Lesson 6:

MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES

Distance by Pacing
Distance by Taping
Distance by Tachymetry
Distance by Graphical and Mathematical Methods
Distance by Mechanical Devices
Distance by Photogrammetry
MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE

If the points are at different elevations, the distance is the

horizontal length between plumb lines at the points. In many
instances, measurements are taken along an inclined line.
In surveying, the commonly employed methods of linear
measurement include pacing, taping, tachymetric,
graphical, mathematical, mechanical, photogrammetric,
and electronic distance measurement.
DISTANCE BY PACING

PACING consists of counting the number of steps or paces

in a required distance.

PACE is defined as the length of step in walking. It may be

measured from heel to heel or toe to toe.

STRIDE is equivalent to two paces or a double step.

DISTANCE BY TAPING

Taping consists of stretching a calibrated tape between two

points and reading the distance indicated on the tape. A form
of direct measurement.
Taping may vary from a relative precision of about 1:1000 to
1:25000 or better.
DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRY
Tachymetry (or Tacheometry) is based on the optical
geometry of the instruments employed and is an indirect
method of measurement.
Transit or a theodolite is used to determine subtended
intervals and angles on graduated rod or scale from which
distances are computed by trigonometry.
It is performed either by the stadia method or the subtense
bar method.
DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRY
STADIA METHOD
• Introduced by James Watt in 1711.
• Referred as a micrometer for measuring distances.
• The precision of this method depends upon the following
factors; the refinement with which the instrument was
manufactured, skill of the observer, length of the
measurement and the effects of refraction and parallax.
DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRY
STADIA METHOD
• Yield a relative precision of only between 1/300 and
1/1000.
• The equipment for stadia measurements consists of a
telescope with two horizontal hairs called stadia hairs and
a graduated rod called stadia rod. The equation
D=K(s)+C is employed in computing horizontal distances
from stadia intervals when sights are horizontal.
DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRY
DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRY
SUBTENSE BAR METHOD
Convenient and practical device used for quick and accurate
measurement
The bar is precisely 2 meters long, consists of a rounded
steel tube through which runs a thin invar rod. It is mounted
horizontally on a tripod and placed perpendicular to the line
of sight.
DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRY
SUBTENSE BAR METHOD
The procedure for determining the distance between two
points consists of setting up the subtense bar at the distant
station, and measuring the horizontal angle subtended by the
distance between the two targets. A theodolite is set up at
the other end of the line to be measured is used in
measuring the subtending angle.
DISTANCE BY GRAPHICAL AND MATHEMATICAL METHODS
Unknown distances may be determined through their
relationship with known distances geometrically. Determining
distances by scaling from maps could also provide accurate
results but first the scale of the map is well established.
Maps and photo scales are defined by the relationship with
which the distance between any two points on the map or
photograph bears to the corresponding distance on the
ground.
DISTANCE BY MECHANICAL DEVICES

There are few mechanical devices which could also be

employed for the measurement of distances. These devices,
however, are only applicable for low precision surveys or
where quick measurements are desired.
DISTANCE BY MECHANICAL DEVICES
ODOMETER – a simple device that can be attached to a
wheel for purposes of roughly measuring surface distances.
The wheel is rolled over the distance to be measured and the
number of revolutions of the wheel is directly registered by
the device.
DISTANCE BY MECHANICAL DEVICES
MEASURING WHEEL – more portable
and self-contained measuring device.
Basically, consists of a small wheel which
is attached to a rod and handle, and can
be pushed by an operator. As the wheel
of the device is rolled along a line to be
measured, a built in calibrated recorder
automatically gives a distance readout
in meters and decimals of a meter. It is
suitable for measuring distances along
irregular curved lines and boundaries.
DISTANCE BY MECHANICAL DEVICES
OPTICAL RANGEFINDER – operates on the same principle
as a rangefinder on single-lens reflex camera. It is usually
hand-held or mounted on a small tripod, and can be used to
determine the distances approximately simply by focusing.
DISTANCE BY PHOTOGRAMMETRY
PHOTOGRAMMETRY refers to
the measurement of images taken
on a photograph. The types of
photographs used are those taken
from aircraft with the axis of the
camera pointed vertically towards
the terrain photographed.
Distances can be measured with
a precision of about 1/3000 to
1/5000.
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
Distance by Pacing
1. A 45m course, AB, was paced by a surveyor for the purpose of
determining his pace factor. The number of paces for each trial are shown:
PACING DATA
TRIAL LINE TAPED DIST. NO. OF PACES MEAN
1 AB 50
2 BA 53
3 AB 51
45
4 BA 53
5 AB 52
6 BA 53
a. Determine his pace factor
b. If the surveyor then took 771, 770, 768, 770, 772 and 769 paces in
walking an unknown distance CD, what is the length of the line?
Distance by Stadia
2. A stadia rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an instrument set up at
A. The upper and lower stadia hair readings were observed as 1.3m and
0.9m respectively. If the stadia interval factor is 100, and the instrument
constant is zero, determine the length of the line AB.
Distance by Subtense Bar
3. A subtense bar 2.0m long is set up near the middle of a traverse line PQ.
Using a theodolite set up at P , the angle subtended reads 0˚20’14”. When
the theodolite was transferred and set up at Q, the corresponding
subtended angle was observed as 0˚23’47”. Determine the horizontal
length of line PQ.
Lesson 7:
MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
Electronic Distance Measurement
Measuring Tape
Taping Accessories
ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

