eligion in Myanmar (Burma)

Officially there is no state religion in Myanmar, but in practice the vast majority adhere to Theravada
Buddhism - which is given a special position of importance in Burmese society.
Friction between different religious groups in Myanmar is relatively common, with the ongoing
clashes between Buddhists and Rohingya Muslims in Rakhine State the most recent and fiery example.
This is not helped by the government's overt preference for Buddhism over any other religion,
allowing only Buddhists into senior government and military ranks and closely monitoring the
activities of other, minority religions.
When travelling in Myanmar, it is essential to be aware of and respect religious customs. In recent
times, it has not been unheard of for foreigners to be deported for having a tattoo or a t-shirt depicting
the Buddha - and in one notable case a Yangon bar owner from New Zealand received a
two-and-a-half year prison sentence for promoting his establishment with a picture of the Buddha
wearing headphones. In general you do not need to tread on eggshells, but please do make every effort
to behave with respect towards Buddhism whilst travelling throughout the country.

Buddhism
Myanmar is the world's most religious Buddhist country in terms of money spent on religion and
proportion of monks in the population, and it is estimated that around 89% of the population are
Theravada Buddhists.
History
Buddhism is thought to have existed in some shape or form in Myanmar for over two thousand years,
although historians do not agree on exactly when it arrived, or how. It is known that Buddhist
missionaries arrived from India in the third century BC, then again in the sixth and tenth centuries via
Sinhalese missions, and that by the ninth century the Pyu people had knowledge of Theravada,
Mahayana and Tantric Buddhism.
Theravada Buddhism probably took root in earnest in around the 11th century, aided by the famous
empire-builder King Anawrahta - himself a convert to Buddhism by a Mon priest. During the golden
age of the Pagan Kingdom, successive kings built vast numbers of Buddhist stupas and temples -
many of which can still be seen today on the Bagan plains.
For more on the history of Myanmar, have a look at our history section.
Buddhism today
Today, Buddhism is the dominant social force in Myanmar and plays an important part in every aspect
of life for the vast majority of locals. National festivals are without exception Buddhist, and nearly
every Burmese boy aged between 10 and 20 enters a monastery as a novice monk for at least a short
period of his life. This novitiation ceremony is called shinpyu, and usually takes place during the
Buddhist New Year in April.
Monks (and to a lesser extent, nuns) are given an extremely high position in society, and it is part of
Burmese culture to donate food and alms to them in order to accrue merit - which in turn brings about
good karma for the giver. Unlike monks in other Buddhist countries, Burmese monks wear maroon
robes rather than saffron.
Nat worship
You would be forgiven for thinking that, given the centuries-long dominance of Buddhism, there
would be little space in Myanmar for indigenous religion. On the contrary, the worship of indigenous
spirits - called nats - is alive and well, and forms an important part of the spiritual landscape even for
practising Buddhists.
Nat worship has an even longer history in Myanmar than Buddhism, and practitioners believe that
places, people, and areas of life are associated with and governed by particular nats. Some of these are
said to have descended from actual historical personages, and legend has it that they can be called
upon in times of need to help a worshipper accomplish a task or vanquish an enemy. On the other
hand, it is also believed that a nat spirit can possess human beings and force them to perform terrible
acts without their consent.
When King Anawrahta took to the throne at Bagan in the 11th century, he destroyed nat temples and
abolished nat practices (such as animal sacrifices) in an attempt to purify his land and make
Theravada Buddhism the sole religion. Realising, however, that these actions were likely to hinder
rather than help his cause - he instead decided to change his tactics and co-opt nat worship into his
master plan.
To the existing pantheon of 36 nats, he added a 37th, Thagyamin, whom he modelled on a Hindu
deity called Indra and styled as king of the nats. As Buddhist mythology tells that Indra paid homage
to Buddha, so the insertion of Thagyamin into nat mythology effectively made all nats subordinate to
Buddhism. Anawrahta's plan was highly successful, and laid the foundations for nat worship to
flourish alongside Buddhism until the present day.
You will see plenty of signs of nat worship in Myanmar today if you know where to look. A coconut
dressed in a red turban at a local home, a red-and-white cloth tied to a rear-view mirror, or a small
shrine under a tree are all evidence of nat traditions. Nat pwe are musical performances held to
celebrate the spirits, and involve plenty of extra-loud music as well as the help of a spirit medium.
Though nat worship survives in Myanmar today, knowledge of these spirits is fading fast amongst the
younger generations.

