Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
4, October 1991
ONTARIO HYDRO
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Figure 1A shows a multi-voltage tower configuration stationary, this residual voltage i s approximately t h e
which, w i t h t h e 500 kV circuit c a r r y i n g load at i t s maximum allowable. However, values greater than 20%
t h e r m a l limit of 2300 amps, produces 5.5970 negative have been calculated for multi-voltage tower
sequence voltage at radially supplied loads. I n t h i s configurations. With voltages in this range, large motors
configuration, two phases of the higher voltage circuit are will be tripped by undervoltage relays. Small motors, and
in close proximity to phases of t h e lower voltage circuit, household a p p l i a n c e s will l i k e l y stop, a n d will b e
while t h e third phase is remote. Both capacitively and subjected to locked-rotor currents high enough to cause
inductively induced voltage u n b a l a n c e s c a n r e s u l t . damage in a short time.
Figure 1B shows a more acceptable tower configuration.
Induced voltages on t h e lower voltage circuit can be
mostly positive sequence for this configuration. However,
DSA DSB o_sL I
BUCHANAN TS
ALLANBURG TS
ST
'
THOMAS
TS
.
1
.
," 8Y
y15kV7
i
r15lrV
i v
500kV
-2000 -1000 0
POWER FLOW- MW.
1000 2(
A A A
DS A DSB DS C FIG. 3 Voltage Unbalance Variation with
500kV Power Flow
FIG. 2 Bulk Transmissionand Distribution
Circuits on a Combined Right-of-way 2.3 Ferroresonance:
If a n u n l o a d e d t r a n s f o r m e r i s de-energized w i t h a
The tower arrangement shown i n Figure lC, used with transmission line of sufficient length, coupled to another
t h e system of Figure 2, produces a variation i n load t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e , f e r r o r e s o n a n c e m a y occur [ 11.
negative sequence voltage unbalance with power transfer Essentially t h e nonlinear magnetizing impedance of the
in the 500 kV circuit a s shown in Figure 3. Through most transformer oscillates with t h e line capacitances. With
of the normal operating range, the unbalance is below the sufficient energy transmitted across t h e inter-circuit
acceptable NEMA Standard MG1-12.45a limit of 1.0%. capacitance to supply the losses, these oscillations can be
However, a system contingency resulting i n increased sustained.
power flow i n the 500 kV circuit will result in potential
damage to r o t a t i n g loads fed from t h e lower voltage Ferroresonant oscillations normally 'lock in' at either 60
circuits. Overheating, and difficulty with motor starting Hz or at a subharmonic. A fixed relationship exists
h a s been experienced with voltage unbalance a s low a s b e t w e e n t h e f r e q u e n c y a n d t h e v o l t a g e of t h e
2.%. ferroresonant oscillation. This relationship is due to the
0 . 0 0 0.10 0.20 0 . 3 0 O.’tO 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 Studies with the EMTP program are somewhat limited by
Time ( in Sec.) x 16’ t h e lack of information on t h e transformer s a t u r a t i o n
characteristics a n d t h e accuracy of t h e t r a n s f o r m e r
FIG. 5 Residual Load Voltage on models. EMTP studies, with d a t a varied over a
De-energization reasonable range, have almost invariably shown some
possibility of ferroresonance if the line was coupled to one
need to drive the flux in t h e transformer core from one of higher voltage. The higher saturation kneepoint of the
saturation point to t h a t of t h e opposite polarity. As the ’quiet’ transformers now being specified has, on occasion,
voltage decreases, t h e frequency of t h e ferromagnetic appeared to aggravate t h e situation by increasing t h e
oscillation decreases. Conversely, if a switching surge voltage at which t h e ferroresonance c a n occur. T h e
were t o s t a r t t h e process at a high enough voltage, t h e calculated oscillation has been at extremely high voltage
o s c i l l a t i o n s could conceivably be m a i n t a i n e d a t a i n some instances a s shown i n Figure 6. This type of
harmonic frequency and at a voltage well above normal. oscillation creates a risk of transformer damage, a n d of
Close coupling to a h i g h e r voltage line increases t h e breaker restrike.
