Practical Design Considerations for a LLC Multi-Resonant

DC-DC Converter in Battery Charging Applications

1
Fariborz Musavi, Marian Craciun, Murray Edington Wilson Eberle and 2 William G. Dunford
1
Department of Research, Engineering School of Eng. | 2 Dept. of Electrical and Computer Eng.
Delta-Q Technologies Corp. University of British Columbia | 1 Okanagan | 2 Vancouver
1
Burnaby, BC, Canada Kelowna, BC, Canada | 2 Vancouver, BC, Canada
1
fmusavi@delta-q.com, mcraciun@delta-q.com, wilson.eberle@ubc.ca | 2 wgd@ece.ubc.ca
medington@delta-q.com

Abstract—In this paper, resonant tank design procedure and output voltage is constant and the input voltage might drop
practical design considerations are presented for a high significantly [8]-[11].
performance LLC multi-resonant dc-dc converter in a two-stage
smart battery charger for neighborhood electric vehicle The output voltage requirement for a battery charger is
applications. The multi-resonant converter has been analyzed drastically different and challenging compared to telecom
and its performance characteristics are presented. It eliminates applications. Fig. 2 illustrates a simplified battery charging
both low and high frequency current ripple on the battery, thus profile for a 48 V system. As it indicates, the battery voltage,
maximizing battery life without penalizing the volume of the at the dc-dc converter output, can vary from as low as 36 V
charger. Simulation and experimental results are presented for and as high as 72 V. Therefore the design requirements for
a prototype unit converting 390 V from the input dc link to an selecting the resonant tank components are different of those
output voltage range of 48 V to 72 V dc at 650 W. The prototype for telecom application with constant output voltage [12], [
achieves a peak efficiency of 96 %. 13].
I. INTRODUCTION The resonant tank design principle is extracted from the
lead acid battery V-I plane, as shown in Fig. 3. The V-I plane
Neighborhood Electric Vehicles (NEVs) are propelled by for lead acid battery dictates the design criteria for the half-
an electric motor that is supplied with power from a bridge multi-resonant LLC converter, in particular the
rechargeable battery [1], [2]. Presently, the performance resonant tank components, Lr, Lm and Cr.
characteristics required for many electric vehicle (EV)
Rectifier PFC Boost Converter Half Bridge LLC Resonant Converter Battery
applications far exceed the storage capabilities of conventional Resonant Tank
LB
battery systems. However, battery technology is improving D1 D4
DB Q1 Lr Cr/2
Do1

and as this transition occurs, the charging of these batteries Vi

EMI
Lm
Filter Co
becomes very complicated due to the high voltages and n
D D3
QB CB
Q2 Cr/2
Do2

currents involved in the system and the sophisticated charging 2

algorithms [3]. Quick charging of high capacity battery packs Figure 1. Typical battery charging power architecture.
causes increased disturbances in the ac utility power system,
thereby increasing the need for efficient, low-distortion smart
chargers. The accepted charger power architecture includes an
ac-dc converter with power factor correction (PFC) [4],
followed by an isolated dc-dc converter, as shown in Fig. 1
[5]. This architecture virtually eliminates the low- and high-
frequency current ripple on the battery, thus maximizing
battery life without penalizing the volume of the charger.
The front end ac-dc PFC converter is a conventional CCM
boost topology [6], [7]. The following dc-dc section is a half-
bridge multi-resonant LLC converter. The criteria for
choosing these topologies includes high reliability, high
efficiency and low component cost. The half-bridge resonant
LLC converter is widely used in the telecom industry for its
high efficiency at the resonant frequency and its ability to
regulate the output voltage during the hold-up time, where the Figure 2. Simplified battery charging profile.

This work has been sponsored and supported by Delta-Q Technologies

Corporation.

