Carbohydrates – sugars and starches

- Cn(H2O)n = hydrates of carbon

- Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compounds
that can be hydrolyzed to them
- Synthesized in green plants through
photosynthesis
- In the body they are used for bursts of energy
needed during exercise in the form of glucose
Energy is stored in photosynthesis – energy is released in
metabolism
Classification of carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharides or simple sugars –
sacare(sugar); sweet tasting
- Polar compounds with high melting points
- Very water soluble
2. Disaccharides Common Monosaccharides
3. Oligosaccharides – 3-10 sugar units
4. Polysaccharides 1. Glucose – blood sugar
Aldose – aldehyde o Most abundant sugar in nature
Ketose – ketones o Normal blood glucose levels are 70-110 mg/dL
o Insulin (hormone) – regulates blood glucose
D,L Configuration – carbon chirality center na levels by stimulating the uptake of glucose into
pinakamalayo sa carbonyl group kung san naka place -OH tissues or its conversion to glycerin; produced
nila sa pancreas
2. Galactose – brain sugar (grapes)
D – right, L – left
o Galactose – enzyme na pag nawala nagccause
Cyclic – Haworth ng lactose intolerance
3. Fructose – fruit sugar, one of the components of
Linear – Fischer disaccharide sucrose.
o Ketohexose found in honey and almost twice as
Aldoses sweet as table sugar with the same number of
calories per gram

D-glyceraldehyde How to convert Fischer (linear) to Haworth (cyclic)

- Acyclic pag d nakaconnect
1. Rotate 90 degrees
D-erythrose D-threose 2. Copy yung mga carbon and hydrogen- pag nasa
right down siya, pag left sa taas
3. Gawin mo na siyang cyclic form
4. Copy ulit the substituents
D-ribose D-arabinose D-xylose D-lyxose
5. Since hemiacetals pa sila, acyclic pa sila
6. To close, attach c6 to c5, tapos yung O
D-galactose D-talose
nung c5 ilalagay sa place dati ng c6
D-glucose D-mannose
7. Tas yung H ng C5 iaattach sa O ng C1
D-allose D-altrose
D-gulose D-idose *ata* basta parang ganon, nakalimutan ko na hehe
Anomeric Carbon – carbon kung saan naka attach OH
and O
β – pag nasa taas yung OH
 α – pag nasa baba Lactose Intolerant – the disaccharides is cleaved by the
enzyme lactase in the body
Sugar pag narereduce nagiging alditol (sugar alcohols)
- d prinoproduce ng may mga lactose intolerance
o Reducing agent: Sodium tetrahydroboric 4. sucralose – disaccharide (sold as splenda) has a
(NaBH4) very similar structure to sucrose
o Catalyst – H2 and Pd
o D glucose to glucitol POLYSACCHARIDES
Alditols – sorbitol (fruits) - consists of large numbers of monosaccharides
units joined by glycosidic bonds
Erythritol - divided into two: Storage and structural
Mannitol Storage
Xylitol (artificial sugar) - starch (plants)
Sugar naman pag inoxidize nagiging Aldonic Acid (acidic - glycogen (animals)
sugars) Structural
Most common oxidizing agent: Benedict’s Agent - cellulose (plants)
Cu2O (brick red) - chitin
1. Cellulose – unbranched polymer made up of
Glucose to gluconic acid repeating glucose units joined by 1,4-B-glycosidic
Pag may brick red, reducing agent siya kase kaya ireduce linkages
ng sugar yung reagent o Found in cell walls; Humans cannot hydrolyze
and cannot digest it; glycosidase(enzyme)
All ALDOSES are reducing sugars 2. Starch – polymer made up of repeating glucose
units joined by α-glycosidic linkages
DISACCHARIDES
Starch is divided into two: Amylose (unbranched;
- Composed of 2 sugar units or monosaccharides α-1,4) and amylopectin (branched; α-1,4 and α-
- Glycosidic linkage – yung naglilink sa 1,6)
carbohydrate (sugar) molecule sa ibang - Combine them both, makakakuha ka ng amylase
carbohydrate na nagdidigest ng starch
3. Glycogen – animal starch; major form of