p o s s i b i l i t y of s u c h h i g h v o l t a g e h i g h f r e q u e n c y
oscillations. 2.4 Breaker Recovery Voltage:
A situation conducive to ferroresonance may be created The duty on existing breakers may be increased by t h e
inadvertently by a stuck breaker, where a transformer close coupling of a circuit with higher voltage circuits in
a n d a transmission line a r e i n adjacent positions i n a two ways: by increasing the trapped charge voltage, and
switch yard. Modern air blast a n d SF6 breakers a r e not by increasing t h e ferroresonant oscillation voltage if a
mechanically ganged between poles. Consequently, the transformer is attached to the circuit. The trapped charge
independent pole mechanisms can be expected to stick voltage on a double circuit tower will have a crest of about
with a higher frequency than the three phases together. 1.5 per unit of normal crest voltage. With close coupling to
S u c h a s i n g l e p h a s e connection b e t w e e n a coupled a higher voltage circuit, voltages u p t o 2.1 per unit have
transmission line a n d a transformer can result i n been calculated. F i g u r e 7 shows t h e r e s u l t s of s u c h
ferroresonz ice. calculations. The breaker stress is especially high when
t h e coupled voltage i s not i n p h a s e with t h e s y s t e m
T h e s i t u a t i o n m a y also r e s u l t from t h e omission of voltage on the live side of the breaker.
transformer high-voltage breakers as in the Dual Element
Source Network (DESN) arrangement used by Ontario A maximum recovery voltage (1.76 x maximum voltage
Hydro. I n t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t , two circuits, with two for equipment) i s given i n s t a n d a r d s [21 for AC high-
attached transformers, feed a load bus as shown in Figure voltage circuit breakers. This recovery voltage refers to
4. On occurrence of a fault, the faulted circuit-transformer the fast transient peak which, in the first few tenths of a
combination i s disconnected, leaving t h e load millisecond, follows fault current interruption. Standards
continuously supplied. This system achieves high allow for a n increase in this breaker recovery voltage, by
reliability by providing continuous voltage to t h e load a factor of 1.17, for interruption of small currents. An
during the clearing of line faults. However, the switching e v e n h i g h e r w i t h s t a n d voltage i s applicable t o t h e
of t h e circuit-transformer combination without a load, longitudinal insulation with t h e breaker i n t h e open
combined with the close coupling of the switched circuit to position, fully deionized. However a value is not given
a circuit of higher voltage, increases the probability of specifically for the very slow recovery voltages involved in
ferroresonance. switching closely coupled circuits.
Identifying resonant conditions in transmission systems Provided the standard recovery voltage value, augmented
is I] t straight forward due to the complexity of the inter- by the low current allowance, (1.76 x 1.17 of maximum
phase a n d inter-circuit capacitances a n d inductances voltage for the equipment) is not exceeded, t h e breaker
involved, and their distributed nature. Linear resonant can be assumed adequate. Its operation may, however, be
c o n d i t i o n s , as i n t h e c a s e of l i n e r e a c t o r s , c a n b e accompanied by an occasional restrike.
accurately identified by frequency scans under different
1685
................. N : (7.a)
3 00 . . . . . . ............... 1 .......................
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
.. ..........
-5.00: . . . . I . . . . , . . . . ; . . . . I
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.110 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.116 0.50 0.60
.......... 8 3.
n
r
-6.001.. . . i . . . . i n . . . , . . . . 1
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.110 0.50 0.60
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.110
Time ( in Sec.) Time ( in Sec.)x lo-'
When a transmission circuit i s taken out of service for I n addition to permanent grounds at station entrances,
maintenance, i t is usually grounded at both ends using working grounds a r e usually applied i n t h e vicinity of
permanently installed ground switches. O n multiple maintenance work on transmission circuits to protect
circuit right-of-ways, t h e power flow in t h e live circuits workers from operating errors and from induction effects.
induces currents in t h e grounded circuit. The second to It i s generally expected t h a t negligible currents will flow
l a s t ground switch to open may h a v e difficulty in the working grounds since the induced currents on both
interrupting this circulating current. I n addition, t h e sides are almost identical.
