ME 324

HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

By
Prof. P. Muthukumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Guwahati

Date: 07-02-2019
Modes Of Heat Transfer
❖ Heat transfer mostly takes place due to conduction and radiation, whereas the third mode of
heat transfer i.e. Convection occurs due to conduction and bulk motion of fluid.
❖ Both conduction and radiation occur due to temperature difference.
❖ Conduction takes place due to movement of free electrons in metals and due to lattice
vibrations in non-metals. Whereas, in liquids and gases, conduction occurs mostly due to
molecular collisions.
❖ Convection consists of two mechanisms.
❖ Very close to the boundary of the heat source / solid surface, there is diffusion or random
molecular motion.
❖ In the adjacent layers, there is bulk fluid motion, which leads to transfer of heat to the upper
layers (advection).
 𝜕𝑇
Here | | is the temperature gradient at the
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0

interface and depends on the macroscopic and

microscopic motion of particles.

❖ The fluid layer in contact with the wall will be having zero velocity due to shear stress acting between the
layer and the surface , whereas it will be having a temperature equal to surface temperature.
❖ As we move away from the wall, there is a gradient in velocity and temperature, where the fluid will reach
maximum velocity away from the wall.
❖ Since the fluid is having zero velocity at the sloid – liquid interface, so there will be conduction.
❖ Fourier Law of heat conduction applied to :
T
qc = −k fluid
y y =0
❖ Convection can be further classified into three ways:
• Natural Convection – It occurs due to buoyancy force, occurring due to the difference in the density of
the hotter and the colder fluid.
• Forced Convection – This occurs due to external source of force on the system i.e. flow from a pump or
blower etc.
• Mixed Convection – In this case, convection occurs under the influence of both the external force and
natural convection.

Newton’s Law of Cooling : qc =hc AT

Here hc is the local heat transfer coefficient and is not constant throughout the surface.
qc =hc A(Tw − T  )
T ∞ is the free stream temperature in case of external flows.
Evaluation of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient
It can be determined by the following means :
1. Dimensionless Analysis:
• Very Simple and to apply.
• Results are incomplete.
• Not useful without experimental data.
2. Exact Solution of boundary layer equations:
• Simultaneous solutions of the equation describing the fluid motion and transfer of energy in a moving fluid.
• Difficult to apply for complex boundaries.
3. Integral Method (Approximate Analysis):
• Avoids detailed mathematical description of the flow.
• Simple equation is used to describe velocity and temperature field.
4. Through analogy between heat and mass transfer:
• Mainly used for turbulent heat transfer process.
Dimensionless Analysis

• It is extremely difficult to measure the heat transfer for all practical cases. So, in some of the

cases, we need some correlations for determining “h” as a function of some flow characteristics

like geometry or other properties.

• Dimensional analysis is a tool used to correlate various physical phenomenon in terms of some

expressions with constants, the values of which have to be found experimentally.

• Dimensionless analysis is an approach to combine several variables into dimensionless groups,

• Convective heat transfer coefficients are generally calculated from empirical equations

obtained by correlating the experimental data with the aid of dimensionless analysis.

• Proper selection of prime variables is very crucial for this method.

Steps involved in the dimensionless analysis using Buckingham  Theorem:
• List the total parameters (independent and dependent) ( A)
• Find out the number of fundamental dimensions required to express all the parameters (B)
• Find number of  terms required (A-B)
• Choose prime variables (EQUAL to number of  terms )
• In each  term, one prime variable (which should not present in the other) and all the non-prime
variable should be presented.
• Present all the variables (both prime and non-prime) in terms of basic fundamental dimensions (
L, M, T, t)
• All non-prime variable should be expressed with power indices and summation of all power
indices should be equal to zero. since,  term is dimensionless.
• In the similar way, all  term are grouped in the form of dimensionless number.
Application of Dimensional analysis to Convection:
Convective heat transfer can be expressed as a function of following…

h = f ( k ,  , C p ,  , l ,U ,  g (Tw − T f ) )
k = thermal conductivity of fluid (W / m / K )
 = Dynamic vis cos ity ( Pa.s )
C p = Specific heat capacity ( J / kg / K )
 = Density of fluid (kg / m3 )
U = Velocity of fluid relative to body (m / s )
 g (Tw − T f ) = Buoyancy force : force due to gravity (m / s 2 )
 = Coefficient of bulk exp ansion(1/ K )
f ( h, k ,  , C p ,  , l ,U ,  g (Tw − T f ) ) = 0
There are eight variables and four fundamental dimensions are involved in the problem like
(M, L, t, T).