978-1-4577-1216-6/12/$26.00 ©2012 IEEE 2596

 power, and in Fig. 3 it is marked as “Design Point fsw”. A
second resonance occurs at the peak of the bell, which is the
boundary between ZVS (Region 2) and ZCS (Region 3). The
maximum gain is achieved at the second resonant frequency,
where the resonant capacitors are tuned with series resonant
inductor and paralleled magnetizing inductor, and in Fig. 3 it
is marked as “Design Point Lm”.
Current (A)

2
fnmins fnmax
1.9
1.8 Qmin Design Point
Lm

CV
1.7
Max Gain
1.6
1.5 Region 2 Region 1
ZVS ZVS
1.4
1.3
1.2 No Load
Nom Gain
1.1 Gain
Figure 3. Desired lead acid battery V-I plane. 1 Min Gain
0.9 Region 3
The plane is restrained by constant voltage (CV), constant 0.8 ZCS
power (CP); constant current (CP), the short circuit limit and 0.7 Short Circuit
Unity Gain
maximum frequency of the LLC converter. In addition, in 0.6
Resonant Frequency Gain
order to revive a fully depleted battery, the charger must 0.5
0.3 0.75 1.2 1.65 2.09
operate out of this plane, from near zero voltage which is far Normalized Frequency
below the maximum operating frequency boundary of the
converter. Satisfying these requirements requires a new design Figure 4. Typical DC gain characteristics of a LLC converter using FHA.
strategy in an LLC resonant converter.
Achieving maximum efficiency requires operation close to
The following sections provide detailed practical
frequencies where the resonant tank impedance is very low.
considerations for designing an LLC multi-resonant converter
Wide range for input and/or output operating voltages requires
in a battery charging application.
operation on the steep portion of the curve below resonance in
II. DESIGN PROCEDURE Region 2. In addition, maintaining ZVS operation, while
avoiding ZCS operation in Region 3, requires operation in
The life and capacity of EV batteries depend on several
Region 2. Fast overload and short circuit protection circuitry is
factors, such as cycle count, charge mode, maintenance,
required in order to avoid possible ZCS operation in the
temperature, and age. Among these factors, the charge mode
capacitive Region 3 [14], [15].
has a significant impact on battery life and capacity. EV
batteries should be charged with current and voltage levels The following step by step procedure is given to capture
with low ripple. In addition, the basic requirements for battery these requirements.
chargers are small size and high efficiency, which can be
achieved using soft switching techniques. To reduce the A. Initial Design Parameters
switching losses that result from high frequency operation, The input voltage range, output voltage range, maximum
resonant power conversion can be used. output power and resonant frequency are the initial design
parameters to be fixed. The input voltage to dc-dc stage is
There are several publications and application notes in from PFC bus dc link capacitors. Unlike telecom power
industry focusing on resonant circuit design. There are two supply applications, there is no hold up time requirements and
major issues with the existing work: 1) The output voltage is the variation seen by the LLC converter is only the low
considered constant, which is not a valid assumption in battery frequency ripple on the PFC bus capacitors, which is 370 V to
charging, and 2) The ratio of the transformer magnetizing 410 V with a nominal value of 390 V. The output voltage
inductance and the resonant inductance (leakage inductance) range is from 36 V to 72 V with a nominal value of 48 V. The
is given by some suggested values without considering the maximum power is given at nominal output voltage (650 W).
effect of the short circuit condition on the resonant network. Therefore, to keep the maximum power constant at higher
As a result, the sequence of designing the resonant network is output voltage, the output current should be reduced (e.g. 9A
different for battery charging applications. @ 72 V input). The choice of switching frequency is based on
Fig. 4 illustrates a typical dc gain characteristic for an LLC the cost-loss trades-off between the Litz-stranding wire gauge
converter as a function of normalized switching frequency for used in conventional magnetics of transformer and resonant
different load conditions (i.e. no-load to short circuit). inductor, switching frequency, cost and power loss in wire
Resonance occurs at unity gain, where the resonant capacitors [16]. The optimized selected Litz wire strand gauge was 44
and series resonant inductor are tuned. By design, this is the AWG, to accommodate the switching frequency selection of
point where the converter is required to deliver maximum 200 kHz.

2597
 minimum of the two values. However, if -(-46A) <
B. Maximum Switching Frequency, Maximum Dead Time The final value for the magnetizing inductance is the

-(/) , then the dead time, tdead should be reduced.

