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EXCAVATION
MINOR EXCAVATION
MAJOR EXCAVATION
CONCRETE
CONCRETE IS AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE OUT FROM THE MIXTURE OF
CEMENT, SAND, GRAVEL AND WATER. THIS IS KNOWN AS SOLID MASS OR
PLAIN CONCRETE. CONCRETE IN WHICH REINFORCEMENT IS EMBEDDED IN
SUCH A MANNER THAT THE TWO MATERIALS ACT TOGETHER IN RESISTING
FORCES IS CALLED REINFORCED CONCRETE.
MORTAR MIXTURE:
CLASS MIXTURE 40kg. 50kg. SAND
“A” 1:2 18 14.5 1.0 cu.m.
“B” 1:3 12 9.5 1.0
“C” 1:4 9 7 1.0
“D” 1:5 7.5 6 1.0
METAL REINFORCEMENT
THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF STRESSES THAT MAY ACT ON THE STRUCTURE
ARE:
1. COMPRESSION STRESS
2. TENSION STRESS
3. SHEAR STRESS
4. TORSION STRESS
REINFORCEMENT NEED TO PROVIDE ON BEAM TO RESPONSE TO POSITIVE
AND NEGATIVE BENDING WHICH MAY CAUSE FAILURE OR COLLAPSE OF
THE STRUCTURE.
REINFORCED CONCRETE – IS A COMBINATION OF CONCRETE AND STEEL.
CONCRETE – IS STRONG IN SUPPORTING COMPRESSION LOAD BUT WEAK
IN RESISTING TENSION FORCES.
STEEL – POSSESSES THE STRENGTH TO RESIST BOTH COMPRESSION AND
TENSION.
BALANCE BEAM – WHEN THE AREA OF THE CONCRETE AND STEEL ARE
JUST ENOUGH TO CARRY THE COMPRESSION AND TENSION FORCES
SIMULTANEOUSLY.
INFLECTION POINTS – REFER TO THE PORTION OF A BEAM WHERE
BENDING MOMENT CHANGES FROM POSITIVE TO NEGATIVE.
NO BENT BARS – WHEN BARS ARE NOT BENT, AN ADDITIONAL STRAIGHT
REINFORCING BARS ARE PLACED ON THE TOP OF THE BEAM ACROSS THE
SUPPORTS EXTENDED TO THE REQUIRED LENGTH.
BENT REINFORCING BARS – ARE BENT UP ON OR NEAR THE INFLECTION
POINT AND ARE EXTENDED AT THE TOP OF THE BEAM ACROSS THE
SUPPORT TOWARDS THE ADJACENT SPAN.
4cm. – ALLOWANCE PROTECTIVE COVERING OF STEEL BARS FROM THE
OUTSIDE OF THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT.
ADVANTAGE OF THE BEND BARS, ITS RESIST THE DIAGONAL TENSION.
BUILDING CODE REQUIRED THAT A BALANCE BEAM SHALL PROVIDE, THAT
THE CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE
EQUAL TO .005 TIMES THE CROSS SECTIONAL PRODUCT OF THE WIDTH
AND THE DEPTH OF THE BEAM.
USED LATERAL TIES –
10mm dia. IF LONGITUDINAL BARS 32mm SMALLER
12mm dia. IF LONGITUDINAL BARS 36mm BIGGER
THREE FACTORS FOR SPACING OF THE LATERAL TIES:
SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 16 TIMES THE DIA. OF THE
LONGITUDINAL OR MAIN REINFORCING BARS.
SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 48 TIMES THE DIA. OF THE LATERAL
TIES.
NOT MORE THAN THE SHORTEST DIMENSION OF THE COLUMN.
WOOD CONSTRUCTION
SCAB – A SHORT FLAT PIECE OF LUMBER WHICH IS BOLTED, NAILED OR
SCREWED TO TWO BUTTING PIECES IN ORDER TO SPLICE THEM
TOGETHER.
FISH PLATE – A WOOD OR METAL PIECE USED TO FASTEN TOGETHER THE
ENDS OF TWO MEMBERS WITH NAILS OR BOLTS.
SPLICE PLATE – A METAL PLATE USED FOR FASTENING TWO OR MORE
MEMBER TOGETHER.
COGGED JOINT – A CARPENTRY JOINT BY TWO UNEVEN TIMBERS, EACH OF
WHICH IS NOTCHED AT THE PLACE WHERE THEY MEET.
NOTCHING – JOINING OF TIMBERS, USUALLY MEETING OR CROSSING AT
RIGHT ANGLES, BY CUTTING A DAP IN ONE OR BOTH PIECES.
CROSSLAP JOINT – A JOINT CONNECTING TWO WOOD MEMBERS WHICH
CROSS EACH OTHER, HALF THE THICKNESS OF EACH IS CUT SO THAT THE
THICKNESS WILL THE SAME AS THAT OF EACH MEMBER.
SQUARE SPLICE–A TYPE OF HALF LAPPED USED TO RESIST TENSION.
BRIDLE JOINT – A JOINT IN WHICH TWO TONGUES PROJECT FROM THE
SIDES OF THE TENONED MEMBER, THESE TONGUES FIT INTO
CORRESPONDING SLOTS IN THE MORTISED MEMBER.
TENON – THE PROJECTING END OF A PIECE OF WOOD, OR OTHER
MATERIALS WHICH IS REDUCED IN CROSS SECTION, SO THAT IT MAY BE
INSERTED IN A CORRESPONDING CAVITY IN ANOTHER PIECE IN ORDER TO
FORM A SECURE JOINT.
YACAL – LUMBER PREFFERED WHEN IN CONTACT WITH CONCRETE.
BOARD FOOT – THE VOLUME OF A PIECE OF WOOD ONE INCH. THICK, ONE
FOOT WIDE AND ONE FOOT LONG.
BOLIDEN SALT – TREATMENT IN WOLMANIZED LUMBER.
DAP – A NOTCH IN A TIMBER FOR RECEIVING ANOTHER TIMBER.
DADO – A RECTANGULAR GROOVE CUT ACROSS THE FULL WIDTH OF A
PIECE OF WOOD TO RECEIVE THE END OF ANOTHER PIECE.
SOLIGNUM – TRADE NAME FOR ANTI-TERMITE SURFACE APPLICATION ON
WOOD.