∴ Number of 𝜋 terms = 8 – 4 = 4

i.e., f ( 1 ,  2 ,  3 ,  4 ) = 0
Each 𝜋 term will contain one prime variable which does not occur
in other 𝜋 terms and four non-prime variables which occur in all 𝜋
terms with different power indices.

The prime variables are selected based on the importance and its
physical relevance on the dependent variable
The prime variable are

h → is a variable which needs to correlated with other independent variables

U → which decides the nature of the flow

𝛽𝑔 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑓 → which decides the effect of buoyancy (natural convection)

Cp = thermal capacity of the fluid which influences the relation between velocity and temperature . Therefore, the
proposed  term are 1 = [ h k a  b  c l d ]
1 1 1 1

 2 = [U k a  b  c l d ]
2 2 2 2

 3 = [  g (Tw − Tf ) k a  b  c l d ] 3 3 3 3

 4 = [C p k a  b  c l d ]
4 4 4 4

The values of the indices ai, bi, ci and di are determined by using the fact that 𝜋′s are
dimensionless. (where i = 1,2,3,4)
Theory says that dimensionless variables are formed by the products of powers of certain original
dimensional variables  = M L−1 t −1
kg − m  = M L−3
s2 V − Vi
Energy = = T −1
Vi (T − Ti )
Q time N −m
h= = = 2
A (Tw − T f ) Area  Temperature difference m  t  T
1 L
 g (Tw − T f ) =  2  T = L t −2
T t
l=L
M L
 t 2   L Cp =
Q
= L2 t −2 T −1
= 2 = M t −3 T −1 m(T2 − T1 )
L  t T
Q
k = A = M L t −3 T −1
T
n
U = L t −1

1 = ( M t T −3 −1
)( M L t −3
) (M L
−1 a1
) (M L ) (L)
−1 −1 b1 −3 c1 d1
T t
= M 1+ a1 +b1 + c1 La1 −b1 −3c1 + d1 t −3−3a1 −b1 T −1− a1
Since 𝜋1 is dimensionless

 1 = M 0 L0 T 0 t 0
 1 + a1 + b1 + c1 = 0
a1 − b1 − 3c1 + d1 = 0
− 3 − 3a1 − b1 = 0
− 1 − a1 = 0
 a1 = − 1; b1 = 0; c1 = 0 and d1 = 1

hl
 1 =  h k   l  =  Nu
−1 0 0 1

k
Repeat the same analysis

Gives, U l U l
2 = =  Re → Re ynolds number
 
3
2 l
 g (T − T )l 3

 3 =  g (Tw − T f )    2 = w f
 Gr → Grashoff number
  2

C p
4 =  Pr → Pr andtl number
k
 f ( Nu , Re, Gr , Pr ) = 0

Correlating equations for a particular geometry is obtained by experimental heat transfer

results in terms of these non dimensional numbers.
If buoyancy force is neglected (for forced convection), final Eq. becomes

Nu = f ( Re, Pr )

If the velocity of the flow is negligible, for free convection effects,

Nu = f ( Gr , P r )

The above analysis, the dependence of ‘h’ on the fluid properties 𝜇, 𝜌, 𝑘, 𝐶𝑝 and
𝛽 are considered. These properties are evaluated at average temperature between the
surface and free stream i.e., (Tw+Tf)/2.0
In case of pipe flow (short pipe)
D
Average heat transfer coefficient will depend on both l and D
l
∴ 𝑁𝑈𝐷 = f [ ReD, PrD, (l/D) ]

In case of high speed flow, the compressibility of the gas also influence the heat transfer coefficient, h

In this situation , Nu = f [ Re, Pr, M ]

𝑢
Here, M = Mach number = Where u = local flow velocity
𝑎
a = Velocity of sound

Gravitational acceleration ‘g’ also has an effect on ‘h’

Inertial force 𝑔𝑙
∴ Fr = = = Froude number
gravitational force 𝑢2
Nu = f (Re, Pr, Fr)
 Steady flow Energy Equation:
The energy equation for steady flow

