MOLE CONCEPT

Gram atomic mass/weight

 Mass in grams of an element that is numerically equal to its atomic weight.

Example:
Atomic weight of Na = 22.98 or 23
Gram atomic mass of Na = 23 gms
1 gram atomic mass = 6.02 x 1023atoms

Mole
 Unit of mass which means Avogadro’s number of items like atoms, molecules, ions or electrons.

1 mole of atoms = 6.02 x 1023 atoms

1 mole of molecules = 6.02 x 1023 molecules
1 mole of electrons = 6.02 x 1023 electrons
1 mole of ions = 6.02 x 1023 ions

Since 1 gm atomic mass = 6.02 x 1023 atoms

1 mole of atoms = 6.02 x 1023 atoms
Therefore, 1 gm atomic mass = 1 mole
1 gm atomic mass Na = 23 gms
1 mole Na = 23 gms
1 mole of an element = its atomic weight

MOLAR MASS/MOLECULAR MASS/MOLECULAR WEIGHT

Determination of Molecular Weight (MW)

Examples:
1. CO2 3. Na2SO4

2. Ca(OH)2 4. (NH4)2CO3

GRAM MOLECULAR MASS/GRAM MOLECULAR WEIGHT/GRAM MOLAR MASS

Gram Molecular Mass/Gram Molecular Weight/Gram Molar Mass

 Mass in grams of a compound numerically equal to its molecular weight or molar mass.

Example:
1gm molecular weight of (NH4)CO3 = 96 gm
1 mole of a compound = its molar mass or molecular weight

1. Find the mass in grams of 1 Carbon atom

 2. Find the number of moles in 24.08 x 1023 molecules of CO2.

3. Determine the mass in grams of 3.6 moles H2SO4

4. Determine the mass in grams of 1 x 1010 molecules SO2

5. How many hydrogen atoms are present in 25.6 g of sucrose, or table sugar (C12H22O11)

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
Steps:
1. Determine the Molecular Weight
2. Divide the total mass of element by the Molecular Weight
3. Multiply by 100

Examples:

1. MgSO4

2. Na2CO3

3. Fe(C2H3O2)3
4. Al2(SO4)3 • 18H2O

EMPIRICAL FORMULA
Empirical Formula
 Simplest formula of a compound that gives the smallest whole number ratio of atoms.

Examples:
1. A sample of gas is found to contain 2.34g of nitrogen and 5.34 g of oxygen. Determine the
empirical formula.

2. What is the empirical formula of a compound which contains 40% sulfur and 60% oxygen?

3. Determine the empirical formula for the compound containing 32.4% Na, 22.6% sulfur and
45.0% oxygen.

4. A sulfide of iron was found by combining 2.233g iron with 1.926g sulfur. Determine the
empirical formula.
 MOLECULAR FORMULA
Molecular Formula
 True formula of a compound that gives the actual number of atoms of the elements present in
the compound.

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 = (𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)𝑛

Where:
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝑛=
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎

Examples:

1. A compound of nitrogen and oxygen with a molecular weight of 92 was found to have an
empirical formula of NO2. What is the molecular formula?

2. The hydrocarbon propylene has a gram molecular weight of 42 g/mole and contains 14.3%
hydrogen and 85.7% carbon. Determine the molecular formula.

MOLE RATIO

Mole Ratio
 Ratio of the number of moles of two substances.

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry
 Branch of chemistry that deals with the numerical relationship between 2 substances using mole
ratios.
Sample Problems:

I. Mole-to-Mole

1. How many moles of oxygen are required for the complete combustion of 38 moles of
methane?

2. How many moles of ammonia are produced when 5 moles of hydrogen reacts with nitrogen?

3. Given the unbalanced equation, FeS2 + O2  Fe2O3 + SO2

A. How many moles of Fe2O3 can be made from 1 mole FeS2?

B. How many moles of oxygen are required to react with 3.3 moles SO2?

C. If the reaction produces 2.11 moles of Fe2O3, how many moles of SO2 are produced?

II. Mole-to-Mass

1. What weight of hydrogen can be produced by reacting 3 moles of aluminum with

hydrochloric acid?