FLOOR STRUCTURE
WOOD FLOOR SYSTEM
FLOOR FRAMING IS THAT PLATFORM STRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING
SUSPENDED BY POSTS, COLUMNS, WALLS AND BEAMS.
THE DESIGN OF A PLATFORM FLOOR SYSTEM DEPENDS UPON THE
FOLLOWING CONSIDERATIONS:
1. LIVE LOAD – REFERS TO THOSE MOVABLE LOADS IMPOSED ON
THE FLOOR.
2. DEAD LOAD – REFERS TO THE STATIC LOAD SUCH AS THE WEIGHT
OF THE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS WHICH GENERALLY CARRY
THE LIVE LOAD.
3. TYPES OF MATERIALS TO BE USED – THE CHOICE FROM THE
VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS SUCH AS LUMBER,
CONCRETE, AND STEEL.
4. THE SIZING AND SPACING OF THE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS –
DEPENDS UPON ITS STRENGTH AND CAPABILITY TO CARRY THE
LOAD AT A CERTAIN SPACING.
5. SPAN OF THE SUPPORTS – PERTAINS TO THE DISTANCES
BETWEEN THE POSTS, COLUMNS OR SUPPORTING WALLS.
THE PLATFORM - FLOOR FRAMING STRUCTURE IS CLASSIFIED INTO THE
FOLLOWING TYPES:
A. THE PLANK AND BEAM FLOOR TYPE
B. THE PANELIZED-FLOOR SYSTEM
C. THE CONVENTIONAL FLOOR FRAMING SYSTEM
WEB REINFORCEMENT
TYPE OF STRINGERS
THERE ARE SEVERAL FORMS OF STRINGER CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO
THE METHOD OF ATTACHIND THE RISERS AND THE TREADS.
1. CUT
2. CLEATED
3. BUILT-UP
4. RABBETED (HOUSE)
BALUSTER – ONE OF A NUMBER OF SHORT VERTICAL MEMBERS OFTEN
CIRCULAR IN SECTION, USED TO SUPPORT A STAIR HANDRAIL.
BALUSTRATE – AN ENTIRE RAILING SYSTEM INCLUDING A TOP RAIL,
VERTICAL MEMBERS AND BOTTOM RAIL.
BULL-NOSED STEP – A STEP USUALLY LOWEST IN AFLIGHT, HAVING ONE OR
BOTH ENDS ROUNDED TO A SEMI-CIRCLE AND PROJECTION BEYOND THE
FACE OF THE STAIR STRING/S.
BANISTER – HANDRAIL FOR A STAIRCASE.
RISER – A VERTICAL FACE OF ASTAIR.
KICKER PLATE – STAIR ANCHOR TO CONCRETE.
TYPES OF ROOF
1. HIT JACKS
2. VALLEY JACKS
3. CRIPLE JACKS
JACK RAFTERS FRAMED BATWEEN HIP RAFTERS AND GITS ARE CALLED HIP
JACKS. THE FRAME BETWEEN THE RIDGE AND VALLEY RAFTERS ARE
CALLED VALLEY JACKS, WHILE THOSE FRAMES BETWEEN THE HIP AND THE
VALLEY RAFTERS ARE CALLED CRIPPLE JACKS.
LIGHT TRUSSES:
PITCHED HOWE
FLAT UTILITY
BOWSTRING
HEAVY TRUSSES:
HOWE TRUSS BELGIAN
FINK PRATT
THE TERM ROOF USED HERE MEANS THE TOP COVERING OF A BUILDING
THAT SERVES AS A PROTECTIVE COVERING FROM THE WEATHER.
ROOFING CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE MATERIALS USED:
FIBER
WOOD
METAL
SLATE
TILES
REINFORCED CONCRETE
PLASTICS
FIBERGLASS
METAL ROOFING – IS THE MOST COMMON MATERIALS IN BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION, THIS ARE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS:
GALVANIZED IRON
ALUMINUM
TIN
TITANIUM COPPER ZINC
COPPER
STAINLESS STEEL
LEAD
AMONG THE METAL ROOFING ENUMERATED, GALVANIZED IRON SHEET
IS THE MOST COMMONLY SPECIFIED CONSIDERING THE ADVANTAGES THAT IT
OFFER.
GALVANIZED IRON ROOFING IS EITHER PLAIN OR CORRUGATED. THE
THICKNESS ARE MEASURED IN TERMS OF “GAUGE” FROM ga. 14 TO ga. 30.
Gauge 26 IS THE MOST COMMONLY USED FOR ROOFING.
THE STANDARD COMMERCIAL SIZE WIDTH IS 0.80 m. WITH LENGTH THAT
RANGES FROM 1.50 TO 3.60 m.
PLAIN G.I. SHEET COMMERCIAL STANDARD SIZE IS 0.90m. X 2.40m. IT’S
ALSO USED FOR ROOFING, GUTTERS,FLASHING,RIDGE,HIP AND VALLEY
ROLLS, DOWNSPOUT, AND STRAP FOR RIVETING.
PANTILE – A ROOFING TILE WHICH HAS THE SHAPE OF “S” LAID ON IT’S
SIDE.
MISSION TILE – A CLAY ROOFING TILE, APPROX. SEMI-CYLINDRICAL IN
SHAPE LAID IN COURSES WITH THE UNIT HAVING THEIR CONVEX SIDE
ALTERNATELY UP AND DOWN.
ROMAN TILE – A CHANNEL SHAPED, TAPERED, SINGLE LAP ROOPING TILE.
GALVANIZED – ZINC COATED MATERIALS.
A FRAME – A 3-PIECE RIGID STRUCTURAL FRAME IN THE SHAPE OF THE
UPRIGHT CAPITAL “A”.
CHORD – A PRINCIPAL MEMBER OF A TRUSS.
BATTEN – WOOD STRIPS TO SUPPORT ROOF TILES.
SPLIT RING – CHORD SPLICE CONNECTORS FOR TRUSSES.
CONSTRUCTION OF FORMS
CONCRETE WEIGHS ABOUT 2,200 TO 2,400 kg./cu.m. FORMS SHALL BE
GUARDED AGAINST BULGING AND SAGGING FAILURE THAT OCCUR DURING
THE PROCESS OF POURING. THE THICKNESS OF THE FORM AND THE SIZES
OF THE FRAME AND RIBS DEPENDS UPON THE NATURE OF THE STRUCTURE
TO BE SUPPORTED CLASSIFIED AS SMALL, MEDIUM AND MASSIVE
STRUCTURE.
