaseous system at constant volume, T1 the initial gas
mixture temperature (prior to combustion), T2 the final temperature of the
combustion products and the nitrogen (from the air), after complete combustion.
Ideal T2 values computed using Eq. [2.1] are most often somewhat higher than
experimental values, due to inevitable heat losses and nonideal chemical
conversion in real experiments. However, assuming that an adequate T2-value can
be obtained (see Table 2.6), the corresponding constant-volume adiabatic pressure
rise can be estimated, using the equation of state (Eq. [2.2]), assuming that the
gases/vapors are ideal.
[2.2]

Here, P is pressure (absolute), T temperatures (K), and n total number of moles of

gas in the constant volume considered. A more detailed analysis is given by Kuchta
(1985). Tables 2.5 and 2.6 give some experimental P2-values. The data in the two
tables originate from different sources and deviate somewhat. Different fuel/air
ratios in the experiments may be one reason for the discrepancies. Note: Initial
temperatures T1 and pressures P1, deviating from normal atmospheric conditions,
give correspondingly different P2 values.

Table 2.5. Highest maximum explosion pressure (gauge) for combustion of

premixed fuel gas/air in a closed 5-L test vessel. The fuel gas/air ratio was
varied until the highest explosion pressure had been found for each fuel.
Normal atmospheric initial conditions

Fuel Bar (g) Fuel bar (g)

Acetylene 10.3 i-Butyl alcohol 7.6

Ethylene oxide 9.9 Ethyl alcohol 7.5

Fuel Bar (g) Fuel bar (g)
Benzene 9.0 n-Butyl alcohol 7.5

Acetone 8.9 n-Decane 7.5

Ethylene 8.9 Hydrogen 7.4

n-Hexane 8.7 Carbon monoxide 7.3

n-Pentane 8.7 Methane 7.2

n-Butane 8.6 Toluene 6.8

Cyclohexane 8.6 Vinyl chloride 6.8

n-Heptane 8.6 Methyl butadiene 6.6

Propane 8.6 Styrene 6.6

Propylene 8.6 Ammonia 6.0

i-Octane 8.1 Acetic acid 5.4

Carbon disulfide 7.8 Hydrogen sulfide 5.4

From Freytag, H.H., 1965. Handbuch der Raumexplosionen. Verlag Chemie,

Weinheim, Germany, p. 152.

Table 2.6. Combustion properties of some fuel gas/air mixtures. Normal

atmospheric initial conditions

Fuel Vol.% Constant Constant Adiabatic flame

fuel in volume pressure temperature
air
Max. Expansion Constant Constant
pressure (bar ratio E (−) volume (K) pressure (K)
(g))

Acetylene 7.75 8.80 8.38 2925 2542

Hydrogen 29.60 7.02 6.88 2755 2384

Ethylene 6.53 8.32 7.48 2740 2372

Butane 3.13 8.43 8.06 2639 2272

Propane 4.0 8.34 7.98 2633 2266

Ethane 5.67 8.21 7.87 2627 2261

Methane 9.51 7.60 7.25 2591 2227

From Lee, J.H.S., 1984. Physics of Explosions. Lecture Notes. MeGill

University, Montreal, p. 249.

As a rule, the maximum adiabatic explosion pressure (abs.) produced by a given

fuel/air mixture at constant volume, is proportional to the initial pressure (abs.)
prior to combustion. Hence, a gas mixture giving 8 bar (abs.) at atmospheric initial
pressure, will yield 16 bar (abs.) at 2 bar (abs.) initial pressure (1 bar overpressure).
In the case of premixed gas explosions in a system of closed volumes in series,
coupled via comparatively narrow ducts or pipes, an explosion in one part of the
system can give rise to considerable pressure rise in the still unburnt gas mixture
in other parts (“pressure piling”). When the flame front reaches and ignites such
precompressed gas volumes, very high-pressure transients can result, despite the
fact that the entire system was at atmospheric pressure prior to the first ignition
(see Section 2.4.5.2.1 in the following).

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