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Ultrasonic Welding
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Advantages
1. Fast, economical and easily automated.
2. Mass production, up to 60 parts per minute is possible.
3. Used in health care industries due to clean welds.
4. Produces high strength joints consistently.
Disadvantages
1. Tooling costs for fixtures are high
2. Large joints greater than 250 𝑚𝑚 × 300 𝑚𝑚 cannot be welded in a single
operation.
3. Ultrasonic vibrations can damage electronic equipments.
Explosive Welding
1. One of the workpiece called' base plate' rests on a rigid base or anvil, while the other
workpiece called 'flyer plate' is inclined at a pre-selected angle (usually around 5°) to
the base plate.
2. A buffer usually made of a rubber or cardboard is placed above the flyer plate to
prevent the surface damage of the flyer plate due to the detonation of explosives.
3. An explosive material (TNT, RDX or PETN) in the form of a sheet is placed above the
buffer and is ignited from its lower edge.
4. As the detonation force progresses across the flyer plate, a very high compressive
stress wave in the order of thousands of MPa sweeps across the surface of the plate.
This causes the flyer plate to move rapidly towards the base plate so that the impact
creates a joint and completes the weld.
5. The entire operation is carried out in a chamber to prevent any accident caused due
to the detonation of explosives.
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Advantages
1. Bond strength of weld metals is very high.
2. Edge preparation is not required.
3. No melting of base metal.
4. No filler metal is required. Hence the joint obtained is clean.
5. Dissimilar metals can be joined easily.
Disadvantages
1. Storage and use of explosives are dangerous.
2. Detonation of explosives can damage the workpieces. Hence, workpieces with high
impact resistance only are suitable for this process.
3. Not suitable for thick plates, as they require higher detonation velocities.
Applications
Used for cladding of metals for the purpose of corrosion prevention. Also, dissimilar metals
such as titanium to steel, aluminum to steel etc., can be successfully welded with this
process.
Laser Welding
The term 'LASER' stands for 'Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation'. A laser
is a device that produces a light beam with the following properties: The light is nearly
monochromatic (single wave length).
The light is coherent with waves exactly in phase with one other.
The laser beam is extremely intense.
The light is highly collimated. It could travel a distance of about 3/4th of million
kilometers without any deviation.
By virtue of the above properties, lasers find application in welding a variety of materials.
1. Laser beam equipment consists of a cylindrical ruby crystal with both the ends made
absolutely parallel to each other. Ruby is aluminum oxide (AlO2) with chromium
dispersed throughout it.
2. One of the end faces of the ruby crystal is highly silvered so that it reflects nearly
96% of the incident light. In order to tap the laser output, the other end face of the
crystal is partially silvered and contains a small hole through which the laser beam
emerges.
3. The ruby crystal is surrounded by a helical flash tube containing inert gas' xenon'
which itself in turn is surrounded by a 'reflector' to maximize the intensity of the
incident light on the ruby crystal. The flash tube converts electrical energy into light
energy.
4. Cooling system, either gas or liquid is provided to protect the ruby crystal from the
enormous amount of heat generated.
5. When the flash tube is connected to a pulsed high voltage source, xenon transforms
the electrical energy into white light flashes (light energy).
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6. As the ruby is exposed to the intense light flashes, the chromium atoms of the crystal
are excited and pumped to a high energy level. These chromium atoms immediately
drop to an intermediate energy level with the evolution of heat and eventually drop
back to their original state with the evolution of a discrete quantity of radiation in
the form of red fluorescent light.
7. As the red light emitted by one excited atom hits another excited atom, the second
atom gives off red light which is in phase with the colliding red light wave. The effect
is enhanced as the silvered ends of the ruby crystal cause the red light to reflect back
and forth along the length of the crystal.
8. The chain reaction collisions between the red light wave and the chromium atoms
becomes so numerous that, finally the total energy bursts and escapes through the
tiny hole as a 'LASER BEAM'.
9. The laser beam is focused by an optical focusing lens on to the spot to be welded.
10. Optical energy as it impacts the workpiece is converted into heat energy.
11. Due to the heat generated, the material melts over a tiny area, and upon cooling, the
material within becomes homogeneous solid structure to make a stronger joint.
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Advantages
1. Similar and dissimilar metals can be welded easily.
2. Laser beam can be controlled to a great precision, and hence the welding spots could
also be located precisely.
3. Certain locations in the material that are difficult-to-reach can be welded easily by
this process.
4. Heating and cooling rates are much higher in this process. Also, heat affected zone is
very small. Hence, the process is ideal for locations which are surrounded by heat
sensitive components.