SMALL STRUCTURE CONSISTING OF SMALL FOOTINGS, COLUMNS AND
BEAM FOR ONE OR TWO STOREY BUILDING WHEREIN 6mm. THK.
PLYWOOOD IS SATIFACTORILY USED SUPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm WOOD
FRAME AND RIBS.
MEDIUM STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING CONCRETE COLUMNS, BEAMS,
AND CONCRETE FLOOR SLAB GENERALLY OF 2 TO 3 STOREY HIGH.
WHEREIN 6mm OR 12mm THK. PLYWOOD IS USED AS FORM SUPPPORTED
BY 50mm X 50mm OR 50mm X 75mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.
MASSIVE STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING HEAVY LOADS USES FORMS OF
VARIOUS THICKNESS THAT RANGE FROM 6mm TO 19mm THK. PLYWOOD
SUPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm TO 50mm X 100mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.
GREASING OF FORMS
THE PURPOSE OF GREASING THE FORM IS TO MAKE THE WOOD WATER
PROOF, THUS PREVENTING ABSORPTION OF WATER IN THE CONCRETE
WHICH CAUSES SWELLING AND WARPING. IT’S ALSO PREVENTS ADHERENCE
OF CONCRETE TO THE PORES OF THE WOOD.
Mitre or Miter -------------------- Canto Mesa Septic Tank ------------- Poso Negro
Mixture of Sand & Gravel ------ Lastilyas Shape -------------------- Korte
Mortar ----------------------------- Paupo Sheet --------------------- Plantsa
Mortar Joists ---------------------- Kostura Shower ------------------- Dutsha
Moulding -------------------------- Moldura Sidings ------------------- Tabika
Nailers ----------------------------- Pamakuan Sink ----------------------- Prigadero
Nail -------------------------------- Pako Sketch Plan -------------- Krokis
Nail Setter ------------------------ Punsol Slab (rough) -------------- Larga Masa
Newel Post ----------------------- Tukod Slope ---------------------- Bahada
Nut --------------------------------- Tuerka Solder --------------------- Hinang
Nicolite Bar ----------------------- Estanyo Solder Bar ---------------- Estaniyo
Oakum ----------------------------- Estopa Spacing ------------------- Biento
Open Stringer --------------------- Hardinera Split Knob ---------------- Poleya
Over Hand or Projector ---------- Bolada Stairs ---------------------- Hagdanan
Painter ------------------------------ Pintor Stake ----------------------- Staka
Panel -------------------------------- Bandeha Stringer (open) ----------- Hardinera
Panellee Door ---------------------- De Bandeha Stringer -------------------- Madre, Madrina
Pattern ------------------------------ Plantilya Stucco --------------------- Palitada
Pea Gravel ------------------------- Grabita Stud (vertical)------------- Pilarete
Pendulum (King Post) ------------ Pendulon Stud (horizontal) --------- Pabalagbag
Pickwork --------------------------- Piketa Temper (metal work)----- Suban, Subuhan
Piglead ------------------------------ Tingga, Estopa Thread --------------------- Roskas
Plain G.I. sheet -------------------- Yiero Liso Galbanisado Tinsmith ------------------- Latero
Plain G.I. Strap -------------------- Lingueta Tinsmithing --------------- Lateria
Plank Board ------------------------ Senepa Top Chord ---------------- Kilo, Tahilan
Plaster ------------------------------- Palitada Transom ------------------ Espeho
Plastered Course ------------------- Kusturada Tread ---------------------- Baytang, Perdano
Plug ---------------------------------- Tapon Trellise -------------------- Pergola
Plumb Bob -------------------------- Hulog Truss ----------------------- Truss, Kilo
Plumber ----------------------------- Tubero Varnished ----------------- Varnisado
Plumb Line ------------------------- Hulog Vertical Stud -------------- Pilarete
Post ---------------------------------- Poste, Haligue Wainscoating Tiles ------- Asolehos
Projection --------------------------- Bolada Washer --------------------- Pitsa, Tsapa
Purlins ------------------------------- Reostra Water Closet -------------- Inidoro
Putty --------------------------------- Masilya Window ------------------- Bintana
Quarter Round ---------------------- Mediacana Window Grille ----------- Rehas
Rabbet ------------------------------- Vaciada Window Head ------------ Sombrero
Bintana
Rafters ------------------------------- Kilo Window Jamb ------------ Hamba Bintana
Reinforcing Bar -------------------- Cabilla, Bakal Window Sill -------------- Pasamano
Ridgeroll ---------------------------- Caballete W.I. Strap ----------------- Planchuela
Riser --------------------------------- Senepa, Takip Wiring Knob ------------- Poleya
Silipan
Rivets ------------------------------- Rimatse Wood Grain -------------- Haspe
Roof -------------------------------- Atip, Bubong Wood Plank -------------- Tabla
Sand -------------------------------- Buhangin Wrought Iron Strap ------ Plantsuela
Scaffolding ------------------------ Andamiyo, Plancha
Scratch Coat ----------------------- Rebokada
Screw ------------------------------- Turnilyo
PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION
1. FLAT TYPE
2. DOUBLE TEE TYPE
3. RIBBED TYPE
4. WINDOW OR MULLION TYPE
PRECAST COLUMN
PRECAST COLUMN SIZES ARE FROM .30 x .30m. to .60 x .60m. IN A MULTI-
STOREY CONSTRUCTION, THE COLUMNS ARE MADE CONTINUOUS UP TO
FOUR STORIES WHEREIN CORBELS ARE USED TO PROVIDE BEARING FOR
THE BEAM. TEE COLUMN IS SOMETIMES USED TO SUPPORT DIRECTLY
DOUBLE TEE FLOOR MEMBERS WITHOUT THE USE OF INTERMEDIATE
MEMBERS.
PRECAST BEAMS
RECTANGULAR BEAM
INVERTED TEE BEAM
L –SHAPED BEAM
AASHTO BRIDGE GIRDER – AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE
HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS.
PRESTRESSING OF CONCRETE
THERE ARE SEVERAL METHODS EMPLOYED IN APPLYING PRESTRESSED
FORCE TO A CONCRETE BEAM:
PRECOMPRESSING METHOD – IS A PROCESS OF USING JACKS REACTING
AGAINST ABUTMENT.
