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DIVIDEND RATE
Dividend Per Share
Dividend Rate = 100
Face Value
DIVIDEND YIELD ( RETURN )
Dividend Per Share
Dividend Yield ( Return ) = Market Price Per Share 100
RETENTION RATIO
EPS - DPS Retained Earning Per Share
Retention Ratio = 100 or (1 - Dividend Payout Ratio) or 100
EPS EPS
WALTER'S MODEL
r
DPS (EPS – DPS)
Symbolically : Po = K +
Ke
e Ke
OPTIMUM DIVIDEND PAYOUT OR OPTIMUM RETENTION RATIO
Walter suggested that optimum dividend payout ratio or optimum retention ratio depends on the relationship of Ke & r
Optimum
Nature of Firm Relation Dividend Payout Retention Ratio
Growth Company Ke<r 0% 100%
Declining Company Ke>r 100% 0%
Normal Company Ke =r Indifferent Indifferent
AADITYA JAIN
THE GORDON'S
BEST SFMGROWTH MODEL
FACULTY OF INDIA
DPS1 DPS0 ( 1 g) EPS(1 b)
Symbolically :Po= K – g or Po = K g or P0 K g or [ If EPS(1-b) is considered as D1] [Preferred]
e e e
EPS(1 b)(1 g)
P0 [ If EPS(1-b) is considered as Do] Where b =Retention Ratio (%)
Ke g
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PRICE/EARNING RATIO
MPS
Price Earning Ratio =
EPS
VALUE AT THE END OF “N” YEAR FROM WHERE GROWT RATE BECOMES CONSTANT
D4
Assuming that growth rate becomes constant after 3 years price will be:P3 =
Ke – g
CAPITALGAIN YIELD
(B1 B0 )
Capital Gain Yield = 100
B0
CURRENTYIELD / FLAT YIELD /CURRENT INTERESTYIELD/
BASIC YIELD
I1
Current Yield = B Where I1 = Interest To Be Paid at Year End 1
O
YIELD ( K d ) OR YIELD TO MATURITY (YTM) OR COST OF DEBT
Symbolically : It can be calculated by using two method :
Interest Interest Interest Maturity Value
..................
Trial n Error Method : Value of Bond (B 0 )
(1 Yield)1 (1 Yield) 2 (1 Yield)n (1 Yield)n
Maturity Value – Bo
Interest p.a
n
Kd p.a
Approximation Method : Maturity Value Issue Value
2
Where Bo is current value of bond in case of existing bond or issue price or new proceeds in case of new issue of bond
Call Value – B o
Interest
Call Years
YTC Call Value B o
2
YIELD TO PUT ( YTP )
Put Value – B o
Interest
YTP Put Years
Put Value B o
2
KD OF PERPETUAL BOND
Annual Interest
Yield or Kd
Bo
DURATION OF NORMAL BOND OR FREDRICK
MACAULAY 'S DURATION
AADITYA JAIN
Coupon Amount x n Face Value
B0
In such case our equation is THE BEST SFM FACULTY
(1 YTM) n
OF INDIA
DIRTY PRICE AND CLEAN PRICE
Dirty Price = Clean Price + Accrued Interest
BASIS POINT
1 % = 100 basis points
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Maturity Value – Bo
Interest per 6 months
n x2
Kd Of 6month
Maturity Value Bo
2
Now Kd p.a = Kd for 6 month x 2
EXPENSE RATIO
Expenses Incurred Per Unit Opening NAV Closing NAV
Expense Ratio Where Average NAV =
Average NAV 2
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RETURN OFMUTUAL FUND, RECURRING EXPENSES , INITIAL EXPENSES AND RETURN
DESIRED BY INVESTORS
Return Required By Investors Return Of Mutual Fund Recurring Expenses (1 Initial Expenses)
Note : Total Asset and Total External Liability may be taken on the basis of Market Value , Liquidation Value or Book Value as the case
may be .
Note:If question is silent always use Market Value Approach.
CALCULATION OF CAPITALEMPLOYED
Capital employed can be calculated in two ways
one way is to calculate from liabilities side and
other way is to calculate through asset side.
Let’s look at both ways
Liabilities side
Capital employed = Equity Share Capital + Preference Share Capital + Reserves – Fictitious Assets + Debentures + Long Term Loans
Assets Side
Capital Employed = Fixed assets (excluding Fictitious Assets) + Current assets – Current liabilities
IF DECISION IS BASED ON MPS [ AND IF P/E RATIO AFTER MERGER FOR A LTD IS GIVEN OR ANY HINT IN THE QUESTION
IS GIVEN REGARDING THIS ] :For A Ltd :
Maximum Exchange Ratio ( i.e the Exchange Ratio at which MPS of Firm ’s A shareholder before and after merger will be same )
MPS Before Merger = MPS After Merger
MPSA MPSA B
MPSA P/E Ratio A B EPSA B
AADITYA JAIN
THE BEST SFM FACULTY OF INDIA
E A E B Synergy
MPSA P/E Ratio A B N N ER
A B
Now by solving the above equation keeping Exchange Ratio constant we can find desired Exchange Ratio.