5. Clean weld joints can be obtained by this process.
Disadvantages
1. Slow welding speeds (25 - 250 mm/min).
2. Rapid cooling rate cause problems such as cracking in high carbon steels.
3. High equipment costs.
Applications
Used in electronics industry for applications such as connecting wire leads to small
electronic components to weld medical equipment, transmission components in
automobiles, and in cladding process.
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1. The system consists of an electronic gun, and a vacuum chamber inside which the
workpieces to be joined are placed. The electronic gun emits and accelerates the
beam of electrons, and focuses it on the workpieces.
2. When a tungsten filament is electrically heated in vacuum to approximately 2000°C,
it emits electrons. The electrons are then accelerated towards the hollow anode by
establishing a high difference of voltage potential between the tungsten filament
and a metal anode.
3. The electrons pass through the anode at high speeds (approximately half the speed
of light), then collected into a concentrated beam, and further directed towards the
workpiece with the help of magnetic forces resulting from focusing and deflection
coils.
4. The highly accelerated electrons hit the base metal and penetrate slightly below the
base surface. The kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into heat energy.
5. The succession of electrons striking at the same place causes the workpiece metal to
melt and fuse together.
Advantages:
1. Any metals, including zirconium, beryllium, or tungsten can be easily welded.
2. High quality welds, as the operation is carried in vacuum.
3. Concentrated beam minimizes distortion.
4. Cooling rate is much higher.
5. Heat affected zone is less.
6. Shielding gas, flux, or filler metal is not required.
Disadvantages:
1. High capital cost
2. Extensive joint preparation is required.
3. Vacuum requirements tend to limit the production rate.
4. Size of the vacuum chamber restricts the size of the workpiece being welded.
5. Not suitable for high carbon steels. Cracks occur due to high cooling rates.
Applications:
Used in electronic industries, automotive and aircraft industries where the quality of the
weld required forms the decisive factor.
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4. By forcing the plasma gas and arc through a constricted orifice, the torch delivers a
high concentration of heat to a small area. With high performance welding
equipment, the plasma process produces exceptionally high quality welds.
5. Plasma gases are normally argon. The torch also uses a secondary gas, argon,
argon/hydrogen or helium which assists in shielding the molten weld puddle thus
minimizing oxidation of the weld.
Advantages:
1. Protected electrode, offers long times before electrode maintenance (usually one 8
Hr Shift)
2. Low amperage welding capability (as low as 0.05 amp)
3. Weld times as short as 5 msecs (.005 secs)
4. Energy density reduces heat affected zone, improves weld quality
5. Length of arc benefit due to arc shape and even heat distribution
6. Diameter of arc chosen via nozzle orifice
Disadvantages:
A major limitation in implementing a plasma welding process is the relatively high startup
costs. Plasma welding equipment tends to be expensive. Because it is a more specialized
welding process, the training and expertise required is also more intense.
Applications:
1. Some of the major uses of plasma arc are its application for the manufacture of
tubing. Higher production rates based on faster travel speeds result from plasma
over gas tungsten arc welding. Tubing made of stainless steel, titanium, and other
metals is being produced with the plasma process at higher production rates than
previously with gas tungsten arc welding.
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2. Most applications of plasma arc welding are in the low-current range, from 100
amperes or less. The plasma can be operated at extremely low currents to allow the
welding of foil thickness material.
3. Plasma arc welding is also used for making small welds on weldments for instrument
manufacturing and other small components made of thin metal. It is used for making
butt joints of wall tubing.
4. This process is also used to do work similar to electron beam welding, but with a
much lower equipment cost.
5. The plasma arc welding process is an all-position welding process. Table 10-2 shows
the welding position capabilities.
Welding Defects
Like casting, welding also involves various parameters viz., type of workpiece material,
electrode material, power source, heat input, cooling rate, welding speed and many more.
Loss of control in any of these parameters may cause defects in the weld metal. Most of the
defects encountered in welding are due to improper welding procedure. Some of the
common defects and their causes are discussed below.
Crack
Crack is a small, sharp split that occurs in the base metal, weld metal or at the interface
between the two and are visible to the naked eye. Crack is a serious defect because they are
seen as 'stress raisers' capable to grow until fracture takes place.
Causes:
1. Incorrect technique for ending the weld.
2. Poor ductility of the base metal.
3. Combination of joint design and welding techniques which results in a weld bead
with an excessively concave surface that promote cracking.
4. Low welding currents.
5. Restrained joints - Joint members are not free to expand and contract when
subjected to heat.