THE SELF CONTAINED AND THE BOND AND FRICTION METHODS CAN
GENERALLY BE CLASSIFIED AS PRE-TENSIONING OR POST-TENSIONING
SYSTEM. THESE METHODS CAN BE APPLIED TO MASS PRODUCTION OF
CASTING SEVERAL METERS LONG OF STRUCTURE AND CUTTING THE
INDIVIDUAL BEAM OR POST TO THE DESIRED LENGTH OUT FROM THE LONG
CASTING.
1. SLIP AT ANCHORAGE
2. ELASTIC SHORTENING OF CONCRETE
3. CREEP OF CONCRETE
4. SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE
5. RELAXATION OF STEEL STRESS
6. FRICTIONAL LOSS DUE TO INTENDED OR UNINTENDED
CURVATURE IN THE TENDONS.
WOOD MATERIALS
PROPERTIES OF WOOD:
HARDNESS – MEASURED BY THE COMPRESSION, WHICH A PIECE
UNDERGOES WHEN A WEIGHT IS APPLIED.
FLEXIBILITY – THE AMOUNT A PIECE WILL BEND BEFORE BREAKING.
STRENGTH – TO THE GRAIN.
DURABILITY – THE RELATIVE VALUE / LIFESPAN OF WOOD.
DEFECTS OF LUMBER:
TYPES OF WARPING:
CUPPING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE IS
CONVEX/CONCAVE ACROSS THE BOARD.
BOWING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE IS
CONVEX/CONCAVE LONGITUDINALLY.
TWISTING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH ONE CORNER
IS RAISED.
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
STRIPS – PIECES LESS THAN 2” THICK AND LESS THAN 8” WIDE.
BOARDS – PIECES LESS THAN 2” THICK AND AT LEAST 8” WIDE.
DIMENSION LUMBER – PIECES MORE THAN 2” THICK AND LESS THAN
5” IN ANY DIMENSION.
TIMBER – PIECES 4” OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.
LOG – PIECES 12” OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.
WOOD GRAIN:
EDGE GRAIN – ANNUAL RINGS RUN APPROX. AT RIGHT ANGLE TO THE
FACE.
FLAT GRAIN – WHEN THE ANNUAL RINGS RUN MORE OR LESS
PARALLEL TO THE SURFACE.
ANGLE GRAIN – WHEN THE ANNUAL RINGS ARE AT ABOUT 45 DEG. TO
THE FACE.
SEASONING OF LUMBER:
AIR DRYING – LUMBER IS STRIP-PILED AT ASLOPE ON ASOLID
FOUNDATION. THIS ALLOWS AIR TO CIRCULATE AROUND EVERY PIECE
WHILE THE SLOPING ALOOWS WATER TO RUN OFF QUICKLY.
KILN-DRYING – MORE EXPENSIVE LUMBER WHICH IS REQUIRED FOR
MORE REFINED USES SO AS WOOD WILL NOT MOVE. IT MUST BE
DRIED TO A MOISTURE CONTENT OF NOT MORE THAN 5 TO 10
PERCENT. THIS IS DONE IN AN AIRTIGHT STRUCTURE SCIENTIFICALLY
HEATED BY STEAM PIPES IN WHICH THE LUMBER IS ARTIFICIALLY
DRIED TO THE CORRECT MOISTURE CONTENT.
MANUFACTURE BOARDS:
MANUFACTURED BOARDS ARE MADE OF WOOD BUT DOES NOT APPEAR
IN THEIR NATURAL STATE. THIS TYPE OF BUILDING MATERIALS CAN BE
CLASSIFIED AS A TYPE OF LUMBER AS THEY ARE THE BY-PRODUCT IN THE
MANUFACTURE OF LUMBER. THE COMPLETE UTILIZATION OF WOOD HAS
LEAD TO AN EXPANDED FIELD OF MANUFACTURED BOARDS.
TYPES OF BOARDS:
PLYWOOD – IS MADE OF AN ODD NUMBER VENEER SHEETS GLUED
TOGETHER WITH THE GRAINS RUNNING AT RIGHT ANGLE TO EACH
OTHER. IT IS LIGHT IN WEIGHT AND STRONG THAT SCREW OR NAIL
CAN BE DRIVEN CLOSE TO THE EDGES WITHOUT DANGER OF
SPLITTING.
THE DIFF. TYPES OF PLYWOOD:
SOFT PLYWOOD - THE MOST COMMON FOR STRUCTURAL USE
HARDWOOD PLYWOOD – ARE USED FOR PANELLING AND
FINSHING WHERE USUALLY ON ONE FACE IS HARD FINISHED.
EXTERIOR OR MARINE PLYWOOD – IS MADE FOR EXTERNAL
USE.
HARDBOARD – IS MADE FROM WOOD CHIPS WHICH ARE EXPLODED
INTO FIBERS UNDER STREAM OF HIGH PRESSURE. THE LINING IN
THE WOOD ITSELF BINDS PRESSED WOOD TOGETHER WITH NO
FILLERS OR ARTIFICIAL ADHESIVES APPLIED. PRESSED WOOD IS
EQUALLY STRONG IN ALL DIRECTIONS BUT VERY BRITTLE. ITS COLOR
VARIES FROM LIGHT TO DARK BROWN.
PARTICLE BOARD – IS MANUFACTURES FROM WOOD CHIPS, CURLS,
FIBERS, FLAKES, STRANDS, SHAVING, SLIVERS ETC. BOUND
TOGETHER AND PRESSED INTO SHEETS AND OTHER MOLDED
SHAPED. PARTICLE BOARD HAS EQUAL STRENGTH IN ALL DIRECTION
OF A GIVEN CROSS SECTIONAL AREA, IT IS NOT BRITTLE AND CAN
RESIST WARPING.
MASONRY
MASONRY REFERS TO A MAN-MADE UNITS WHICH ARE FORMED AND
HARDENED INTO MODULAR BUILDING UNITS.
STRUCK JOINT
BRICK BOUNDS
THE METHOD OF LAYING BRICKS IN A WALL IN ORDER TO FORM SOME
DISTINCTIVE PATTERN OR DESIGN IS REFERRED TO AS THE PATTERN
BOND.