Islam
Officially, just 4% of Myanmar's population is Muslim - however local Muslim leaders suggest that
20% is a more accurate figure. It's likely that the real percentage falls somewhere in between.
Islam has a long history in Myanmar, having existed in the country from at least the ninth century -
perhaps even as early as the sixth century in certain areas of the country. The highest concentration of
Muslims reside in Rakhine State, where Rohingya Muslims form the majority in some northern areas.
The status of these Rohingya Muslims is extremely controversial amongst the Buddhist Burmese,
many of whom believe that Rohingya should not be granted citizenship because they are not "true
Burmese". This is despite the fact that many Muslims have lived in Rakhine State since the 19th
century, and some since as far back as the 15th century. At the time of writing, violent clashes
between Rohingya and Buddhists in Rakhine State continue to make international headlines.

Christianity
It is thought that around 4% of Myanmar's population practise Christianity, of which four fifths are
Protestants and the remainder Catholic.
Christianity arrived in Myanmar in the 16th century via Japanese Christians, who had fled to Arakan
(Rakhine State) to escape persecution; then again via the Portuguese, Dutch and French in the 17th
century; then again in the 19th century via Anglican, Baptist and Catholic missionaries. Due to
most successful missionary work having occurred in isolated areas of the country, most Burmese
Christians are to be found amongst the Kachin, Chin and Karen ethnic minorities.

Hinduism
Hinduism arrived in Myanmar in ancient times, and its influence can still be found in Burmese culture
today. In fact - despite the country's strong Buddhist majority, the names "Myanmar" and "Burma" are
both derivations of "Brahma", a Hindu deity with four heads. Furthermore, the king of the nats,
Thagyamin, is based on a Hindu deity named Indra.
The British colonisation of Myanmar caused an influx of Indian migrants into the country, and in
1931 a census claimed that 55% of the population of Rangoon (modern-day Yangon) were Indian
immigrants - most of them Hindu. Under Ne Win's military government, however, as many as
300,000 Indians were expelled from the country, and it's thought that today Hindus only account for
2% of the country's population.

The predominant religion of Laos is Theravada Buddhism. Buddhism was the state
religion of the prerepublic kingdom of Laos, and the organization of
the community of monks and novices, the clergy (sangha), paralleled the
political hierarchy. Buddhists—largely lowland Lao—account for about half the
country’s people. Some two-fifths of the population, primarily the Lao Theung and
Lao Soung groups, follow non-Buddhist local religions. Buddhism and local
religion are not necessarily mutually exclusive, however; there is both a syncretic
practice of and a general tolerance for local religious traditions within the broader
Buddhist community.
Buddhist monks walking past the Pha That Luang temple, Vientiane, Laos. © arhendrix/Fotolia

Similarly, some of the upland peoples, especially those who have migrated from
southern China, mix Confucian ideas with Buddhism and local religions. The
Vietnamese, who live both in the cities and in the northeastern rural areas, practice
a mixture of Mahayana Buddhism and Confucianism.

Other smaller religious communities include Christians, Muslims, and followers of

the Bahāʾī faith. Although the country’s constitution provides for freedom of
religion in theory, the government restricts this right in practice, particularly with
respect to the minority religions. Since some heavy-handed attempts in the
aftermath of 1975 to take over the sangha, which was perceived as a rival
grassroots organization, and the subsequent flight of many monks abroad, the
government has treaded carefully. The regime has patronized a revival of
Buddhist culture and merit making and has also tolerated the practice of many
unique religious traditions that it earlier had publicly discouraged as “superstitious.”