inter-circuit capacitance can induce charging current in
the last ground switch to open, and can result i n a high Working grounds at a transposition location carry t h e
recovery voltage across it. difference of t h e induced currents i n t h e two adjacent
sections, which a r e approximately 120 degrees out of
G r o u n d s w i t c h e s i n common u s e h a v e no r a t e d phase. The result can be a ground current a t i m e s t h e
interrupting capability. However, over the years, i t has normal circulating current. Similarly, high currents can
been obvious t h a t t h e s e switches h a v e successfully be experienced at other discontinuities, such as locations
interrupted appreciable currents and withstood w h e r e circuits join o r leave the right-of-way. These
significant recovery voltages. The close coupling of HV c u r r e n t s m a y be too high for t h e continuous c u r r e n t
circuits with EHV bulk transmission circuits on the same capability of the grounding equipment,and may cause too
tower h a s created a condition where t h e circulating long arcs for the working grounds to be safely removed.
c u r r e n t a n d r e c o v e r y v o l t a g e c a p a b i l i t y of t h e
conventional g r o u n d s w i t c h e s m a y be exceeded. I n some arrangements, t h e lower voltage circuits form
Circulating c u r r e n t s i n excess of 300 a m p s rms, a n d major p a r t s of t h e bulk power transmission system. A
ground switch recovery voltages in excess of 160 kV crest, maintenance outage to the EHV circuit can result in the
on a 115 kV circuit have been calculated. loading of t h e low voltage circuits to t h e e x t e n t t h a t
unacceptably high circulating currents can be induced in
the closely coupled EHV circuit.
3.0 POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS: which will not appear at the load due t o delta connected
transformer windings.
A complicating difficulty in finding proper solutions to the
above problems is t h a t a solution t o one may aggravate 3.3.2 Secondary Side Load Switching:
another. The accepted solutions must aim at control of all
problems, at minimum cost. Possible solutions to specific On detection of unacceptably high residual voltage, i t
problems are given below. would be possible to open secondary feeder breakers t o
protect the load. The major risk of such a n arrangement is
3.1 Solutions for Voltage Unbalance t h a t i t leaves t h e unloaded transformer connected t o a
Problems: circuit with high coupled voltages, a n d could lead to
ferroresonance.
3.1.1 Transpositions:
3.2.3 Primary Side Load Switching:
By transposing the high voltage circuit, voltage unbalance
i n t h e low voltage circuit from line coupling c a n be O n d e t e c t i o n of r e s i d u a l v o l t a g e , t h e s t e p - d o w n
eliminated. This can be impractical with short lengths of transformer and its attached load could be switched by a
coupling, and expensive in any situation. Somewhat less load switcher. The circuit will be subsequently r e -
effective is transposition of the lower voltage circuit so a s energized without t h e transformer. I n t h e case of a
to create three equal sections over the coupled range. This s u c c e s s f u l r e - e n e r g i z a t i o n , t h e load will s u f f e r a
will result in the conversion of the voltage unbalance into somewhat prolonged outage until the load interruptor is
zero sequence. Zero sequence voltage unbalance may not closed by control. If the re-energization is not successful,
reach t h e load because of delta connected transformer t h e line b r e a k e r s m a y e n c o u n t e r t h e high recovery
windings. Transpositions can result in unexpectedly high voltages associated with clearing a coupled, unloaded
currents in working grounds during maintenance. circuit.