CONCRETE
CEMENTS
PORTLAND CEMENT
MADE FROM MATERIALS WHICH MUST CONTAIN IN THE PROPER
PROPORTIONS OF LIME, SILICA, ALUMINA AND IRON COMPONENTS. FOUR
PARTS OF LIMESTONE TO ONE PART CLAY ARE BASIC INGREDIENTS. THESE
ARE MIXED, BURNED THEN PULVERIZED. PORTLAND CEMENT IS SOLD
EITHER IN CEMENT BAGS OF 40 & 50 KILOS WEIGHT OR IN BULK INTO CEMENT
TRUCKS.
SPECIAL CEMENTS
WHITE PORTLAND CEMENT – SAME MATERIALS AS NORMAL PORTLAND
EXCEPT IN COLOR. THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS IS CONTROLLED TO
PRODUCE A PURE WHITE, NON-STAINING CEMENT. IT IS USED PRIMARILY
FOR ARCHITECTURAL PURPOSES SUCH AS CURTAIN WALL AND FACING
PANELS, DECORATIVE CONCRETE STUCCO AND TILE GROUT, OR
WHEREVER WHITE OR COLORED CONCRETE OR MORTAR IS SPECIFIED.
MASONRY CEMENT OR TILE ADHESIVES – HAS BEEN SPECIALLY DESIGNED
TO PRODUCE BETTER MORTAR THAN THAT MADE WITH NORMAL
PORTLAND CEMENT OR WITH A LIME-CEMENT HAS PARTICULARLY GOOD
PLASTICITY AND WORKABILITY, GOOD ADHESION AND BOND.
WATERPROOFED PORTLAND CEMENT – NORMALLY PRODUCED BY ADDING
A SMALL AMOUNT OF STEARATE, USUALLY CALCIUM OR ALUMINUM TO THE
CEMENT CLINKER DURING THE FINAL GRINDING.
CONCRETE MIXES
FERROUS METAL:
STEEL- A MALLEABLE ALLOY OF IRON AND CARBON PRODUCED BY MELTING
AND REFINING PIG IRON AND/ OR SCRAP STEEL, GRADED ACCORDING TO THE
CARBON CONTENT.
PRODUCE BY THREE BASIC RAW MATERIALS, IRON ORE, AND
LIMESTONE. FIVE PARTICLES OF ALL THREE BASIC INGREDIENTS OF STEEL,
WHICH OTHERWISE WOULD BE WASTE, ARE BLENDED AND BURNED ON A
MOVING GATE TO CAUSE THE FORMATION OF CLINKERS. THESE ARE CALLED
SINTER, A HIGH- GRADE BLAST-FURNANCE CHARGE MATERIAL.
FROM THESE, RAW MATERIALS WHICH IS MELTED INTO INGOTS PLACE
IN MOLDS, A GRAT VARIETY OF PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTION ARE
MADE. THEY INCLUDED:
STEEL PRODUCTS
ROLLED STRUCTURAL SHAPES
SHEET PILING- SECTIONS ARE MADE TO INTERLOCK AND ARE AVAILABLE IN
SEVERAL SHAPE.
STEEL PIPE- SEAMLESS OR WELDED SMALL DIAMETER PIPE AND
ELECTRICALLY WELDED LARGE DIAMETER PIPE.
REINFORCING STEEL- MADE FROM NEW STEEL OR FROM DISCARDED
RAILWAY- CAR AXLES OR RAILS.
REINFORCING STEEL COMES IN PLAIN OR DEFORMED BARS, THAT IS,
BARS WHICH HAVE LUGS OR DEFORMATIONS ROLLED ON THE SURFACE
TO PROVIDE ARCHORAGE IN CONCRETE.
SIZES-START WITH NO.2 OR ¼ in. (DIVIDE A NUMBER OF BAR BY 8 TO GET
THE EQUIVALENT IN inch DIAMETER)
No. 2= ¼“ = 6 mm.
No. 3= 3/8” = 10 mm.
No. 4= ½” = 12mm.
No. 5= 5/8” = 16mm.
No. 6= ¾” = 20mm.
No. 7= 7/8” = 22mm.
No. 8= 1” = 25mm.
No. 9= 1 1/8 = 30mm.
NONFERROUS METALS:
STRUCTURAL SHAPES
THE MOST COMMON SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL USED IN BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION ARE THE AMERICAN STANDARD FORMS SUCH AS:
1. SQUARE BARS 6. I-BEAM
2. ROUND BARS 7. TEE BEAM
3. PLATE BARS 8. H-COLUMN
4. ANGLE BARS 9. WIDE FLANGES
5. CHANNELS 10. ZEE
STANDARD CHANNEL
THE STANDARD CHANNEL HAS THE SHAPE OF UNSYMMETRICAL
BALANCE CONSISTING OF TWO FLANGES ON ONE SIDE. IT THEREFORE
REQUIRES LATERAL SUPPORT TO PREVENT ITS TENDENCY TO BUCKLE. THE
STANDARD CHANNELS ARE GENERALLY USED AS ELEMENTS OF BUILT-UP
SECTIONS FOR COLUMNS AND ARE ALSO SUITABLE FOR FRAMING AROUND
FLOOR OPENINGS, SPANDRELS, AND LINTELS ATTRIBUTED TO THE ABSENCE
OF FLANGE ON THE OTHER SIDE. THE CHANNEL SECTION IS IDENTIFIRD AS C
15 x 20 WHICH MEANS THAT THE CHANNEL HAS A DEPTH OF 20 cm. AND
WEIGHTS 15 kg. PER METER LENGTH.
WIDE FLANGE
WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE DESIGNATED AS W 12 x 24 WHICH MEANS
THAT THE FLANGE HAS A DEPTH OF 24 cm. AND IT WEIGHS 12 kg. PER METER
LENGTH. ALL WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE GENERALLY WITH PARALLEL FACE
FLANGE EXCEPT THOSE WITH 5% SLOPE INSIDE FACE PRODUCED BY
BETLEHEM STEEL COMPANY. COMPARATIVELY, WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE
MORE EFFICIENT THAN STANDARD I BEAM WITH RESPECT TO BENDING
RESISTANCE.
STANDARD I-BEAM
THE USE OF I-BEAM AS A COLUMN IS UNECONOMICAL, BECAUSE THE
WHIRL OR REVOLVING ACTION OF THE STRUCTURE ABOUT AN AXIS THROUGH
THE CENTROID PARALLEL TO THE WAB OF THE I-BEAM IS COMPARATIVELY
SMALL.