2. How many grams of aluminum metal will react with 5.6 moles of H2SO4 to produce
aluminum sulfate and hydrogen gas?
III. Mass-to-Mole

1. How many moles of solid aluminum oxide are produced by heating 2 x 103g of aluminum
metal in the presence of oxygen?

IV. Mass-to-Mass

1. Caustic soda, NaOH, can be produced commercially by the reaction of Na2CO3 with slaked
lime, Ca(OH)2. How many grams of NaOH can be obtained by treating 1kg of Na2CO3 with
Ca(OH)2.

2. How many grams of CaCl2 does it take to produce 14.3g of AgCl when treated with excess
AgNO3.

3. The reaction of sucrose, C12H22O11, with oxygen is

C12H22O11 + 12O2  12CO2 + 11H2O
How many grams of CO2 is produced per gram of sucrose used?

LIMITING REACTANT/REAGENT

Limiting reactant
 Reactant that is totally used up or consumed in a chemical reaction and is used to determine the
amount of the product.

Examples:

1. How many grams of NH3 can be formed by the reaction of 140g N2 with 50g H2?
 2. How many grams of water can be produced by the reaction of 4g of hydrogen gas with 48g
of oxygen gas? How much of each reactant will be left after the reaction is complete?

3. In the reaction,
2KMnO4 + 8H2SO4 + 5K2C2O4  2MnSO4 + 6K2SO4 + 10CO2 + 8H2O
11.5g of K2C2O4 and 13.2g of KMnO4 are dissolved in a solution containing an excess of
H2SO4.
a) What is the limiting reactant and how many moles of CO2 will be produced?
b) How many grams of the reagent that is in excess will remain?

PERCENT YIELD

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
% 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = × 100
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

Theoretical Yield
 Maximum amount of special product that is obtained from a given amount of reactant using a
balanced chemical equation.

Actual Yield
 Amount of product that is actually obtained in a chemical reaction.

Actual Yield  Theoretical Yield

Examples:

1. When 600g of C8H18 in gasoline undergoes combustion with oxygen to produce CO2 and H2O,
the actual yield of H2O is 750g. What is the % yield of the reaction?
2C8H18 + 25O2  16CO2 + 18H2O
 2. Ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH can be made by the fermentation of sugar which often comes from
starch in grain.
C6H12O6  2C2H5OH + 2CO2
If an 82% yield of ethyl alcohol is obtained, what weight of ethyl alcohol will be produced
from 850g of glucose? What weight of glucose should be used to produce 415g of C2H5OH?

Additional Problems:
1. Helium is a valuable gas used in industry, low-temperature research, deep-sea diving and
balloons. How many moles of helium are in 6.46g of He?
2. Determine the empirical formula of a compound having the following percent composition by
mass: 24.75% K, 34.75 Mn, 40.5% O
3. The major air pollutant in coal-burning countries is a colorless, pungent gaseous compound
containing only sulfur and oxygen. Chemical analysis of a 1.078g sample of this gas showed that
it contained 0.540g of S and 0.538g of O. what is the empirical formula of this compound?
4. The percentage composition of butyric acid is found to be 54.2% C, 9.2% H and 36.6% O.
Determine the molecular formula of the acid if the molecular weight is 88.
5. Tetraphosphorus trisulfide, P4S3, is used in the manufacture of “strike anywhere” matches.
Elemental phosphorus and sulfur react directly to form P4S3
8P4 + 3S8  8P4S3
If we have 153 g of S8 and an excess of phosphorus, what mass of P4S3 can be produced by this
reaction?
6. A solution of hydrochloric acid contains 5.22 g of HCl. When it is allowed to react with 3.25 g of
solid K2CO3, the products are KCl, CO2, and H2O. Which reactant is in excess?
7. The Solvay process is important in the commercial production of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3),
which is used in the manufacture of most glass. The last step in the Solvay process is the
conversion of NaHCO3 (sodium bicarbonate, or baking soda) to Na2CO3 by heating.
2NaHCO3(s)  Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
In a laboratory experiment, a student heats 42.0 g of NaHCO3 and determines that 22.3 g of
Na2CO3 is formed. What is the percentage yield of this reaction?
8. In petroleum refining, hydrocarbons are often manipulated by reacting them with H2(g). If
hexene, C6H12, is reacted with hydrogen to form hexane, C6H14, how many moles of hydrogen are
needed to react with 453 moles of hexene?
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