The maximum switching frequency is limited by the VCO
in the controller IC and the reflected junction capacitor of the
output rectifiers [17]. Limiting the maximum switching
Finally, the inductance value must satisfy the energy
frequency is an approach to prohibit the converter from
balance in the total capacitance of the H-Bridge and the
operating where it is affected by junction capacitance of
inductors, as follows:
(-(-.) + (!55) )H-_IJ > LM N._-46
rectifier diode. As a result, the maximum switching frequency
should be limited to 2 ~ 2.5 times the resonant frequency. For "  "
 
(9)
this design, the NCP1395 resonant mode controller from ON
H-_IJ =
Semiconductor was selected. The maximum dead time is set   O
B %
Where: (10)
by this controller.
C. Selecting Transformer Ratio, Nn III. PRACTICAL DESIGN CONSIDERATION
The transformer turns ratio should be selected at the A detailed design procedure and resonant tank component
resonant frequency where the gain is unity and can be selection for battery charging application is given in the
calculated using (1), where Vd represents the diode voltage previous section. But there still are several practical aspects of
drop of the output rectifier: design that must be taken into consideration.
( )

 =
A. MOSFET Selection
(( )  )
(1)
For MOSFET selection, consideration must be given to
D. Calculating Resonant Inductor, Lr practical dv/dt turn-on limits, body diode reverse recovery [18]
and losses.
The minimum resonant inductor must be selected to limit
the maximum output current in the short circuit condition and Fig. 5 illustrates the voltage across the resonant capacitor
limit the converter to its maximum switching frequency. The and the current through the MOSFET as a function of time at
minimum inductance is given by: turn-on, where the switching frequency is under the unity gain
 .() .()
() =
resonant frequency.
∙_ .
(2)

E. Calculating Resonant Capacitor,Cr

Once the resonant inductor is selected, the resonant
capacitor is given by:
( =
"
!) (.#. )$ .%&('')
(3)

F. Characteristic Impedance and Quality Factor

After selecting the resonant inductor and capacitor, the
characteristic impedance of the resonant network is given by:
%&('')
() = *

(4)
&(&+)

The minimum quality factor is then calculated by:

,-. =
/
01'_ 12
(5) Figure 5. MOSFET current and resonant capacitor voltage

 $
345_-46 = ×
_ 12 With ZVS turn-on and low turn-off loss, MOSFET losses
#$ 
Where (6) are dominated by conduction loss. In order to calculate the
conduction losses, a precise modeling of switch current is
G. Calculating Magnetizing Inductor, Lm
desired [19]. The following equation represents the current
The choice of magnetizing inductor has to fulfill two through the switch as shown in Fig. 5:

HU (VWX S − Z), S ≤ 

# O
conditions. First, to achieve ZVS under no load conditions:
^ (11)
>
HAPQRO (S) = T
: O 
9+1 ..( ) .(;.< = +1 )
-(/) =
$
, ≤ S < ]
_ 12   O O O
?@ .()
(7)
B %  

Z = _`aVWX( )
Also, it has to realize the required maximum gain at the   O
B % bcd
(12)
minimum switching frequency:
:
"=
#$
-(-46A) = (!55)
CDE_ 12
Therefore, the switch RMS current can be calculated by:
B <
=" g]
HAPQRO_-! = *
(8)
eh $ (HAPQRO (S)) fS
<_  
O]
(13)

2598
 Fig. 6 shows the MOSFET RMS current for different input
voltages (PFC bus voltage) as a function of output voltage. It
can be noted that this model is only valid for switching
frequencies below the unity gain resonant frequency.
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.2
50 60 70
Figure 6. MOSFET RMS current for different input and output voltage.
Figure 7. Capacitance variation as a function of VDS for an STB23NM60
MOSFET.
Modern low RDSon vertical structure MOSFETs have large
Coss capacitance at low VDS voltage, as shown in Fig. 7. This
helps reduce turn-off loss since the drain current at the turn-off
instant is divided between the CDS and CGS intrinsic capacitors.
When the drain voltage reaches approximately 10 V, Crss starts
to decrease suddenly up to 100 times at 40 V (two decades)
and the drain current has to continue to flow through CDS and
the MOSFET channel. If the MOSFET channel current is
zero, this results in lossless turn-off. The CDS value itself has
dropped to less than one tenth of its 0 V value so this sudden
current redistribution increases the resonant transition dv/dt
and triggers a high frequency (i.e. >100 MHz) oscillation
between the CDS and stray plus drain and source package
inductances until the opposite MOSFET reduces transition
dv/dt when its VDS voltage drops below 40 V. The result is that
up to certain turn-off current the transition is lossless, above
this critical value the transition dv/dt and turn off loss are
increasing rapidly. Unfortunately, there is no easy way to
measure this critical current since a drain current measurement
cannot differentiate between the MOSFET channel and
parasitic capacitance currents, but evidence of this behavior
2599
can be observed in the MOSFET VDS and ID waveforms, as
shown in Fig. 8.
Figure 8. Resonant inductor current, MOSFET voltage and gating signal
during switch turn-off.
For the STB23NM60ND MOSFET, the capacitance
inflection point can be approximated at 40V. Then, the total
capacitance of the half bridge switching node CHB can be
modeled as a piecewise effective capacitance of 160 pF for 40
V < VHB < (Vin – 40 V), and 5.4 nF for VHB < 40 V and (Vin –
40 V) < VHB < Vin.
For the half-bridge the high-side MOSFET, at the end of
the resonant transition, the CDG value increases 100 times,
injecting more current into the gate drive circuit in the
presence of the undamped transitional high freqenucy
oscillation, so the gate drive has to be able to sink this current
without raising the gate voltage and turning on the MOSFET
prematurely. However, the V-I characteristic in Fig. 3 exhibits
the charging rate reduction for battery voltages below 1V/cell
in order to limit the turnoff current below Icrit and maintain
minimal turn-off loss.
B. Resonant and Output Capacitor Selection
The resonant capacitor voltage is closely associated with
the resonant inductor current, which is partially the same as
the MOSFET current. By definition, the voltage across
resonant capacitor is given by,
Nijkij =
O)94l m4n
&(&+)
Therefore:
uVv
ex 2 |Hpqrstu (S)|fS
Nijkij =
&(&+)
(14)
Assuming the voltage waveform is sinusoidal, the average
dc and RMS ac values for the resonant capacitor are:
NDE =