H-BEARING PILES
H-BEARING PILES ALTHOUGH SUITABLE FOR PILE DRIVING ON DEEP
EXCAVATIONS IS MUCH MORE SUITABLE THAN THE I-BEAM FOR COLUMNS.
ZEE SECTIONS
THE ZEE SECTION IS ANOTHER STRUCTURAL FORM IN A LETTER Z
WHICH IS NOT FREQUENTLY USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION EXEPT ON
THE FABRICATION OF STEEL WINDOWS AND OTHER FRAMES.
RIVETS
PROCESS OF RIVETING:
A) A HOT STEEL RIVET IS INSERTED IN HOLES THROUGH THE TWO
MEMBERS TO BE JOINED,
B) ITS HEAD IS THEN HELD WITH HAND HAMMER WITH A CUP-SHAPED
DEPRESSION,
C) WHILE A PNEUMATIC HAMMER DRIVES A RIVET SET REPEATEDLY
AGAINST THE BODY OF THE RIVET TO FORM THE SECOND HEAD,
D) THE RIVET SHRINKS AS IT COOLS, DRAWING MEMBERS TIGHTLY
TOGETHER.
BOLTS
TURN-OF-NUT METHOD
LOAD INDICATOR WASHER
TENSION CONTROL BOLTS
WELDING
FILLET WELD
V-GROOVE WELD
PUDDLE WELD
THE ARROW
THE REFERENCE LINE CARRIES THE DESCRIPTIVE SYMBOLS
SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS
FIELD WELD – THIS WELD BE DONE IN THE FIELD DURING ERECTION. OTHER
WELDS ARE DONE EARLIER IN THE FABRICATOR’S SHOP.
WELD ALL AROUND – THIS INDICATES THAT THE WELD SHOULD BE CARRIED
FULLY AROUND THE PERIMETER OF THE JOINING PIECES.
A SHARP BEND NEAR THE END OF THE ARROW INDICATES THAT THE
ARROWHEAD IS POINTING TOWARD THE GROOVED SIDE OF THE BEVEL OR J-
GROOVED JOINT.
GLASS
THE MAJOR INGREDIENT OF GLASS IS SAND (SILICON DIOXIDE). A HARD
BRITTLE INORGANIC SUBSTANCE, ORDINARILY TRANSPARENT OR
TRANSLUCENT; PRODUCED BY MELTING A MIXTURE OF SILICA, A FLUX AND A
STABILIZER; WHILE MOLTEN MAYBE BLOWN, DRAWN, ROLLED, PRESSED OR
CAST TO A VARIETY OF SHAPES.
DURING ITS MANUFACTURED, ORDINARY WINDOW GLASS IS ANNEALED,
COOLED SLOWLY UNDER CONTROLLED CONDITION, TO AVOID LOCKED-IN
THERMAL STRESSES THAT MIGHT CAUSE IT TO BEHAVE UNPREDICTABLY IN
USE.
THICKNESSES OF GLASS
GLASS IS TYPICALLY MANUFACTURED IN A SERIES OF THICKNESSES
RANGING FROM APPROXIMATELY 2.5mm, THROUGH 3mm, IS CALLED SINGLE-
STRENGTH, OR 6mm TO 22mm, IS CALLED DOUBLE-STRENGTH, AND ON
SPECIAL ORDER, 25mm IS AVAILABLE.
1. TEMPERED GLASS
TEMPERED GLASS IS PRODUCED BY CUTTING ANNEALED GLASS
TO THE REQUIRED SIZES FOR USE, REHEATING IT TO APPROXIMATELY
1200 DEGREES FAHRENHEIT, COOLING BOTH ITS SURFACES RAPIDLY
WITH A BLAST OF AIR WHILE ITS CORE COOLS MUCH MORE SLOWLY. ITS
FOUR TIMES AS STRONG IN BENDING AND MORE RESISTANT TO
THERMAL STRESS AND IMPACT.
2. HEAT-STRENGTHENED GLASS
THE HEAT STRENGTHENED PROCESS IS SIMILAR TO TEMPERING,
BUT ITS, ABOUT ONE-THIRD AS HIGH AS TEMPERED GLASS IN TERMS OF
BENDING AND STRENGTH.
3. LAMINATED GLASS
5. SPANDREL GLASS
SPECIAL OPAQUE GLASSES ARE PRODUCED FOR COVERING THE
SPANDREL AREA (THE BANDS OF WALL AROUND THE EDGES OF FLOORS) IN
GLASS CURTAIN. IT IS USUALLY TEMPERED OR HEAT-STRENGTHENED TO
RESIST THE THERMAL STRESSES THAT CAN CAUSED BY ACCUMULATIONS OF
SOLAR HEAT BEHIND THE SPANDREL.
6. WIRED GLASS
SIMPLY A ROLLED GLASS INTO WHICH WIRE MESH IS INSERTED DURING
THE PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. THE WIRE GREATLY INCREASES THE
RESISTANCE TO SHATTERING THROUGH IMPACT. ITS USE FOR SAFETY
GLAZING, WHEN ITS BREAKS FROM THERMAL STRESS, THE WIRES HOLD THE
SHEET OF GLASS TOGETHER.
1) TINTED GLASS
TINTED GLASS IS MADE BY ADDING SMALL AMOUNTS OF SELECTED
CHEMICAL ELEMENTS TO THE MOLTEN GLASS MIXTURE TO PRODUCE THE
DESIRED HUE AND INTENSITY OF COLOR IN GRAYS, BRONZES, BLUES,
GREEN, AND GOLDS.
3) INSULATING GLASS
A SECOND SHEET OF GLASS APPLIED TO A WINDOW WITH AN AIRSPACE
BETWEEN THE SHEETS CUTS THIS RATE OF HEAT LOSS IN HALF. TWO KINDS
OF EDGES SEALS ARE FUSED GLASS EDGES AND A METAL SPLINE AND
ORGANIC SEALANT.
GLASS PRODUCTS
I. GLASS BLOCKS
COMPARABLE IN MANY WAYS TO UNIT MASONRY BUT HAVE THE ADDED
FEATURE OF TRANSMITTING LIGHT. THEY ARE MADE INTO TWO SEPARATE
HALVES, WHICH ARE HEAT-SEALED TOGETHER TO FORM A HOLLOW UNIT
WITH REASONBLY HIGH THERMAL EFFICIENCY AND SOUND INSULATION. THE
EDGE SURFACES OF THE BLOCK ARE COATED WITH A GRITTY MORTAR BOND.