Rate at which Kinetic   Rate at which   Rate at which   Net Rate at which   Net Rate at which 
 Rate at which Enthalpy        =  heat is transferred  +  work is done 
  + Energy leaves the − enthalpy enters − kinetic energy enters     
 leaves the Control volume    
 
 
    on control volume 
 Control volume 
  the control volume   the control volume   to the CV   

= +
Total specific enthalpy, I = specific enthalpy + specific kinetic energy

u 2 + v2
I = Cp T +
2
The difference between the rate at which the sum of enthalpy and kinetic energy leaves and
enters the control volume in x direction

     
 m I + (m I )dx  −  m I  = (m I )dx → (2)
 x  out  in x

Mass is given by m =   u  dy where dz is unity

∴ Eqn. (2) becomes

 
(   u  dy  I ) dx = (   u  I ) dx dy → (3)
x x
The same quantity in y- direction,

 
(   v  dx  I ) dy = (   v  I ) dx dy → (4)
y y

The right hand side of the Eqn. (1) becomes

   u 2 + v2     u 2 + v2 
  u  c pT +   dxdy +   v  c pT +   dxdy → (5)
x   2  y   2 

The net heat transfer in x- direction,


Qx Qx + ( Qx ) dx
x

 
Qx − ( Qx ) dx − Qx = − ( Qx ) dx
x x
 T    T     T 
Qx = −kdy −  − kdy   dx = k dxdy → (6)
x ; x   x    
x  x 

Simplify in y- direction
  T 
 k  dxdy → (7)
y  x 

Total heat transfer into the control volume

  2T  2T 
k 2 + 2  dxdy → (8)
 x y 

The work done on the control volume is mainly due to the existence of normal pressure
gradient and due to shear stress on the surfaces. Simplifying these terms one can get
 2 u u v 2 v   u u v v 
 u +  uv +  uv +  v  dxdy +   x +  yx + y +  xy  dxdy → (9)
 x y x y   x y y x 
Substitute all values in equation (1) and divided by dxdy

    u 2 + v2       u 2 + v2  
  u  c pT +     +   v  c pT +    =
x    2    y    2   
  2T  2T   2 u u v 2 v   u u v v 
k 2 + 2 +
   u +  uv +  uv +  v +
  x +  +  +  
 x y        
yx y xy
  x y x y   x y y x 

Here Cp and 𝜌 are constant and flow is assumed to be incompressible

    u 2 + v2       u 2 + v2  
( uT ) +  u    + ( vT ) +  v 

  =
x x   2c p   y 
y   2c p  

k   2T  2T  1  2 u u v 2 v  1  u u v v 
 2 + 2 +  u + uv + uv + v  + 
 x +  +  +   → (A)
cp  x y  cp  x y x y   c p  x
yx
y
y
y
xy
x 
LHS of Eqn. (A)
T u u  u v   u 2 + v 2  u v T v  u v   u 2 + v 2  v
u +T + 2u
 x + 2v +   + T + v +  2u y + 2v y  +  2c  y =
x x 2c p x   2c p  x y y 2c p    p 
 u v   u 2 + v 2   u v   T T  u 2 u uv v v 2 v uv u
T  + +   + +
  u + v + + + +
 x y   2c p   x y   x y  c p x c p x c p y c p y
0 0
LHS
T T 1  2 u v v u  Third term will get cancel out from
=u +v + u + uv + v 2 + uv  both side…
x y c p  x x y y 

Eqn. (A) becomes

T T k   2T  2T  1  u u v v 
u +v =  2 + 2 + 
 x +  +  +  
x y  c p  x y  cp  x y y x 
yx y xy

T T k   2T  2T  
u +v =  2 + 2 + 
x y  c p  x y   c p

1  u u v v 
where,  =  +  +  + 
  x x yx y y
y
xy
y 

The normal stress and shear stress components are given by following equations
 u  u 2  u v   u
 x =  − p + 2 −   +  
x  x 3  x y   x
u  u  2  u  2  u   v 
2 2