I
1687
transformer and line prior to opening the ground switch length of circuit corresponding to conditions at which
could create a need for special relaying or successful operation h a s been demonstrated. The
communications. increasingly close coupling, particularly with circuits of
higher voltage rating, h a s made this experience-based
3.3.4 Cross Tripping of Companion Circuit: data obsolete. A method outlined i n a 1950 NEE paper by
F.E. Andrews et a1 [3] permits the calculation of arc reach
For a stuck breaker condition leading to ferroresonance, a as a function of current and open circuit voltage. If such
scheme to cross trip the live circuit is under consideration. arcs are limited to approximately one half of the available
Stuck breaker conditions occur very infrequently. If the clearance, a basis for evaluation of existing equipment
system is designed to tolerate a double circuit fault, the can be established.
cross tripping will only marginally increase the frequency
of the simultaneous loss of two circuits. 3.5.2 Development of Higher Capability
Ground Switches:
3.4 Solutions for Breaker Recovery Voltage
Problems: A ground switch with suitable interrupting capability has
been developed for use by Ontario Hydro [4], consisting of
3.4.1 Selection of Optimum Phase a n SF6 i n t e r r u p t o r , w i t h a disconnect s w i t c h t y p e
Arrangement: isolator. Other desirable features have been included,
such a s remote operation capability and a visible by-pass
By selecting t h e p h a s i n g of t h e low voltage circuit, of the interruptor in the closed position.
relative to t h e high voltage circuit, so t h a t the induced
voltage i s i n p h a s e with t h e low voltage system, t h e Ground switches with proven interrupting capability have
voltage across t h e opening b r e a k e r will be reduced. also been developed for gas insulated substations [51.
However, a phase shift between t h e voltage levels, or
other requirements, such a s a need to minimize t h e 3.6 Solution for Workinv Ground Problems:
electromagnetic field strength at the edge of the right-of-
way, may preclude this approach. The compact right-of-ways presently being planned show
numerous locations and conditions where conventional
3.4.2 Application of Surge Arresters: w o r k i n g g r o u n d s c a n n o t b e u s e d . I n s t a l l a t i o n of
p e r m a n e n t ground switches, with or without special
I t may be possible to select metal oxide arresters, with a n interruption capability, in these locations, is the present
adequate continuous operating voltage, and with a low practice, b u t m a y n o t be a n economic solution. It i s
enough protective level that the breaker recovery voltage desirable t h a t a portable ground switch be developed,
can be limited. The arrester would be installed, on t h e capable of easy application in the field.
line side of t h e breaker, to discharge a portion of t h e
t r a p p e d charge voltage d u r i n g line de-energization. 4.0 CONCLUSIONS:
However, in selecting such a n arrester, margins are much
tighter than normal. Consideration must be given to the The addition of more circuits onto existing right-of-ways,
temporary overvoltages that may occur on healthy phases and particularly the use of multi-voltage towers, is adding
during the fault. Also, following line de-energization, a n a new dimension to problems resulting from
attached rotating load may maintain both the fault and electromagnetic and electrostatic induction. Although
the system voltage, increasing the arrester thermal duty. none of the problems are new, and although solutions are
usually possible, the costs can be significant and must be
3.4.3 Replacement of Breakers: anticipated in the early planning stages. Problems with
voltage unbalance, residual voltage, ferroresonance,
If studies indicate t h a t , in spite of stratagems such as breaker recovery voltage, ground switch duty, and line
p h a s e a r r a n g e m e n t selection, t h e s t a n d a r d recovery m a i n t e n a n c e have been identified, a n d solutions
voltage value for breakers is exceeded, or if a n occasional presented. Although implemented solutions depend on the
restrike is not tolerable, the breaker must be assumed s y s t e m configuration, t h e following conclusions a r e
inadequate. It must then be tested for capacitor switching generally valid:
d u t y at appropriately high voltages, or replaced by a
breaker of adequate rating. Consideration should be given 1. The use of transpositions to minimize induction effects
to the use of SF6 breakers, which appear to inherently i s expensive, a n d r e s u l t s i n severe working ground
have a capacitive switching ability much above t h a t of problems.
other types of breakers.
2 . T h e n u m b e r of locations w h e r e coupled c i r c u i t s
3.5 Solutions for Ground Switch Duty converge o r diverge should be minimized.
Problems:
3. Careful selection of circuit p h a s i n g i s required to
3.5.1 Determination of Capability minimize negative sequence unbalance, to reduce breaker
of Conventional Ground Switches: recovery voltage, and to reduce ground switch duty.