Settlement patterns
Laos is predominantly rural and agricultural. The numerous isolated valley
communities preserve a variety of traditions, languages, and dialects. Lowland
villages usually are located close to rivers and roads that give the people access to
itinerant traders as well as to each other. Most of the settlements are laid out around
a main street or open area, with farmlands adjacent to the residential areas. Every
lowland village, if it can, has a Buddhist temple and supports at least one monk.
The temple compound typically includes a public building that serves as a school
and a meeting hall. Village leadership is usually divided, the headman
overseeing secular matters, the monk having authority in religious ones.

The upland and midland peoples—the Lao Soung and Lao Theung,
respectively—are largely organized along clan lines and live in smaller groupings.
Most cultivate swiddens (i.e., fields that are cleared and cultivated for a few years
before being abandoned and allowed to revert to forest), hunt game, and collect
various edible and nonedible forest products. Among some peoples, particularly
the Hmong, shifting cultivation has prevented the establishment of permanent
villages. Midland peoples living closer to the lowland areas have tended more
readily to acquire the languages and cultures of their neighbours and to engage in
trade with them; those living at higher elevations remain less obviously
acculturated.

Urban life in Laos is limited mainly to the capital, Vientiane, the former royal
capital, Louangphrabang, and four or five other large towns. With the exception of
Louangphrabang, all are located in the floodplain area near the Mekong River.
Their populations are predominantly Lao, with smaller groups of Chinese,
Vietnamese, and Indians.
Laos: Urban-ruralEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Demographic trends

The country has remained overwhelmingly rural, with the bulk of the population
living in villages ranging from just a few to several hundred households. Laos has
the lowest population density of any country of Southeast Asia, and its population is
also one of the most youthful. A high birth rate is offset by a high rate of infant
mortality, as well as by a life expectancy that is significantly below the world
average.
Laos: population densityPopulation density of Laos.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

About half the people are concentrated in the lowlands, and between one-third and
two-fifths are urban dwellers. There has been a considerable out-migration of
people from Laos since the mid-1970s, including not only survivors of the Hmong
“secret army” from the Vietnam War (1954–75) but also many of the country’s
educated and professional elite. Large communities of Lao and Hmong now live in
the United States, Australia, and France.
Laos: Age breakdownEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Economy

The economy of Laos is primarily agricultural and since the late 20th century has
remained heavily dependent on foreign aid and investment. The disruption during
the civil war period (late 1950s to 1975) and the economic policies of the early
years of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic—notably the attempt to collectivize
agriculture—resulted in economic stagnation in the country. By 1980, however, the
government had begun to pursue more pragmatic development policies, and in 1986
it introduced market-oriented reforms. Since then private and state enterprises have
operated side by side, and foreign investment has been encouraged. A number
of nongovernmental organizations, including some from the United States, have
been assisting the government, mainly in the fields of rural development and public
health.
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing

Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of Laos. In the early 21st century the
sector generated nearly half the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) and
employed some three-fourths of the population. The expansion of land under
cultivation has been impeded, however, largely by the vast quantities of unexploded
bombs—dropped mostly by the U.S. military during the Vietnam War—that litter
potential farmlands. Consequently, only a small portion of the country’s total arable
land area is cultivated. The great majority of Laos’s farmers are engaged
in rice agriculture. Lowland farmers generally plant irrigated paddy fields, while
upland dwellers cultivate rain-fed swiddens. Frequent floods and droughts cause
significant year-to-year fluctuation in agricultural yields. Although such
weather calamities affect the lowlands more severely, those regions have been more
productive than the uplands, owing largely to accessibility of new technologies,
pesticides, fertilizers, more solid infrastructure, and market networks. Many farmers
in the uplands practice subsistence agriculture; however, a shift toward
market-based production has been gaining momentum, propelled primarily by
government modernization initiatives. In years with “normal” harvests, Laos is
self-sufficient in rice production.

Principal crops other than rice include sweet potatoes, sugarcane, corn (maize),
assorted vegetables and fruits in smaller quantities, and tobacco. Coffee is
cultivated mainly on the Bolovens Plateau and is the only crop produced for export
in substantial volume. Opium production began decreasing dramatically in the late
20th century as a result of aggressive eradication programs implemented by the
government. Although opium poppies are still grown in some hill areas, poppy
cultivation for export is illegal.