TWO TYPES:
METHOD
- DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF PAINT AND THE MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS
BEING APPLIED. COATINGS MAY BE BRUSHED, ROLLED OR SPRAYED ON.
DRYING
- THE TIME AND CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR A PAINT TO DRY MUST BE
CHECKED.
FILM THICKNESS
- THE DRY FILM THICKNESS (DFT) IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE NUMBER
OF COATS.
- MULTIPLE THIN COATS ARE GENERALLY MORE EFFECTIVE THAN A SINGLE
THICK COAT.
- A MINIMUM OF 2 COATS IS REQUIRED TO PRODUCE 5 MIL DFT.
COVERAGE
- A PAINT’S COVERAGE CAN BE ESTIMATED BY ITS PERCENTAGE OF VOLUME
SOLIDS:
- ie. PAINT WITH 100% VOLUME SOLIDS:
(NO THINNER)
1 GAL COVERS
1600 SF (149 m2) @ 1 MIL DFT
800 SF ( 74 m2) @ 2 MIL DFT
400 SF ( 37 m2) @ 4 MIL DFT
BINDER SERVE TO FORM THE PAINT FILM AND CAUSE IT TO ADHERE THE
SURFACE BEING PAINTED.
BINDERS ARE LARGELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PROTECTIVE QUALITY AND
DURABILITY OF THE PAINT FIL OR PROTECTIVE COATING.
SOLVENTS OR THINNERS ACTS DRYING AGENTS.
DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF SOLVENT USED, A PAINT MAY DRY OR
HARDEN BY OXIDATION, EVAPORATION, CHEMICAL ACTION, OR BY
THERMOSETTING ACTION AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES.
COLOR
DEPENDS ON THE TYPE OF PAINT AND THE MANUFACTURER.
EXPOSURE
EXTERIOR OR INTERIOR
CHARACTERISTICS:
PIGMENTED COATING
LACQUER AND ENAMEL PAINTS
CLEAR COATINGS
VARNISHES, LACQUERS, SHEELAC, SEALERS
RUST INHIBITIVE COATINGS
ZINC-PIGMENTED COATINGS
ZINC, SILICONS, ALKYD, OR ASPHALT OR BASE COATINGS
ASPHALT OR TAR COATINGS THAT FORM NON-PEMEABLE BARRIERS
AGAINST WATER AND OXYGEN TO PROTECT SUBMERGED FERROUS METAL
AND TO WATERPROOF MASONRY SURFACES.
CEMENT MORTAR COATINGS
MIXTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT, LIME AND WATER USED TO DAMPPROOF
MASONRY MATERIALS AND PROTECT EXPOSED STEEL
PLASTIC AND SYNTHETIC RUBBER COATINGS
COATING RESISTANT TO MILDEW, MOLD, FUMES, MARINE ENVIRONMENTS
ETC.,
TYPES OF DOOR:
FLUSH – A SMOOTH-SURFACED DOOR HAVING FACES WHICH ARE PLANE
WHICH CONCEAL ITS RAILS AND STILES OR OTHER STRUCTURE WHEN
USED INSIDE, IT IS OF HOLLOW CORE, WHEN USED FOR EXTERIOR IT IS OF
SOLID CORE.
PANEL DOOR – A DOOR HAVING STILES, RAILS AND SOMETIMES MUNTINS,
WHICH FORM ONE OR MORE FRAMES AROUND RECESSED THINNER
PANELS.
KINDS OF DOORS:
SWINGING DOOR
OVERHEAD SWING-UP GARAGE DOOR – A RIGID OVERHEAD DOOR WHICH
OPENS AS AN ENTIRE UNIT.
OVERHEAD ROLL-UP GARAGE DOOR – A DOOR WHICH, WHEN OPEN,
ASSUMES A HORIZONTAL POSITION ABOVE THE DOOR OPENING, MADE OF
SEVERAL LEAVES.
ROLL-UP DOOR (SOLID OR SEE-THROUGH ALUMINUM SHUTTERS) A DOOR
MADE UP OF SMALL HORIZONTAL INTERLOCKING METAL SLATS WHICH ARE
GUIDED IN A TRACK: THE CONFIGURATION COILS ABOUT AN OVERHEAD
DRUM WHICH IS HOUSED AT THE HEAD OF THE OPENING, EITHER MANUAL
OR MOTOR - DRIVEN.
ACCORDION DOOR – A HINGED DOOR CONSISTING OF A SYSTEM OF
PANELS WHICH ARE HUNG FROM AN OVERHEAD TRACK. WHEN THE DOOR
IS OPEN, THE FACES OF THE PANELS CLOSE FLAT AGAINST EACH OTHER.
WHEN THE DOOR IS CLOSED, THE EDGES OF ADJACENT PANELS BUTT
AGAINST (OR INTERLOCK) EACH OTHER TO FORM A SOLID BARRIER.
BI-FOLDING DOOR - ONE OF TWO OR MORE DOORS WHICH ARE HINGED
TOGETHER SO THAT THEY CAN OPEN AND FOLD IN A CONFINED SPACE.
REVOLVING DOOR - AN EXTERIOR DOOR CONSISTING OF FOUR LEAVES (AT
900 TO EACH OTHER) WHICH PIVOT ABOUT A COMMON VERTICAL AXIS
WITHIN A CYLINDRICALLY SHAPED VESTIBULE, PREVENTS THE DIRECT
PASSAGE OF AIR THROUGH THE VESTIBULE, THEREBY ELIMINATING
DRAFTS FROM OUTSIDE.
SLIDING DOOR - A DOOR MOUNTED ON TRACK WHICH SLIDES IN A
HORIZONTAL DIRECTION USUALLY PARALLEL TO ONE WALL.
BY-PASSING SLIDING DOOR - A SLIDING DOOR WHICH SLIDES TO COVER A
FIXED DOOR OF THE SAME WIDTH OR ANOTHER SLIDING DOOR.
SLIDING POCKET DOOR - A DOOR WHICH SLIDES INSIDE A HOLLOW OF THE
WALL.
DUTCH DOOR - A HINGED DOOR WHICH IS DIVIDED TO TWO. THE UPPER
PART CAN BE OPENED WHILE THE LOWER PORTION IS CLOSED.