The i n t e r r u p t i n g capability of conventional ground 4.Use of independent phase switched capacitors, or static
switches is usually expressed a s a current limit, and a s a var compensators, may be required to compensate load
1688
5. Breakers with limited recovery voltage capability may Russell H. Brierley (M'73) was born
have to be protected with arresters, or be replaced with i n 1930 in Hamilton, Ontario. H e
SF6 breakers of higher capability. received his electrical engineering
degree from Queens University in
6. Special m e a s u r e s , s u c h a s d a m p i n g r e s i s t o r s , or Kingston, Ont., in 1953.
individual transformer switching capability, m a y be
r e q u i r e d t o r e d u c e i n c i d e n t s of t r a n s f o r m e r He worked for six years for CGE in
ferroresonance. Peterborough, Ont., in the design of
Hydraulic Generators; a n d t h r e e
7. Special high-voltage switching devices may be required years for Ontario Hydro's Research Division, field testing
to disconnect loads u n d e r t h e condition of s u s t a i n e d electrical equipment. Since 1963 he has worked in various
under-voltage. positions in Ontario Hydro, System Planning Division. He
h a s been involved i n s y s t e m s t u d i e s u s i n g t h e
REFERENCES: Electromagnetic Transients Program, since 1969.
DISCUSSION REFERENCES
GEORGE GELA, HVTRC, LENOX, MA: The paper provides a A. ANSI/IEEE Std 1048-1990, " I E E E Guide f o r Protec-
broad overview o f many questions t h a t could a r i s e when t i v e Grounding o f Power ines" .
one t r i e s t o minimize t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y through t h e use
o f compact l i n e designs, o r when one t r i e s t o maximize B. ANSI/IEEE S t d 516-1987, " I E E E Guide f o r Main-
t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y through t h e use o f tenance Methods on Energ zed Power-Li nes" .
m u l t i - v o l tage towers. The paper concentrates mainly
on t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e o p t i m i z e d Manuscript received February 20, 1991.
t r a n s m i s s i o n c o r r i d o r s , and presents as conclusions
some f a i r l y generic statements as t o what might be ex-
pected.
The d i s c u s s e r would f i r s t l i k e t o e x p l o r e t h e pos- R.H. BRIERLEY, A.S. MORCHED, T.E. GRAINGER
s i b i l i t y o f d e r i v i n g some more d e f i n i t e statements o r
g u i d e l i n e s . For example, w i t h t h e "more crowded" c o r -
r i d o r s and towers (i.e., smaller a i r distances, o r a The Authors would like to thank Dr. Gela for his interest
m i x t u r e o f voltage l e v e l s ) , would t h e outage r a t e be
higher, and could t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l y low outage r a t e s in t h i s paper, a n d for pointing out t h e similarities of
be recovered a t a reasonable c o s t o f s w i t c h i n g and problems associated with t h e topic of t h i s paper, and
p r o t e c t i v e equipment? Would t h e overvoltage charac- Compact Line Design.
t e r i s t i c s be a l t e r e d t o t h e p o i n t where t h e v a s t
amount o f experience accumulated t o date would need t o The increased coupling effects of the multi-voltage tower
be r e v i s e d ? With t h i s l a s t question, t h e d i s c u s s e r
would l i k e t o address n o t so much t h e general area o f h a v e r e s u l t e d i n w h a t m i g h t be called 'bothersome'
electromagnetic t r a n s i e n t s , b u t r a t h e r more s p e c i f i - overvoltages. Although a concern for terminal equipment,
c a l l y t h e t o p i c o f l i v e - l i n e maintenance. they do not appear to threaten t h e line insulation itself.
Consequently, higher outage rates are not expected if the
The authors address t h e question o f working grounds, terminal effects have been properly considered. These
i . e . , o f grounding temporarily the de-energized l i n e
f o r t h e purpose o f p r o t e c t i n g workers from e l e c t r o c u - terminal effects do represent a modification in 'experience
t i o n due t o a c c i d e n t a l 1 i n e r e - e n e r g i z a t i o n [ A ] . based' knowledge which will have to be assimilated.