Linear measurements determined by EDM instruments are

based on the basic principle that the time required for a radio
or light wave to travel from one end of a line to the other is a
function of the length measured. An EDM requires a very
careful measurement in determining the interval of time
between emission and reception of the transmitted wave.
MEASURING TAPES

Measuring tapes are made in a variety of lengths, materials,

and weights. They are also graduated in several ways.
Graduation marks and numbers are either etched, stamped,
or printed on the tape.
TAPING ACCESSORIES

Range Pole – also known as flags or

lining rods, are used as temporary signal
to indicate the location of points or the
direction of lines, and to mark alignment.
TAPING ACCESSORIES

Tape Clamping Handles– are used to

apply tension with a quick grip on any
part of a steel tape without causing
damage to the tape or hands of the
tapeman.
TAPING ACCESSORIES

Chaining Pins– sometimes called

surveyor’s arrows or taping pins, stuck on
the ground to mark the ends of measured
tape lengths or partial tape lengths. May
also be used in place of wooden hubs or
stakes.
TAPING ACCESSORIES

Tension Handles– also referred to as spring scale, is used

at one end of a tape for insuring the application of the
corrected amount of pull on the tape during measurement.
TAPING ACCESSORIES

Tape Thermometer– are used

to determine the temperature of
the air and the approximate
temperature of the tape during
measurement.
TAPING ACCESSORIES

Plumb Bob– In taping, it is used to

projecting tape ends to the ground
when the tape must be suspended
above the measured line.
TAPING ACCESSORIES

Wooden Stake or Hub– are made of 5cm x 5cm x 30cm

wood to mark points, corners, stations on the ground.
TAPING ACCESSORIES

Leather Thongs– it is attached

to a ring located near the zero-
meter mark of the tape to
provide a comfortable grip on
the tape when measuring.
Lesson 8:
MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
Composition of Taping Party
Procedure of Taping
Breaking Tape
Slope Taping
Corrections in Taping
Corrections Due to Incorrect Tape Length
COMPOSITION OF TAPING PARTY

• Head tapeman
• Recorder
• Flagman
• Rear tapeman
PROCEDURE OF TAPING

• Aligning the tape

• Stretching the tape
• Plumbing
• Marking full tape lengths
• Tallying taped measurements
• Measuring fractional lengths
BREAKING TAPE

It is standard practice to hold the tape horizontally above

ground and to plumb at one or both ends when taping on
sloping or uneven terrain surfaces. This requires the
measurement of shorter distances which are accumulated to
total a full tape length. The procedure is referred to as
breaking tape.
SLOPE TAPING

Taped measurements may be made directly along the slopes

when the ground is of uniform inclination and fairly smooth,
rather than breaking tape every few meters.
CORRECTIONS IN TAPING