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Distortion
Distortion is the change in shape of the two workpieces before and after welding.
Causes:
1. High residual stresses due to shrinkage.
2. High heat input.
3. More number of passes.
4. Slow welding speeds.
Incomplete penetration
When the molten metal fails to penetrate the entire thickness of the base plate, it forms a
bridge across the two plates causing a defect in the weld.
Causes:
1. Improper joint design.
2. Low welding current.
3. Slow arc travel speed.
4. Incorrect torch angle.
Inclusions
Inclusions are usually non-metallic particles such as slag or any foreign material that does
not get a chance to float on the §surface of the solidifying metal and thus gets trapped
inside the same.
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Causes
1. Use of large electrodes in a narrow groove.
2. Low currents that are insufficient for melting metal.
3. High viscosity of the weld metal.
Porosity
Porosities are small voids or cavities formed when gases are trapped in the solidifying weld
metal. Porosity can occur either under or on the weld surface.
Causes
1. Atmospheric contamination caused due to inadequate shielding gas.
2. Excessively oxidized workpiece surfaces.
3. Use of wet electrodes.
4. Excessive gases released during welding.
Under cut
Under cut, the worst of all defects is the term given to a sharp narrow groove along the toe
of the weld due to the scouring action of the arc removing the metal and not replacing it
with the weld metal.
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Causes
1. High voltage and welding currents.
2. High arc travel speed.
3. Incorrect electrode manipulation.
4. Arc gap too long.
Causes
1. Low welding currents that are insufficient to raise the temperature of the workpiece
metal to melting point.
2. Excessive surface impurities of workpiece.
3. Improper electrode type/size.
4. Wrong polarity.
5. Low arc travel speed.
Soldering
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4. The fluxes used with soldering include rosin, zinc chloride and ammonium chloride.
Application of flux cleans the surface chemically and helps the solder in making a
bond.
5. Soldering is commonly used to ensure good electrical contact in electric circuits, to
secure fluid tightness, sheet metal work and in sealing thin metal containers.
Advantages:
1. It is a simple and economical process.
2. Dissimilar parts can be joined easily.
3. Soldered joints are easy to repair or do rework.
4. Soldering requires low energy.
5. Thin parts can be joined.
Disadvantages:
1. Flux residues should be removed after soldering, otherwise it may cause corrosion.
2. Thick parts cannot be joined efficiently.
3. Soldered joints cannot be used in high temperature applications.
4. Strength of the joint is low.
Brazing
Advantages:
1. Dissimilar metals and parts having thin sections can be joined easily.
2. Stronger joints are obtained when compared to soldering.
3. It is an economical and quick process.
4. Less heating is required than welding.
Disadvantages:
1. Flux residues should be removed after soldering, otherwise it may cause corrosion.
2. Very large parts cannot be joined efficiently.
3. Relatively expensive filler materials.
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Comparison between soldering and brazing
Sl no. Soldering Brazing
1 Soldering is carried out below Soldering is carried out above 450oC
450oC
2 Filler metal used is a lead-tin alloy Filler metals used are non ferrous alloys
called solder. called spelter.
3 Flux used is usually zinc chloride, Flux used is borax powder or boric acid.
rosins and ammonium chloride.
4 Weaker joints compared to brazing. Stronger joints compared to soldering.
5 Suitable to join only thin metals. Suitable to join thicker metals.
6 Cost of the process is less. Cost of the process is higher than soldering.
Adhesive Bonding
An adhesive agent is used to join the two parts together. Both similar/dissimilar material
can be bonded. The surface to be joined are scrubbed chemically or mechanically by sand
blasting or ion etching. An adhesive agent is now applied on the surface and the parts are
held pressed. The adhesive sets and becomes hard. Bonding agents such as epoxies, acrylic,
urethane etc. can be used.
Advantages:
1. Any two materials can be joined
2. No change in material properties or change is surface roughness
3. Some adhesives give shock and vibration protection.
Disadvantages:
1. Surfaces should be scrubbed before joining
2. Beyond 240oC the bond fails
3. It has a short bench life
4. It is toxic in nature
5. It is difficult to use it in production line.
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Inspection
Inspection is an art or process, which involves checking dimensions, observation of
correctness of the operations, and examining the presence and/or the extent of
imperfections in a fabricated part to ensure whether the part conforms to the design
requirements.
The different types of nondestructive inspection are:
Visual Inspection:
Visual inspection is the most widely used method of all the nondestructive tests. It is a
simple test that consumes less time, but is useful to detect the presence of defects on the
surface of the parts.