= − p + 2   −    −     
x  x  3  x  3  x   y 
v  v 2  u v   v
 y =  − p + 2 −   +  
y  y 3  x y   y
2 2
v  v  2  v  2  u   v 
= − p + 2   −    −     
y  y  3  y  3  x   y 
v  u v   v  v   v u 
2

 xy =   +    =    +    
x  y x   x   x   x y 
2   u v  
u  u v   u   u   v u  the term − p  +   vanishes for incompressible flow
 yx =   +    =    +       x y  
y  y x   y   y   x y 

 u  2  v  2   u v  2 2  u v 2
 = 2   +    +  +  −  + 
 x   y    y x  3  x y 
for three dimensional flow 0
 u  2  v  2  w  2   u v  2  w v  2  u w  2
 = 2   +   +    +  +  +  +  +  + 
 x   y   z    y x   y z   z x 
For cylindrical coordinates
T T w  T  k   2T 1   T  1 T 
2
u +v +  =  + r + 2 2
+ 
z r r     c p  z 2
r r  r  r    c p

 u  2  v  2  1 w v  2   1 u w  2  v u  2  1  v w w   2
 = 2   +   +  +  + +  + +  +  + − 
 z   r   r  r    r  z   z r   r   r r  

𝜑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

If the velocity components are negligible

 2T  2T  2T
+ 2 + 2 =0
x 2
y z
 ME 324
HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
By
Prof. P. Muthukumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Guwahati

Date: 10-01-2017
The general governing equations of mass, momentum and energy conservation are:

Continuity equation
u v w
+ + =0
x y z
Momentum equation
u u u u 1 p    2u  2u  2u 
+u +v + w =− +  2+ 2+ 2
t x y z  x   x y z 
v v v v 1 p    2v  2v  2v 
+u +v + w =− +  2+ 2+ 2
t x y z  y   x y z 
w w w w 1 p    2 w  2 w  2 w 
+u +v +w =− +  2 + 2 + 2 
t x y z  z   x y z 
Energy equation Viscous dissipation term
T T T T k   2T  2T  2T 
+u +v +w =  2 + 2 + 2  + (  ) + S gen
t x y z  C p  x y z 
• In order to find out velocity distribution in the field and velocity gradients at the wall, full Navier-Stokes
equations should be solved. This is almost impossible analytically and can be solved only by numerical
techniques.

• Analytical solution of the above set of equations exists only for some simplified cases.

Parallel flow through a straight channel (v = 0)

Couette flow: flow of a viscous fluid in the space between two

surfaces, one of which is moving tangentially relative to the
other.

Stokes or creeping flow : type of fluid flow where inertial

forces are small compared with viscous forces. The Reynolds
number is low, i.e. Re << 1
Non-Dimensional Form of equations

• In order to non dimensionalize the equation we have to define non dimensional variables.

• These can be represented as a ratio of the variable to the largest scale parameter of the same
quantity such that the resultant quantity is a non dimensional number.

• For eg ; For a flow over a flat plate, if L is the length of the plate and its magnitude is very
high as compared to the other dimensions of the plate, then a non-dimensional parameter in
the direction of the length can be written as :

x
x =
L
Similarly,

y z
• For Length y = ; z =
L L
u v w
• For Velocity u = ; v = ; w =
U U U
p
• For pressure p = U 2 is twice the dynamic pressure
U 2

tU 
• For time t =
L
• For Concentration Gradient

(T − Tw ) (Tw − T ) (c A − c A , S )
• For temperature gradient = = CA =
(T − Tw ) (Tw − T ) (c A, − c AS )
Non dimensional form of the Navier stokes equations
Continuity Equation –
The continuity equation for three dimensional, incompressible and steady state flow can be written as:
u v w
+ + =0
x y z
So representing all the parameters in terms of their non-dimensional form

x = x  L, y = y  L, z = z  L, u = u U  , v = v U  , w = w U 
u  v  w 
+ + =0
x  y  z 
Also p = p 2
U 
p  ( p  U 2 )  ( p  U 2 ) U 2  p  
 = = =  
x x  ( x * L) L  x * 
Momentum Equation –
U 2 u  U 2 u  U 2 u  U 2 1 p  U 2      2u   2u   2u  
u + v + w =− +   + + 
L x  L y  L z  L  x  L   LU    x  y  z 2 
2 2

Finally the equation can be written as:

u  u  u  p       2u   2u   2u  
u +v + w =− +  + + 
x  y  z  x    LU    x  y  z 2 
2 2

Similarly
u  u  u  p  1   2u   2u   2u  
u +v + w =− +  + + 
x  y  z  x  Re  x  y  z 2 
2 2

v  v  v  p  1   2 v   2 v   2v  
u +v + w =− +  + + 
x  y  z  v  Re  x  y  z 2 
2 2

w  w  w  p  1   2 w   2 w   2 w  
u +v + w =− +  + + 
x  y  z  w  Re  x  2
y  2
z 2 

Here, one can observe that flow field about a series of geometrically similar
bodies will be similar if the Reynolds number is same.
Energy Equation -
Now the general form of energy equation in three dimensions is written as:

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇

𝜌𝑐𝑝 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 =𝑘 + + + 𝜇𝜑
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

Here the time derivatives will vanish in case of steady state analysis. Now representing this equation in terms of
all the non dimensional parameters as defined earlier.