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IF DECISION IS BASED ON MPS [ AND IF P/E RATIO AFTER MERGER FOR A LTD IS GIVEN OR ANY HINT IN THE
QUESTION IS GIVEN REGARDING THIS ] For B Ltd :
Minimum Exchange Ratio ( i.e the Exchange ratio at which MPS of Firm ’s B shareholder before and after merger will be same )
MPS Before Merger = Equivalent MPS after Merger
MPS B ER MPS A B
MPS B ER EPSA B P/E Ratio A B
E A E B Synergy
MPS B ER P/E Ratio A B N N ER
A B
Now by solving the above equation keeping Exchange Ratio constant we can find desired Exchange Ratio.
IF DECISION IS BASED ON MPS [ AND IF P/E RATIO AFTER MERGER IS NOT GIVEN ] :For A Ltd :
Maximum Exchange Ratio ( i.e the Exchange Ratio at which MPS of Firm ’s A shareholder before and after merger will be same )
MPS Before Merger = MPS After Merger
MPSA MPSA B
AMPS N
A MPS N
B B Synergy Gain
MPSA No. of Equity Shares No. Of Equity Shares Exchange Ratio
A B
Now by solving the above equation keeping Exchange Ratio constant we can find desired Exchange Ratio.
IF DECISION IS BASED ON MPS [ AND IF P/E RATIO AFTER MERGER IS NOT GIVEN ] :For B Ltd :
Minimum Exchange Ratio ( i.e the Exchange Ratio at which MPS of Firm ’s B shareholder before and after merger will be same ) :
MPS Before Merger = Equivalent MPS after Merger
MPS B ER MPS A B
MPS N
A A MPS N
B B Synergy Gain
MPS B ER No. of Equity Shares No. Of Equity Shares ER
A B
Now by solving the above equation keeping Exchange Ratio constant we can find desired Exchange Ratio.
Earning For Equity Shareholder Equity Shareholder' s Fund Market Price Per Share
= Equity Shareholder' s Fund No. of Equity Shares Earnings Per Share
s
Where Equity Shareholder's Fund = Equity Share Capital + Reserves - P/L account ( Dr.)
MARKETVALUEAFTER MERGER WHEN GROWTH RATE OF B LTD UNDER NEW MANAGEMENT INCREASES
Market Value After Merger = MPS A x No. Of Equity Share A + New MPS B Taking new growth rate x No. Of Equity Share B + Synergy
to be taken as zero
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NPV OF A LTD UNDER MERGER
PV Of Cash Flows Received By A Ltd From B Ltd xxx
Less: Cost of Acquisition Paid By A Ltd To B Ltd xxx
NPV Of A Ltd if B Ltd is acquired xxx
Decision:If NPV is positive, Altd should takeover Bltd.
GROSS NPA(%)
Gross NPA
GNPA Ratio 100
Gross Advance or Deposit Given By Bank
Standard Deviation
CV= Average Return
Decision:Higher the CV , higher the risk.
MEANING OF r=-1
It is a Perfect Negative Correlated Portfolio Portfolio Risk will be minimum
AADITYA JAIN
Standard Deviation Of Portfolio will become (σ A B ) σ A WA σ B WB
THE BEST SFM FACULTY
MEANING OF r=0 OF INDIA
It is a No Correlated Portfolio .Portfolio Risk will be between minimum and maximum range
Overall Decision : Lower the Standard Deviation , Coefficient Of Variation , Variance or Range Lower will be the Risk Of Security .
ARBITRAGE PRICING THEORY [ STEPHEN ROSS'S APT MODEL ] /MULTI FACTOR MODEL
Symbolically : Overall Return in case of APT will be = Risk Free Return + (Beta x Risk Premium ) Of Each Factor
= Risk Free Return + { Beta Inflation Inflation Differential or Premium }+ { Beta GNP GNP Differential or Premium} ....+ and so on
Where , Differential or Premium = [ Actual Value - Expected/Estimated Value ]
TREYNOR RATIO
This ratio measures the return earned per unit of systematic risk. It is also known as the Reward to Volatility Ratio.