Maltose – α 1,4 glycosidic linkage polysaccharide
How to spot glycosidic linkage – bilangin kung san o Storage in animals, similar in structure to
nakaattach na carbon yung link susundan yung konti na amylopectin
carbon pag may nakataas and baba o Glycogenesis – glucose to glycogen;
glycol(sugar) genesis(make)
1. Sucrose – table sugar; obtained from the juice of o Glycogenolysis – glycogen to glucose
sugar cane and sugar beet 4. Chitin – Animals – crabs, lobsters, shrimps
o Glucose and fructose o α-1,4
o α-1,2 glycosidic bond
2. Lactose – principle sugar present in milk, about 5- Blood Typing
8% in human milk. 4-5% in cow’s milk. ABO – glucose units
o Milk sugar
o Glucose and galactose Type A – N-acetyl-D-galactosamine
o B-1,4 glycosidic bond
Type B – D-galactose unit
3. Maltose – from malt, the juice of sprouted barley
and other cereal grains AB – both Type A and Type B carbohydrates
o Glucose and glucose
o α 1,4 glycosidic bond Blood Type Anti A(blue) Anti B(yellow)

A + -
 B - + Fatty Acids – building block of lipids
O - -
AB + +
Mix is –
Clump is +
LIPIDS
- Biomolecules that are soluble in organic solvents
and insoluble in water
- Contain many non polar C-C and C-H and few
polar bonds resulting in their H2O insolubility.
(they are weakly polar)
- Unique among organic molecules because their
identity is defined on the basis of a physical
property and not by the presence of a
particular functional group.
- Because of this, lipids come in a wide variety of
structures and they have many different functions.
- Naturally occurring fatty acids that have an even
number of carbons
- Building block of lipids are fatty acids.
- “lipos” meaning fat
Importance of Lipids
 Energy source aside from Carbohydrates
 Chemical messenger of the body (Hormones)
 Insulation and protective coating to animals and
humans
RCOR + H2O ↔ RCOOH + ROH
Saponification – carboxylic acid plus alcohol
Esterification – formation of esters
The more double bonds, the lower the melting point
(inversely proportional)
Categories of Lipids
1. Function
1.1. Energy storage lipids – triacylglycerol
1.2. Membrane Lipids – phospholipids
1.3. Emulsification – Bile acids
1.4. Messenger Lipids – hormones
1.5. Protective Lipids – Waxes, phospholipids
2. Hydrolysis
2.1. Hydrolyzable – same with saponifiable; can
break down into smaller units with H2O
(waxes, triacylglycerol, phospholipids)
2.2. Non-hydrolyzable - cannot break down by
hydrolysis (fat soluble vitamins, steroids,
eicosanoids, terpenes)
- Are carboxylic acids (RCOOH) with long chains of
12-20 carbon atoms
- Hydrolyzable lipids are derived from fatty acids
C16H32O2 or CH3(CH2)14COOH (condensed formula)
Common name: palmitic acid
Polar portion: hydrophilic
Non polar portion: hydrophobic
Types of fatty acids according to saturation
1. Saturated fatty acid – no double bonds present
2. Unsaturated fatty acid – double bonds present
2.1. Monounsaturated – isa lang double bond
2.2. Polyunsaturated – 2 or more double bonds
present
Condensed Formula: CH3(CH2)16COOH
Common name: stearic acid
Structural notation: 18:0; 18 is the number of carbon atoms
tapos yung 0 is yung double bonds
∆ (delta) – start counting sa may functional group
ω (omega) – start counting sa carbon na farthest sa carbon
group
yung sa delta dapat superscript
Essential Fatty Acids
1. Linoleic acid – Omega-6-fatty acid
2. Linolenic Acid – Omega-3-fatty acid
- They cannot be produced by the body and must
be consumed
HYDROLYZABLE LIPIDS
1. Wax – are esters (RCOOR) formed from a fatty
acid and a high molecular weight alcohol;
hydrophobic
- Form a protective coating on the feathers of birds
that make them water repellant and on leaves to
prevent water evaporation.