However, de-energizing a l i n e t o perform maintenance
r e p r e s e n t s a l o s s o f revenue, which may be a s i g - Live-line maintenance is indeed a n important
n i f i c a n t consideration. Performing t h e work w i t h t h e consideration in the design of multi-voltage towers. In the
l i n e energized, i.e., l i v e - l i n e maintenance, o f course
i s an o p t i o n which avoids t h e problem, b u t t h e s a f e t y p a r t i c u l a r t o w e r d e s i g n s of F i g u r e 1, c l e a r a n c e s
o f t h e worker must take p r i o r i t y . Worker's s a f e t y i s commensurate w i t h t h e maximum s w i t c h i n g s u r g e
assumed b a s i c a l l y by r e t a i n i n g proper a i r distances t o a s s o c i a t e d w i t h n o m i n a l 2 3 0 kV c i r c u i t s a n d t h e
grounded and energized e l e c t r o d e s [ B ] . These d i s - 'envelope' required for workers and equipment have been
tances must i n c l u d e several l a y e r s o f " s a f e t y f a c t o r s " maintained. The maximum switching surge results from
o r "adders" t o account f o r v a r i o u s working and en-
gonomic issues, and t o b r i n g t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f a i r re-energizing a line with a trapped charge, and since the
breakdown t o very, very low values. I n o t h e r words, trapped charge voltage may be increased by t h e multi-
t h e distance needed t o perform l i v e - 1 i n e maintenance voltage tower arrangement, so t h e maximum switching
s a f e l y i s always considerably greater than t h a t c o r - surge may be increased.
responding t o t h e 50% breakdown, f o r a given t r a n s i e n t Several of the circuits described are actually insulated for
overvoltage l e v e l . For compact l i n e s and m u l t i -
voltage towers, t h e a v a i l a b l e physical distances may 230 kV, while operating at 115 kV. This was done because
not be s u f f i c i e n t due t o compaction, t o perform l i v e - of t h e expected high o u t a g e r a t e of 115 kV insulator
1 i n e maintenance, unless a d d i t i o n a l remedial steps are s t r i n g s on a high 500 kV t o w e r , a n d b e c a u s e of a n
taken. The r e m e d i a l s t e p s may range f r o m de- anticipated need to reconnect t h e circuits for 230 kV
e n e r g i z i n g t h e l i n e a l t o g e t h e r , through t e m p o r a r i l y operation in t h e f u t u r e . As a consequence, live-line
c o n t r o l l i n g t h e overvoltages l o c a l l y a t t h e w o r k s i t e maintenance on these circuits, using 230 kV tools a n d
o r p l a c i n g t h e worker on t h e l i n e using, say, h e l i c o p -
t e r s , t o developing new work methods i n c l u d i n g automa- clearances, should pose no problem. The circuits operating
t i o n . The thorough understanding o f overvoltages and a t 230 kV have been checked to ascertain that switching
o f t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f reduced distances i n optimized s u r g e s h i g h e r t h a n t h e a s s u m e d maximum a r e n o t
c o r r i d o r s , i s e s s e n t i a l i n making decisions r e l a t e d t o possible. Such switching s u r g e s a r e unlikely in t h e
l i n e maintenance. Above a l l , t h e broad q u e s t i o n o f
l i v e - l i n e maintenance should be included e a r l y i n t h e discussed a r r a n g e m e n t , because t h e presence of the
d i s c u s s i o n o f compact r i g h t - o f - w a y s , as t h e authors DESN transformers ensures t h a t the trapped charge will
have attempted i n p a r t , so t h a t t h e apparent ad- be dissipated prior to reclosure. I t may be necessary, in
vantages are n o t b l u n t e d by t h e need t o de-energize other locations, to restrict switching surges using line
t h e l i n e due t o i n s u f f i c i e n t distances even f o r such mounted arrestors, r a t h e r t h a n increase standardized
operations as replacement o f bundle spacers o r i n s t a l - safety clearances.
l a t i o n o f marker b a l l s . The authors' comments i n t h i s
area a r e appreciated.
Manuscript received June 30, 1991.