Taping could be either of the following: taping to determine

an unknown length, or taping for the purpose of laying out a
required or specified length. Regardless of which of these
two categories is involved, there are some corrections which
are applied to the original measurements to determine the
correct and more accurate length.
CORRECTIONS IN TAPING
Corrections to taping are applied by the use of the following
rules:
1st – when a line is measured with a tape that is “too long”,
the corrections are applied by adding.
2nd – when a required length is to be laid out with a tape that
is “too long”, the corrections are subtracted.
3rd – when measuring or laying out lengths with a tape that is
“too short”, the corrections are applied opposite to those
stated on the first two rules.
CORRECTIONS DUE TO INCORRECT TAPE LENGTH
The absolute value for the corrections per tape length (Corr)
is determined from the difference between the true or actual
length of the tape (TL) and the nominal length of tape (NL)
or:
Corr = TL - NL
On the equation above, when the resulting difference is a
positive value, the tape used is too long; and is too short if
negative.
CORRECTIONS DUE TO INCORRECT TAPE LENGTH
Correspondingly, corrected distances which are measured or
laid out with a tape that is too long or too short can be
determined from the following equations:
Ci = Corr (ML/NL)
CL = ML ± Ci
Where:
Ci – total corrections to be applied
CL – corrected length of the line
ML – measured or laid out length
NL – nominal length of tape
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
SLOPE TAPING
1. A measurement is made along a line that is inclined by a vertical angle of
15º25’ as measured using a hand level and clinometer. The slope
measurement is 756.52 m. What is the corresponding horizontal distance?
SLOPE TAPING
2. A horizontal distance of 325.75 m is to be established along a line that
slopes at a vertical angle of 13º06’. What slope distance should be laid out?
MEASUREMENTS WITH TAPE
3. The length of a line AB measured with a 50-m tape is 465.285 m. When
the tape is compared with a standardized invar tape it is found to be 0.016
m too long in almost the same conditions of support, tension, and
temperature that existed during measurement of the line. Determine the
correct length of AB.
MEASUREMENTS WITH TAPE
4. A rectangular lot was measured using a 50 – m steel tape which was
found to be found 0.025 m too short. If the recorded length and width of the
lot are 180.455 m and 127.062 m, respectively, determine the following:
a. Actual dimensions of the lot.
b. Error in area introduced due to the erroneous length of tape.
LAYING OUT DIMENSIONS WITH TAPE
5. A building 38m x 45m is to be laid out with a 50 – m long metallic tape. If
during standardization the tape is found to be only 49.950m, determine the
following:
a. Dimensions to be laid out, using this tape, in order that the building shall
have the desired dimensions.
b. Using the same tape what should the diagonals read?
Lesson 9:
MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
Correction due to Slope
Correction due to Alignment
Correction due to Temperature
Correction due to Tension
CORRECTIONS DUE TO SLOPE
When distances are measured along the slope, the
equivalent horizontal distance may correspondingly be
determined by applying an approximate slope correction.
CORRECTIONS DUE TO SLOPE
For gentle slopes it is safe to assume that the slope distance
(s) is approximately equal to horizontal distance (d)
or

𝒉𝟐
𝑪𝒉 =
𝟐𝒔
A slope is classified as gentle when it is not greater than
20%.
CORRECTIONS DUE TO SLOPE
The slope is calculated by dividing the difference in elevation
by the horizontal distance and multiplying by 100% to obtain
the slope in percent or

h
____
SLOPE = (100)%
d
A plus or minus sign must be given to indicate if the slope is
rising or falling.
CORRECTIONS DUE TO SLOPE
By employing binomial expansion, the equation for slope
correction expands to

𝟐 𝟒
𝒉 𝒉
𝑪𝒉 = + 𝟑
𝟐𝒔 𝟖𝒔

This equation, which now includes a second term, gives

more precise results and is used for steep slopes such as
those ranging between 20% to 30%.
CORRECTIONS DUE TO SLOPE
When very steep slopes are involved such as those greater
than 30%, the corresponding slope correction should be
calculated by exact trigonometric relations.