Roughly two-fifths of Laos is forested, and the country’s forest resources have
provided for several important wood-processing industries. Timber extraction,
however, has been banned periodically by the government for environmental
reasons. Rapid deforestation has been attributed primarily to logging operations and
to the cutting of wood for fuel—activities that have been further blamed for the
erosion of hillsides, the silting of rivers, and, ultimately, the increased severity of
droughts and floods. The government has also viewed swidden farming in the
uplands as a major contributor to deforestation and has adopted measures to
encourage conversion to sedentary agricultural practices.

Fishing is particularly important for lowland dwellers, and aquaculture has been
increasing in the early 21st century. Principal pond-raised fish include tilapia and
various types of carp. Raising of livestock—especially pigs, cattle, water buffalo,
and chickens—has also been growing in significance.

Resources and power

Laos has considerable mineral reserves. Tin has been mined commercially since
colonial times and has remained a major resource; gypsum has become important
since the last decades of the 20th century. Gold mining expanded significantly in
the early 21st century, with substantial foreign investment. Foreign companies have
also worked the country’s granite and limestone deposits. Other minerals mined in
notable quantities include copper and precious stones. Laos is also rich in iron and
lead, but these and many other mineral deposits have yet to be exploited
systematically. The remote locations of deposits, the lack of a trained labour force,
and the vast quantities of unexploded ordnance contaminating the countryside are
among the factors that have discouraged foreign investment and hindered
exploration.

Although much coal is mined in Laos, the country draws almost all its energy
from hydroelectric sources. Dams on the Ngum River north of Vientiane supply the
bulk of domestic energy needs. Electricity is also one of Laos’s most valuable
exports. A number of other dams, such as those on the Theun River in central Laos,
produce electricity primarily for export to neighbouring countries,
especially Thailand. Additional hydroelectric projects have been under way,
although concern about their environmental impact has slowed the planning
process.
Laos: hydroelectric facilityA Chinese-built 100-megawatt hydroelectric facility near Vientiane,
Laos.Zhang Qiulai—Xinhua/Landov

Manufacturing

Although manufacturing has been growing faster than any other sector since the
economic reforms of the late 20th century, it still has provided less than one-fourth
of Laos’s GDP. Aside from energy production and mining, the country’s main
manufacturing activities are food processing (rice milling and beverage
production—mostly beer and soft drinks), sawmilling, the production of building
materials (e.g., nails and brick), and the manufacture of a variety of light consumer
goods (primarily plastic products, tobacco and cigarettes, and detergents). Garment
production, largely for export, has been expanding rapidly. Handicrafts are also an
important component of Laos’s manufacturing sector.

Finance
Until the late 1980s the government controlled all banking activities. Since then it
has fostered the development of a private banking sector. Foreign investment and
joint ventures with foreign companies have been officially encouraged. The central
bank, Banque de la RDP Lao, issues the national currency, the kip; regulates and
supervises commercial and regional banks; maintains foreign exchange reserves;
licenses financial services; and manages the monetary and credit system. A number
of commercial banks promote private investment.

During the Asian economic crisis of the late 20th century, the value of the kip
declined by more than half in 1998 alone. This, among other factors, led much of
the population to remain cautious about depositing money in savings accounts.
People have since tended to store their savings in gold, foreign currencies, and, in
rural areas, farm animals. Regional disparity in per capita income has been
widening.

Trade

Laos has been a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations

(ASEAN) trade organization since 1997 and has enjoyed normal trading relations
(formerly known as most-favoured-nation) status with the United States since 2004.
Laos’s chief exports are garments, electric power, timber and other forest products,
coffee, and various metals and minerals. Major imports include foodstuffs,
construction and electrical equipment, materials for the garment industry,
machinery, and mineral fuels. The country’s main trading partners are
Thailand, China, and Vietnam. To a lesser extent, Laos engages in trade
with Japan, South Korea, and Germany. Imports have consistently exceeded exports
in value, leaving a significant trade deficit; the gap typically has been filled
by foreign aid.

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Laos: Major export destinationsEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Laos: Major import sourcesEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

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