𝜕𝜃 ∗
𝜕𝜃 ∗
𝜕𝜃 ∗
𝜕𝜃 𝑘 𝜕2𝜃 𝜕2𝜃 𝜕2𝜃 𝜇𝑈∞ 2 1
+ 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 = + + + 𝜑
𝜕𝑡 ∗ 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝜕𝑧 ∗ 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑈∞ 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 2 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 2 𝜕𝑧 ∗ 2 𝐿 𝜌𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇∞ )𝑈∞

This equation can be written as

    1   2
  2
  2
  Ec

+ u 

+ v 

+ w

=  2 + 2
+ 2 
+ 
t x y z Re Pr  x y z  Re

U2 C p U  L
Here, Ec = , Pr = , Re =
C p (Tw − T ) k 
Now consider the Eckert Number :

U2 Kinetic Energy of the flow

• Ec = =
C p (Tw − T ) Boundary Layer Enthalpy difference

1 C p (Tw − T ) C pT  Tw  Cp a 2  Tw 
= = 2 
− 1 = 2 
− 1
Ec U 2
U   T   (C p − Cv ) U   T 

1 1  Tw 
= 2 
− 1
(  − 1) M  T 

( − 1)M
Finally, 2

Ec =

 Tw − 1
 T
 

 
Where M = Mach Number = Fluid velocity / Local sound speed
a is the local sound speed and U∞ is the free stream velocity
For a low Mach Number, energy equation in non dimentionalized form can be written as :

       1   2  2  2 

+u 
+v 
+w  =  2 + 2 + 2 
t x y z Re Pr  x y z 

For forced convection, the variables can be represented as:

 =  ( u, v, x, y, Re, Pr, Ec )
T
qw = − k f = h(Tw − T )
y
Where y is the dimension in the direction normal to the surface or

T (T − Tw )    (T − Tw ) (Tw − T )
−k f −k f  Y  y = =
y where Y = (T − Tw ) (Tw − T )
L  Y =0
h= = L
(Tw − T ) (Tw − T )
So we have

 hL    
  = Nu =  
 k  Y Y =0

Therefore, Nusselt number is the non-dimensional temperature gradient at the surface on

which heat transfer takes place.
Some of the important Dimensionless Numbers

 u 2l Inertial force
Re = = [Osborn Re ynolds,1880]
 u / l Viscous force
hl Convective heat transfer rate from surface
Nu = = [ Wilhelm Nusselt ,1915]
k Conductive heat transfer from surface to the when there is no flow
g  (Tw − T f ) L3 Inertia force due to buoyancy
Gr = = (used where natural convection phenomenon occurs )
2 Viscous force
C p  Rate of viscous penetration
Pr = = = [Ludwig Prandtl ,1920]
k  Rate of heat penetration
 Advective Transport Rate
Peclet number, Pe = Re L Pr =
Diffusive Transport Rate
hL Internal thermal resistance ofsolid
Bi = =
k s Boundary layer thermal resistance
s
Skin friction coefficient = = Dimensionless surface shear stress
(1/ 2) V 2

t Rate of heat conduction

Fourier Number = 2
= = Dimensionless time
L Rate of internal energy stored

Raleigh number, Ra = GrPr

p
Friction factor, f = = Dimensionless Δp for internal flow
(1/ 2 )  u ( L / D)
2

Colburn factor = St Pr 2/3 = Dimensionless heat transfer coefficient

 NuL
S tan ton Number , St =
Re L Pr

V2 Kinetic Energy
Ec ker t Number , Ec = =
C p (Tw − T f ) Boundary layer enthalpy difference
hm L
Sherwood Number , Sh = = Dimensionless concentration gradient at the surface
Dab
Convective mass transfer rate from surface
Diffusive mass transfer from surface to the when there is no flow

 Momentum diffusivity
Schmidt Number , Sc = =
Das Mass diffusivity

Sc  Thermal Diffusivity
Lewis Number = = =
Pr Da Mass Diffusivity