Since the equation for very

steep slope is the exact slope
correction formula, it may also
be employed for gentle or steep
slopes.
CORRECTIONS DUE TO TEMPERATURE
The tape lengthens as the temperature rises and shortens as
the temperature falls.
The correction applied to the length of the tape due to
change in temperature is given by the formula
𝑪𝒕 = 𝑪𝑳(𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 )
Where:
C – coefficient of linear expansion
L – length of tape or length of line measured
T – observed temperature
Ts – temperature at which the tape was standardized
CORRECTIONS DUE TO TENSION
During calibration, a tape is subjected to a certain amount of
standard pull or tension on its ends.
The tape stretches in an elastic manner. The modulus of
elasticity of a material can be expressed as the ratio of unit
stress to unit elongation
𝑷
𝑨 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑬= 𝒆 =
𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝑳
CORRECTIONS DUE TO TENSION
By substituting the quantity, (Pm-Ps) to P, and computing for
the value of the elongation, e or Cp the following formula is
obtained
𝑷𝒎 − 𝑷𝒔 𝑳 Where:
𝑪𝒑 = Cp – total elongation in tape length due to pull (m)
𝑨𝑬 Pm – pull applied during measurement (kg)
Ps – standard pull for the tape when calibrated (kg)
thus L – measured length of line (m)
A – cross-sectional area of the tape (cm²)
′
𝑳 = 𝐋 ± 𝑪𝒑 E- modulus of elasticity (kg/ cm²)
L’ – corrected length of measured line (m)
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
CORRECTION DUE TO SLOPE
1. Slope distances AB and BC measures 330.49m and 660.97m,
respectively. The differences in elevation are 12.22 m for points A and B,
and 10.85 m for the points B and C. Using the approximate slope correction
formula for gentle slopes, determine the horizontal length of line ABC.
Assume that line AB has a rising slope and BC a falling slope.
CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE
2. A steel tape with a coefficient of linear expansion of 0.0000116/˚C is
known to be 50 m long at 20˚C. The tape was used to measure a line which
was found to be 532.28 meters long when the temperature was 35˚C.
Determine the following:
a. Temperature correction per tape length
b. Temperature correction for the measured line
c. Correct length of the line
CORRECTION DUE TO TENSION
3. A heavy 50-m tape having a cross-sectional area of 0.05 cm² has been
standardized at a tension of 5.5kg. If E= 2.10 x 10^6 kg/cm², determine the
elongation of the tape if a pull of 12kg is applied.
CORRECTION DUE TO TENSION
4. A 30m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is of standard length under a pull of
5kg, supported for full length. The tape was used in measuring a line
938.55m long on smooth level ground under a steady pull of 10kg.
Assuming
E = 2.0 x10^6 kg/cm² and the unit weight of steel to be 7.9 x 10^-3 kg/cm³,
determine the following:
a. Cross sectional area of the tape
b. Correction for increase in tension
c. Correct length of the line measured
Lesson 10:
MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
Correction due to Sag
Correction due to Wind
Normal Tension
CORRECTIONS DUE TO SAG
A tape attains its correct length when it is fully supported.
The correction due to sag is the difference in length between
the arc formed by the tape and the subtending chord. In
determining the correction, the arc is assumed to be a
parabola and is computed with sufficient precision by the
formula:
𝝎𝟐 𝑳𝟑
𝑪𝒔 =
𝟐𝟒𝑷𝟐
CORRECTIONS DUE TO SAG
Since W = 𝝎L or 𝑾𝟐 = 𝝎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 , substitute this to the
equation 1 we obtain
𝑾𝟐 𝑳
𝑪𝒔 =
Where: 𝟐𝟒𝑷𝟐
Cs – correction due to sag (m)
𝝎 – weight of tape per unit length (kg/m)
W – total weight of tape (kg)
L – interval between support or unsupported length (m)
P – pull applied to tape (kg)
NORMAL TENSION
By exerting a sufficiently greater amount of pull on the tape,
the tape will stretch and will reduce the amount of sag
results. The formula for normal tension is: 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟒𝑾√𝑨𝑬
𝑷𝑵 =
𝑷𝒏 − 𝑷𝒔
Where:
PN – normal tension that will eliminate the sag (kg)
W – total weight of tape between supports (kg)
A – cross-sectional area of tape (cm²)
E – modulus of elasticity of tape (kg/ cm²)
Ps – standard pull of tape (kg)
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
CORRECTION DUE TO SAG
1. A 30m tape is supported only at its ends and under a steady pull of 8kg.
If the tape weighs 0.91kg, determine the sag correction and the correct
distance between the ends of the tape.
2. A 50m steel tape weighs 0.04 kg/m and is supported at its end and at
8m and 25m marks. If a pull of 6kg is applied, determine the following:
a. Correction due to sag in between supports
b. correction due to sag for one tape length
c. correct distance measured
NORMAL TENSION
3. A steel tape weighing 0.85 kg has a cross sectional area of 0.05 cm². The
tape measures exactly 30m when supported throughout its length under a
standard pull of 5.5kg. If the modulus of elasticity is 2.10 x10^6 kg/cm2,
determine the tension required to make the tape equal to its nominal length
when supported only at end points.