(15)
Eijkij
N1'_&  =
√
(16)
 The resonant capacitor voltage for different input voltages 10 illustrates how the voltage and frequency requirements
(PFC bus voltage) as a function of output voltage are shown in shown in Fig. 9 are met for the resonant network capacitor.
Fig. 9. Likewise, it can be noted here that this model is only
valid for switching frequencies below the unity gain resonant The output capacitors have an additional challenging
frequency. requirement. They have to handle relatively very high ripple
current as well as all the requirements given for resonant
capacitors. Metalized polyester film capacitor is the ultimate
choice for output capacitor. The selected capacitor for output
filter was an EPCOS MKT series B32526.
300
C. Output Diode Rectifier Selection
The output diode rectifiers exhibit ZCS for both turn-on
(zero di/dt) and turn-off. Hence, the parameters to consider in
the selection of the diodes are forward drop, VFWD and junction
capacitance, Cj. The available technologies include Schottky
and Ultrafast diodes. Schottky diodes demonstrate lower
250 forward drop, but have relatively higher junction capacitance
compared to ultrafast diodes. Higher junction capacitance
limits the maximum switching frequency of the converter and
no load regulation of output voltage. This is usually dealt with
using a dummy load. If there is no dummy load at the output,
then ultrafast diodes should be chosen.
50 60 70
D. Power Limit/Current Limit Restriction
The V-I plane provided in Fig. 3 illustrates the limitations
Figure 9. Resonnat capacitor voltage for different input and output voltage. on the output voltage, output power and output current. The
output current and output voltage are easily limited by
controller software. However, the output power limitation has
two distinct curves. The actual power limit is implemented by
software, as a hyperbolic function,

H) =
 ()!9.)

In addition, there is a faster power limit implemented by
hardware, which is a straight line connecting the constant
current limits to the constant voltage limits. The deviation of
the hardware limit from the actual power limit is only 25 W at
2.5 V/Cell.

IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

A prototype of the half-bridge LLC multi-resonant
converter was built to provide a proof-of-concept and verify
the analytical work presented in this paper. Fig. 11 shows a
picture of the LLC dc-dc multi-resonant converter prototype.

Figure 10. Resonnat capacitor selection curves for the EPCOS MKP series.

There are two technologies available to satisfy the resonant

capacitor requirements and voltage stress given in Fig. 9: ML
ceramic capacitors and film capacitors. The problems with
ML ceramic capacitors include: size limitations due to failure
under board flexing and a failure mode that results in a short
circuit. Thus, they are undesired for resonant and output filter
capacitors. Alternately, Polypropylene film capacitors have
several characteristics that make them a good candidate for the
resonant capacitor. They are more stable with temperature, Figure 11. Prototype of LLC dc-dc converter.
have higher temperature ratings, self healing characteristics,
and are relatively inexpensive. The capacitor selected for the Table I provides the design criteria for the prototype LLC
resonant network was an EPCOS MKP series B32602L. Fig. converter. In Table II, the key components used the prototype
converter are given.