- Example: cetyl palmitate (major component of
spermaceti wax) + H2O from palmitic acid and
alcohol
- Spermaceti: for buoyancy of head ng whale;
created sa spermaceti organ inside the whale’s
head.
Hydrolysis of waxes – like other esters, waxes are
hydrolyzed with water in the presence of acid or base to
re-form the carboxylic acid and alcohol they came from.
2. Triacylglycerol – also known as “triglycerides”
- Are esters formed from glycerol and 3 molecules
of fatty acids.
- Glycerol backbone with 3 fatty acids
- Divided into two: simple triacylglycerol (glycerol +
different saturated carbon chains) and mixed
triacylglycerol (glycerol + same saturated carbon
chains)
Triacylglycerol
1. Fats – higher melting point
o Solid at room temperature
o Derived from fatty acids having a few
number of double bonds
o High percentage of saturated fatty acids
o Animals in origin
2. Oils – lower melting point
o Liquid at room temperature
o Derived from FA having a large number of
double bonds
o High percentage of unsaturated fatty
acids
o Vegetables in origin
Fats and Oils in the diet
- It is recommended that no more than 20-35% of a
person’s calorie intake should come from lipids.
- Elevated cholesterol = plaques on arteries causing
high blood pressure, heart attack and stroke
- A high intake of saturated triacylglycerol is linked
to heart disease
- Saturated fats stimulate cholesterol synthesis
which can lead to cholesterol and plaques building
up inside arteries.
Hydrolysis of triacylglycerols – hydrolyzed with water in
the presence of acid, base or enzymes in the body
Metabolism of triacylglycerols
 Human store energy as triacylglycerol in adipose
cells (fat cells) below the surface of the skin, in the
breast area and surrounding areas
 The number of adipose cells is constant; weight
gain or loss causes them to swell or shrink but no
decrease or increase in number.
3. Phospholipids – phosphate atom
Two common types:
 Phosphoacylglycerols – 2 fatty acids, phosphate
and alcohol
 Sphingomyelin – sphingosine (backbone) + fatty
acid, phosphate and alcohol
o Does not contain glycerol
CHO + lipids – glycolipids
CHON (proteins) – glycoprotein
NON-HYDROLYZABLE LIPIDS
1. Steroids – group of lipids whose carbon skeletons
contain several fused rings
o Cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthene –
buong steroids na skeleton
1.1. Cholesterol – most prominent na steroid
o Synthesized in the liver and found in
almost all body tissues
o Obtained in the diet including meat,
cheese, butter and eggs
o Elevated levels of cholesterol in the blood
stream lead to coronary heart disease,
heart attack, etc.
o Is insoluble in the aqueous medium of
blood
Lipoproteins – transporters of lipids in blood stream
Types:
1. Low-density lipoproteins – transport cholesterol
from the liver to the tissues (bad cholesterol)
2. High-density lipoproteins – transport cholesterol
from the tissues to liver where it will be
metabolized
Reference Values for Lipids:
HDL – 40 mg/dL
LDL – <100 mg/dL – optimal value
>190 mg/dL – very high; d na tama because may
risk na of heart disease
Cholesterol – <200 mg/dL – desirable
200-239 mg/dL – borderline
>240 mg/dL – High risk for stroke or heart disease
`1.2. Hormones – molecule that is synthesized in one part
of an organism which then elicits a response at a different
size
Two important classes:
1. Sex hormones – (Female and Male hormones)
 1.1. Females: Estrogen and Progestin
Estrogen – control development of secondary sex;
regulate menstruation cycle and it is made in the ovaries
- Estrone – adulthood; menopause period, young;
mens
- Estradiol – strongest and is found in pregnancy
- Estriol – weakest; significant amount in
pregnancy; pag may increase of amount tas hindi
ka buntis, it can indicate cancer
Progestin
- Progesterone – “pregnancy hormone”;
responsible for the preparation of the uterus for
implantation of a fertilized egg.
1.2. Male: Androgens
o Testosterone and androsterone – made in
the testes; control the development of
secondary sex characteristics in males
Synthetic androgen analogues – promote muscle growth
- Have the same effect as testosterone but are more
stable, so they are not metabolized quickly.