A chemical reaction is a process in which one set of substances, called reactants, is

converted to a new set of substances, called products. In other words, a chemical reaction is the
process by which a chemical change occurs. In many cases, though, nothing happens when
substances are mixed; each retains its original composition and properties. We need evidence
before we can say that a reaction has occurred. Some of the types of physical evidence to look for
are shown here:
 a color change
 formation of a solid (precipitate) within a clear solution
 evolution of a gas
 evolution or absorption of heat
Although such observations as these usually signify that a reaction has occurred, conclusive
evidence still requires a detailed chemical analysis of the reaction mixture to identify all the
substances present. Moreover, a chemical analysis may reveal that a chemical reaction has occurred
even in the absence of obvious physical signs.
Just as there are symbols for elements and formulas for compounds, there is a symbolic, or
shorthand, way of representing a chemical reaction— the chemical equation. In a chemical
equation, formulas for the reactants are written on the left side of the equation and formulas for the
products are written on the right. The two sides of the equation are joined by an arrow ().
Example:
Consider the reaction of colorless nitrogen monoxide and oxygen gases to form red-brown
nitrogen dioxide gas.
Nitrogen monoxide + oxygen  nitrogen dioxide
To complete the shorthand representation of this reaction,

1. Substitute chemical formulas for names.

Nitrogen monoxide + oxygen  nitrogen dioxide
NO + O2  NO2

In this expression, there are three O atoms on the left side (one in the molecule NO and
two in the molecule O2 ), but only two O atoms (in the molecule NO2) on the right.
Because atoms are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction, this expression
needs to be balanced.
2. Balance the numbers of atoms of each kind on both sides of the expression to obtain a
balanced chemical equation.
2NO + O2  2NO2

The coefficient 2 is placed in front of the formulas NO and NO2. This means that two
moles of NO are consumed and two moles NO2 are produced for every molecule of O2
consumed. In the balanced equation there are two N atoms and four O atoms on each
side. In a balanced equation, the total number of atoms of each element present is the
same on both sides of the equation.

The coefficients required to balance a chemical equation are called stoichiometric

coefficients. These coefficients are essential in relating the amounts of reactants used and products
formed in a chemical reaction, through a variety of calculations. In balancing a chemical equation,
keep the following point in mind.
“An equation can be balanced only by adjusting the coefficients of formulas.”
The method of equation balancing described above is called balancing by inspection. Balancing by
inspection means to adjust stoichiometric coefficients by trial and error until a balanced condition is
found. Although the elements can generally be balanced in any order, equation balancing need not
be a hit-or-miss affair. Here are some useful strategies for balancing equations:
 If an element occurs in only one compound on each side of the equation, try balancing this
element first.
 When one of the reactants or products exists as the free element, balance this element last.
 In some reactions, certain groups of atoms (for example, polyatomic ions) remain
unchanged. In such cases, balance these groups as a unit.
 It is permissible to use fractional as well as integral numbers as coefficients. At times, an
equation can be balanced most easily by using one or more fractional coefficients and then,
if desired, clearing the fractions by multiplying all coefficients by a common multiplier.

Types of Reaction
A. Synthetic Reaction
A + B  AB
Examples:
C + O2  CO2
CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2
3KCl + 3O2  2KClO3
B. Decomposition Reaction
AB  A + B
Examples:
2H2O  2H2 + O2
CaCO3  CaO + CO2
2KClO3  2KCl + 3O2
C. Single Replacement or Substitution
a. A + BC  B + AC
Where A and B are metals
Examples:
Zn + 2HCl  H2 + ZnCl2
2Al + 3H2SO4  3H2 + Al2(SO4)3
Fe + CuSO4  Cu +FeSO4
b. A + BC  BA + C
Where A and C are halogens
Examples:
Cl2 + 2NaBr  2NaCl +Br2
Cl2 + 2KI  2KCl +I2
D. Double Replacement or Metathesis
AB + CD  AD + CB
 Examples:
HCl + NaOH  H2O + NaCl
BaCl2 + 2AgNO3  Ba(NO3)2 + 2AgCl

States of Matter
Example: Liquid triethylene glycol is used as a solvent and plasticizer for vinyl and
polyurethane plastics. Write a balanced chemical equation for the combustion of
this compound in a plentiful supply of oxygen.