2600
 TABLE I. DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 98
Design Specification for LLC Resonant Converter
Stage 96
Parameter Designator Value
Input Votage Range Vin_min ~ Vin_max 370 - 410 [V] 94
Initial Design Parametrs

Input Votage Nominal Vin_nom 390 [V]

Efficiency (%)
92
Output Votage Range Vo_min ~ Vo_max 36 - 72 [V]

Output Votage Nominal Vo_nom 48 [V] 90

Vo=48 V
Switching Frequency fs_min ~ fs_max 150 - 450 [kHz] Vo=60 V
88
Resonant Frequency fo 200 [kHz] Vo=72 V
86
Transformer Ratio Nn 4:1:1
Resonant Tank
Componnets

Resonant Inductor Lr 35 [µH] 84

100

200

300

400

500

600

700
Resonant Capacitor Cr 2×8.2 [nF]
Output Power (W)
Magnetizing Inductor Lm 105 [µH]
Figure 12. Measured effeciency vs output power for: Vo = 48 V, Vo = 60 V
and Vo = 72 V.

TABLE II. COMPONENTS USED IN THE PROTOTYPE CONVERTER

VQ2
Components Used in LLC Resonant Converter Prototype Vcr MOSFET Q2
Stage Resonant Cap Voltage
Component Manufacturer Part # Voltage
MOSFET STMicroelectronics STB23NM60ND
Power Train Components

Diode Rectifiers STMicroelectronics STTH2002C

Resonant Film Capacitor EPCOS MKP 2×8.2 [nF]

Resonant Inductor EPCOS RM12 - N97

Magnetizing Inductor EPCOS RM14 - N97 ILr

Resonant
Output Film Capacitors EPCOS MKT 3×3.3 [µF] Current

Controller IC On Semiconductor NCP1395

The switches used for the primary side of the half-bridge

are STMicroelectronics STB23NM60ND MOSFETs with fast
body diodes [18] and a 140 mΩ on resistance. The output
rectifier diodes are STMicroelectronics STTH2002C ultrafast
200 V/20 A diodes. The output capacitance consists of three
3.3 µF film capacitors. The 35 µH resonant inductor consists
of a pair of RM12 cores. The 105 µH magnetizing inductor is
integrated in the transformer, which consists of a pair of
RM14 cores. The transformer turns ratio is 4:1:1. Two 8.2 nF
resonant capacitors were selected for the resonant tank.
Curves of the efficiency of the converter as a function of
load are given in Fig. 12, at output voltages of 48, 60 and 72
V. These measurements were taken with the output relay;
common mode EMI inductor and output fuse in the circuit.
Simulation and experimental waveforms of the resonant
tank current, resonant capacitor voltage and voltage across
bottom MOSFET- Q2 are provided in Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 at
Vin = 390 V, and Po = 650 W. The waveforms in Fig. 13 are Figure 13. ILr, VCr, and VQ2 for Vo = 48V, Po = 650 W;
Top: Simulation, Bottom: Experimental
given at close the unity gain resonant frequency, fsw = 211 Ch1 = VQ2 100 V/div. Ch2 = VCr 100 V/div. Ch4 = ILr 2A/div.
kHz, and output voltage, Vo = 48 V. The waveforms in Fig. 14
are given at fsw = 152 kHz, and an output voltage of Vo = 72
V.

2601

Figure 14. ILr, VCr, and VQ2 for Vo = 72V, Po = 650 W;
Top: Simulation, Bottom: Experimental
Ch1 = VQ2 100 V/div. Ch2 = VCr 100 V/div. Ch4 = ILr 2A/div.
V. CONCLUSIONS
A resonant tank design procedure and practical design
considerations were presented for a high performance LLC
multi-resonant dc-dc converter in a two stage smart battery
charger for neighborhood electric vehicle applications. The
multi-resonant converter has been analyzed and its
performance characteristics are presented. It eliminates both
low and high frequency current ripple on the battery, thus
maximizing battery life without penalizing the volume of the
charger. Experimental results were presented for a prototype
unit converting 390 V from the input dc link to an output
voltage range of 48 V to 72 V dc at 650 W. The prototype
achieves a peak efficiency of 96 %.
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