FRENCH DOOR
FINISHING HARDWARES:
A. TO HUNG A DOOR
HINGE- A MOVABLE JOINT USED TO ATTACH SUPPORT AND TURN A DOOR
ABOUT A PIVOT, CONSISTS OF TWO PLATES JOINED TOGETHER BY A PIN
WHICH SUPPORT THE DOOR AND CONNECT IT TO ITS FRAME, ENABLING IT TO
SWING OPEN OR CLOSED.
TYPES OF HINGES:
1. BUTT HINGE - CONSISTS OF TWO RECTANGULAR METAL PLATES WHICH
ARE JOINED WITH A PIN, IN LARGE HINGE, THE PIN IS REMOVABLE, IN SMALL
HINGES, IT IS FIXED.
FAST PIN HINGE - A HINGE IN WHICH THE PIN IS FASTENED
PERMANENTLY IN PLACE.
FULL SURFACE HINGE - A HINGED DESIGNED FOR ATTACHMENT ON THE
SURFACE OF THE DOOR AND JAMB WITHOUT MORTISING.
LOOSE JOINT HINGE - A DOOR HINGED HAVING TWO KNUCKLES, ONE OF
WHICH HAS VERTICAL PIN THAT FITS IN A CORRESPONDING HOLE IN THE
OTHER, BY LIFTING THE DOOR UP, OFF THE VERTICAL PIN, THE DOOR
MAY BE REMOVED WITH UNSCREWING THE HINGED.
LOOSE PIN HINGE - A HINGE HAVING A REMOVABLE PIN WHICH PERMITS
ITS TWO PARTS TO BE SEPARATED.
PAUMELLE HINGED - A TYPE OF DOOR HINGE HAVING A SINGLE JOINT OF
THE PIVOT TYPE, USUALLY OF MODERN DESIGN.
OLIVE KNUCKLE HINGE - A PAUMELLE HINGE WITH KNUCKLES FORMING
AN OVAL SHAPE.
KIND OF LOCKSET:
INTEGRAL LOCK – A TYPE OF MORTISE LOCK HAVING ITS CYLINDER IN
THE KNOB.
CYLINDER LOCK – A BORED LOCK WHICH HAS A CYLINDRICAL CASE
INTO WHICH A SEPARATE LATCH CASE FITS.
RABBETED LOCK – A LOCK OR LATCH IN WHICH THE FACE IS FLUSH WITH THE
RABBET ON A RABBETED DOOR JAMB.
ROLLER LATCH – A TYPE OF DOOR LATCH HAS A ROLLER UNDER SPRING
TENSION INSTEAD OF A BEVELED SPRING BOLT, THE ROLLER ENGAGES A
STRIKE PLATE, HAVING A RECESS FORMED TO RECEIVE.
TYPES OF KNOBS:
SCREW-IN KNOB
BOLT-ON KNOB
FLUSH KNOB
FLUSH RING
PULL
ROUGH HARDWARES:
NAILS
COMMON WIRE NAIL WITH HEAD AND FOR STRENGTH.
FINISHING NAIL WITHOUT HEAD AND FOR BETTER APPEARANCE
MASONRY OR CONCRETE NAIL USED FOR CONCRETE, MORTAR AND BRICK
SURFACE
SIZES, 1”, 1 ½”, 2 “, 2 ½”, 3”, 3 ½”, 4”, 6”
WASHERS
FLAT
COUNTER SUNK
FLUSH
BOLTS
BOLTS HAVE THREADED SHAFTS THAT RECEIVE NUTS. TO USE THEM, A
HOLE IS DRILLED, PUSHING A BOLT THROUGH AND ADDING A NUT.
BOLTS TIGHTENED WITH SCREW WHILE HOLDING THE NUT WITH A
WRENCH.
NUTS
BUILDING PROTECTION
PREVENTIONS
ASBESTOS:
ASBESTOS FELTS – COMPOSED PRIMARILY OF ASBESTOS FIBER, A
NON-ROTTING, NON-WICKING INORGANIC MINERAL FIBER.
IDENTICAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION PROPERTIES TO
FINISHING FELTS.
MINIMUM STRETCH AND SHRINKAGE OR WETTING OR DRYING WHICH
MEANS MINIMUM DISTORTION.
LOSES STRENGTH SLOWLY WHILE AGING.
EXCELLENT RESISTANCE TO “BURNOUT” IN HOT CLIMATE.
RAT RESISTANT.
ORGANIC:
ORGANIC FELTS – COMPOSED OF FIBROUS ORGANIC MATERIALS.
SUBJECT TO DETERIORATION BY OXIDATION AND TO WICKING.
DIFFERENT EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION PROPERTIES FROM
FINISHING PLIES.
MAXIMUM STRETCH AND SHRINKAGE ON WETTING AND DRYING
WHICH MEANS MAXIMUM DISTORTION.
LOSES STRENGTH RAPIDLY WHILE AGING.
POOR RESISTANCE TO “BURNOUT” IN HOT CLIMATE.
POOR RESISTANCE TO ROT.
THERMAL INSULATION
SOIL TESTING
LARGER THAN A SINGLE FAMILY HOUSE, IT IS NECESSARY TO DETERMINE THE
SOIL AND WATER CONDITION BENEATH THE SITE.
TYPES OF SOILS:
ROCK – IS A CONTINUOUS MASS OF SOLID MINERAL MATERIALS, SUCH AS
GRANITE OR LIMESTONE, THAT CAN ONLY BE REMOVED BY DRILLING AND
BLASTING.
SOIL – IS A GENERAL TERM REFERRING TO EARTH MATERIAL.
BOULDER – IF THE PARTICLE OF SOIL IS TOO LARGE TO LIFT BY HAND.
COBBLE – IF THE PARTICLE OF SOIL TAKES THE WHOLE HAND TO LIFT.
GRAVEL – IF THE PARTICLE CAN BE LIFTED EASILY WITH THUMB AND
FOREFINGER.
SAND – IF THE PARTICLE SEEN BUT ARE TOO SMALL TO BE PICKED UP.
FINE GRAINED SOIL – IF THE PARTICLES ARE TOO SMALL TO BE SEEN.
SILT
CLAY
PILE DRIVING
MATERIAL USED IN PILE FOUNDATION ARE:
1. TIMBER
2. CONCRETE
3. STEEL