- Used by athletes and body builders
- Prolonged use can cause physical and
psychological problems
2. Adrenal cortical steroids
2.1. Aldosterone (Mineralocorticoid)
o Regulates salt and HsO in the body
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone-System (RAAS)
Angiotensin 1 from renin sa kidney and angiotensinogen
sa liver tapos icoconvert ng Angiotensin converting
enzyme (ACE) to Angiotensin 2 (lungs) then magiging
Aldosterone na may Na, K, H2O tapos kesa masama
yung Na and H2O sa urinary system iaabsorb niya sila
yung K nasa urine na; triangle part ng kidney
o Regulates blood pressure and volume by
controlling the concentration of Na and K
in body fluids
2.2. Cortisol and Cortisone – serve as anti-
inflammatory agents and they regulate
carbohydrate metabolism
o “stress hormones”
2. Vitamins – essential in the body
- Organic compounds regulated in small quantities
for normal metabolism and must be obtained from
the diet
2.1. Fat soluble (A,D,E,K) – found in fruits, vegetables,
fish, liver, and dairy products; stored in adipose
cells to be used when needed
2.2. Water soluble
Vitamin A (retinol) – vision and for healthy mucous
membranes
- Synthesized from β-carotene (precursor or
starting material)
- Found in liver, fish, and dairy products
- Deficiency causes night blindness and dry eyes
and skin
Vitamin D – (D-calciferol)
- Synthesized from cholesterol
- Helps regulate both calcium and phosphorus
metabolism.
- Deficiency causes rickets, a bone disease
characterized by knock knees, spinal curvature
and other skeletal deformities.
Vitamin E – (tocopherol)
- Antioxidant and in this way it protects unsaturated
side chains in fatty acids from unwanted oxidation
- Deficiency causes numerous neurological
problems although it is rare for vitamin E
deficiency to occur.
Vitamin K – starting structure is quinone structure
- Regulates the synthesis of prothrombin and other
proteins needed for blood to clot.
- Severe deficiency leads to excessive and
sometimes fatal bleeding because of inadequate
blood clotting.
3. Eicosanoids – eikosi – “twenty”
o Not stored in cells and acts as local
mediators
Types
1. Prostaglandins – group of carboxylic acids that
contain a five membered ring. PGF2α and PGE1
2. Leukotrienes – molecules that contribute to the
asthmatic response by constricting smooth
muscles, especially in the lungs.
- They are both responsible for the inflammation in
the body.
- They are local mediators, meaning that they
perform their function in the environment in which
they are synthesized.
Introduction to Biochemistry and Stereochemistry Superimposable – coincide with all points (achiral) – when
images are laid upon each other
Chemistry – study of matter, its structure, properties,
compositions, reactions and the laws and energies that Non superimposable – not all points coincide when laid
govern these transformations upon each other (chiral)
Branches of Chemistry Two types of stereoisomers
- Inorganic 1. Enantiomers – molecules are non superimposable
- Organic images of each other
- Biochem 2. Diastereomers – molecules are not mirror images
- Qualitative of each other
- Quantitative
Chirality center – carbon atom bonded to 4 different groups
- Nuclear Chem
- Physical - Bromochlorofluoromethane
- Analytical Chem (Quali + Quanti)
Biochemistry – study of chemical substances fund in living
organisms and the chemical interactions of these
substances with each other
- Seeks to describe the structure, organization and
functions of living matter in molecular terms
Level of organization
Biochemical molecules – supramolecular structure – cells
– tissues – organs – organ system – organism
Biomolecules – organic molecules found in biological
system
Bioinorganic substances – water, inorganic salts
Bioorganic substances – carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
nucleic acid, vitamins, hormones
Constitutional Isomers
Stereochemistry – 3 dimensional structure of molecules
Isomers – some molecular formula
2 isomers
1. Constitutional – same molecular formula but differ
in connection
2. Stereoisomers – same molecular formula but
different atoms; always the same functional group
Cis – magkatabi methyl, trans – magkabilaan
Mirror Image – reflection of an object in a mirror
2 classes: superimposable and non superimposable