At 25 °C, ammonia is a gas but triethylene glycol is a liquid. Such facts as these are
inconsequential if our interest is only in balancing an equation. Still, we convey a more
complete representation of the reaction by including this information, and sometimes it is
essential to include such information in a chemical equation. The state of matter or physical
form of reactants and products is shown by symbols in parentheses.
(g) gas (l) liquid (s) solid
Thus, the equation for combustion of triethylene glycol can be written as
2C6H14O4(l) + 15O2(g)  12CO2(g) + 14H2O(l)
Another commonly used symbol for reactants or products dissolved in water is (aq)
aqueous solution.

Reaction Conditions
The equation for a chemical reaction does not provide enough information to enable you to
carry out the reaction in a laboratory or chemical plant. An important aspect of modern chemical
research involves working out the conditions for a reaction. The reaction conditions are often
written above or below the arrow in an equation. For example, the Greek capital letter delta (),
means that a high temperature is required— that is, the reaction mixture must be heated.
Examples:
1. Decomposition of silver oxide

2. Synthesis of methanol from CO and H2

This reaction occurs at 350 °C, under a total gas pressure that is 340 times as great
as the normal pressure of the atmosphere, and on the surface of a mixture of ZnO and
Cr2O3 acting as a catalyst. A catalyst is a substance that enters into a reaction in such a
way that it speeds up the reaction without itself being consumed or changed by the
reaction.
 CONSECUTIVE, SIMULTANEOUS, AND OVERALL REACTIONS

Both in laboratory work and in manufacturing, the preferred processes are those that yield a
product through a single reaction. Often such processes give a higher yield because there is no need
to remove products from one reaction mixture for further processing in subsequent reactions.
However, in many cases a multistep process is unavoidable. Consecutive reactions are reactions
carried out one after another in sequence to yield a final product. In simultaneous reactions, two or
more substances react independently of one another in separate reactions occurring at the same
time.

Example:
1. Calculating the Quantity of a Substance Produced by Reactions Occurring Consecutively
Titanium dioxide, TiO2,is the most widely used white pigment for paints, having displaced
most lead-based pigments, which are environmental hazards. Before it can be used,
however, naturally occurring TiO2 must be freed of colored impurities. One process for
doing this converts impure to which is then converted back to pure TiO2(s). The process is
based on the following reactions, the first of which generates TiCl4.
2TiO2(impure) + 3C(s) + 4Cl2(g)  2TiCl4(g) + CO2(g) + 2CO(g)
TiCl4(g) + O2(g)  TiO2(s) + 2Cl2(g)
What mass of carbon is consumed in producing 1.00 kg of pure TiO2(s) in this process?
 2. Calculating the Quantity of a Substance Produced by Reactions Occurring Simultaneously
Magnesium aluminum alloys are widely used in aircraft construction. One particular
alloy contains 70.0% Al and 30.0% Mg, by mass. How many grams of H2(g) are produced
in the reaction of a 0.710 g sample of this alloy with excess HCl(aq)? Balanced chemical
equations are given below for the reactions that occur.
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq)  2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Often, we can combine a series of chemical equations for consecutive reactions to obtain a
single equation to represent the overall reaction. The equation for this overall reaction is the overall
equation. At times we can use the overall equation for solving problems instead of working with the
individual equations. This strategy does not work, however, if the substance of interest is not a
starting material or final product but appears only in one of the intermediate reactions. Any
substance that is produced in one step and consumed in another step of a multistep process is called
an intermediate.
To write an overall equation for Example #1, multiply the coefficients in the second equation
by the factor 2, add the second equation to the first, and cancel any substances that appear on both
sides of the overall equation.

The result suggests that:

1. We should obtain as much TiO2 in the second reaction as we started with in the first
2. The Cl2(g)produced in the second reaction can be recycled back into the first reaction,
The only substances actually consumed in the overall reaction are C(s) and O2(g).

Take note that we could not have used this overall equation in the calculation of Example #1
since TiO2(s) does not appear in it.