The parts are illuminated with light and then examined with naked eyes, or sometimes a
magnifying lens or a low power microscope may be used as an aid to the eye.
Visual inspection is often overlooked, but it provides a wealth of information about surface
defects like cracks, porosity, fusion, edge melt and incomplete penetration. A weld that
passes a visual inspection has a much higher probability of passing further nondestructive
evaluation tests.
b. Detection of defect
The presence of the leakage field and therefore the presence of the discontinuity is
detected by dusting finely divided iron or magnetic iron oxide particles on to the surface, so
that it clings to the leakage area indicating the location of discontinuity.
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Advantages:
1. Easy, fast, economical and reliable way to locate discontinuities.
2. Even non-metallic inclusions close to the surface can be detected.
3. Can be automated.
Disadvantages:
1. Restricted to ferromagnetic materials.
2. Restricted to surface or near-surface flaws.
3. Skilled operator is required for efficient inspection
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b. Application of penetrant
A colored (fluorescent) penetrant liquid is applied to the surface of the part being tested by
either dipping, brushing or spraying method. After sufficient time is allowed, the penetrant
easily enters into the flaw due to capillary action and low surface tension.
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d. Developer application
A developer in the form of dry powder (Example CaCO), or suspension of powder in liquid
(Alcohol or spirit) is applied on the surface. The developer acts like a blotter and draws the
Penetrant out of the flaw.
e. Inspection
The part is inspected in a dark enclosure under ultraviolet or black light. The blotted out
fluorescent particles will give a visible glow under ultraviolet light revealing the size and
shape of the defect.
Advantages:
1. Simple, easy to use, and also low cost.
2. No need for skilled inspector.
3. Useful for both ferrous and non-ferrous materials including glass and ceramics.
4. Flaws are clearly visible due to the bright fluorescent against a dark background.
Disadvantages:
1. Only cracks open to the surface can be inspected.
2. Surfaces of parts should be extensively cleaned before testing.
3. Penetrant dyes stain clothes and skin while in use.
Radiography Inspection
Radiography inspection, also known as X-ray inspection is one of the oldest and widely used
method for detecting sub-surface cracks and inclusions in both ferrous and non-ferrous
materials.
1. The test equipment consists of an evacuated bulb in which there is a filament which
acts as cathode, and the target as anode.
2. When the filament is heated by passing current, it emits electrons which are
accelerated towards the target due to the high potential difference.
3. The electrons strike the target and are suddenly stopped; a part of their kinetic
energy is converted to energy of radiation or x-rays.
4. The x-rays then deviate to pass through the workpiece material containing a defect.
5. Since the defect possess low density, they transmit x-rays better than the adjacent
sound metal that possesses high density.
6. The x-rays after passing through the workpiece are allowed to fall on a light-sensitive
film placed at a suitable distance behind the workpiece.
7. Interpretation of x-ray film is only about distinguishing between areas of film
blackness.
8. Defects in the form of cracks or voids are recorded as blackened areas on the film
compared to the adjacent portion of less black areas.
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Advantages
1. Image of the defect is obtained, which helps to study its detailed features.
2. Widely accepted inspection method. Can determine any type of defect in a material.
3. Parts to be inspected need not be disassembled. This reduces labour and time.
Disadvantages
1. Expensive method compared to all other non-destructive methods. Involves high
cost in equipment, film and processing.
2. Film processing requires time. Hence, defect cannot be analyzed on the spot.
3. Skilled inspector is required to analyze defect.
4. Not suitable for surface defects.
5. No indication about the depth of the defect.
1. Eddy current inspection uses the principle of 'electromagnetism' as the basis for
conducting examinations.
2. When a circular coil (also called probe) carrying alternating current is brought near
the workpiece metal, the magnetic field of the coil will induce circulating (eddy)
currents in the workpiece surface.
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3. The magnitude and phase of the eddy currents will affect the loading on the coil, and
thus its impedance. For example, when the workpiece metal is defect free, the eddy
currents will be uniform and consistent (circular shape).
4. However, if there is some defect such as a crack in the workpiece, the eddy currents
will be disturbed from their normal circular shapes. This will reduce the eddy current
flow, thereby decreasing the loading on the coil and increasing its effective
impedance.
5. The change in phase and magnitude of the eddy currents can be displayed on a
cathode ray tube (CRT) type displays. This gives the operator, the ability to identify
defect conditions in the workpiece. The size of the defect can also be determined to
a certain extent (by the absence of metal).
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