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σ 2 w 2 σ 2B w 2B σ 2 w 2 σ 2D w 2D
A A C C
2w A σ A w B σ B r A B 2w A w C σ A σ C rAC
σ ABCD
2w B w C σ C σ B rBC 2w C w D σ C σ D rCD
2w D w A σ D σ A rDA 2w B w D σ B σ D rBD
CALCULATION OF OPTIMUM WEIGHTS TO MINIMIZE PORTFOLIO RISK WHEN WEIGHTS ARE MISSING
Under this concept we will try to find out that " What percentage in each of the security consisting in the portfolio would result into
lowest possible risk " . Hence if we are asked to calculate optimum weights which will reduce our portfolio risk then we will use following
formula :
σ B2 r A , B σ A σ B σ B2 Covariance (A, B)
WA
σ A 2 σ B2 2 r A , B σ A σ B σ A 2 σ B2 2 Covariance (A, B)
and WB 1 WA (Since WA WB 1 )
AADITYA
NEW FORMULA JAINUSING BETA
OF COVARIANCE
Covariance between any 2 stocks = βTHE BEST
2
1 β2 σ m
SFM FACULTY OF INDIA
Rm Rf
Risk Return Trade Off Of Market = σm
HOW TO CALCULATE SYSTEMATIC RISK AND UNSYSTEMATIC RISK / SHARPE INDEX MODEL
FOR A SECURITY :Total Risk = σ s 2 ;
Systematic Risk Of a Security = σ m 2β s 2 ;Unsystematic Risk Of a Security = Total Risk - Systematic Risk = σ s 2 - σ m 2β s 2
n
2 2
Unsystematic Risk Of a Portfolio = Total Risk - Systematic Risk = σ P 2 - σ m 2β P 2 or σ USR w
i 1
Explained by the index (Systematic Risk)= Variance of Security Return x Co-efficient of Determination of Security or
CONVERTING DIRECT QUOTE INTO INDIRECT QUOTEAND VICE-VERSA-WHEN BID & ASK RATE ARE SAME
Direct Quotes can be converted into Indirect Quotes by taking reciprocals of each other, which can be mathematically expressed as
1 1
follows: Direct Quote = or Indirect Quote =
Indirect Quote Direct Quote
1
For Example : 1 DM = Rs. 20 is a direct quote for India. 1 Re. = DM is indirect quote for India
20
CONVERTING DIRECT QUOTE INTO INDIRECT QUOTE AND VICE-VERSA -WHEN BID ANDASK RATE ARE DIFFERENT
Direct Quotes can be converted into Indirect Quotes by taking reciprocals of each other and then switching the position.
For Example : Direct Quote wih reference to India : 1 $ = Rs. 46.10 / 46.20.
1 1
Indirect Quote with reference to India : Re 1 $ $ or Re 1 = $ .02165 - $ .02170
46.20 46.10
INTERNATIONALFISHER EFFECT(IFE)
It analyses the relationship between the Interest Rates and the Inflation .
As per IFE we have(1+Money Interest Rate )=(1+Real Interest Rate)(1+Inflation Rate )
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GAIN OR LOSS UNDER FUTURE CONTRACT-LONG POSITION
Position THE BEST ActualSFMPrice
FACULTY OF INDIA
On ExpirationProfit/Loss
Long Increase Profit
Long Decrease Loss
INITIAL MARGIN
Initial Margin deposited is not an expense it is just like security deposit .
Sometimes when initial margin is not given in question it can be calculated by using following equation:
Initial Margin = Daily Absolute Changes + 3 x Standard Deviation
Future Value
Present Value Future Value e - r t
e r t
HOWTO CALCULATE ARBITRAGE PROFIT ? WHEN-ACTUAL FUTURE VALUE > FAIR FUTURE VALUE
Case Valuation Borrow/Invest Cash Future
Market Market
Actual Future Value > Fair Future Value Overvalued Borrow Buy Sell
PRINCIPLE OF CONVERGENCE
The process by which the futures price and the cash price of an underlying asset approach one another as delivery date nears. The
futures and cash prices should be equal on the delivery date.
HOWTO CALCULATEARBITRAGE PROFIT ? WHEN-ACTUAL FUTURE VALUE < FAIR FUTURE VALUE
Case Valuation Borrow/Invest Cash Future
Market Market
Actual Future Value < Fair Future Value Undervalued Invest Sell* Buy
* here we are assuming that arbitrageur holds one share in cash market.
AADITYA
POSITION TO BE TAKENJAIN FOR HEDGING
If you are Short on any Security THE BEST SFMgoFACULTY
You should OF INDIA
Long in Index [Sensex or Nifty]
If you are Long on any Security You should go Short in Index [Sensex or Nifty]
VALUE OF HEDGING FOR INCREASING & REDUCING BETATO A DESIRED LEVEL (ASSUMING LONG POSITION)
When Existing beta > Desired beta
Objective:Reducing Risk
Position To Be Taken:Take Short Position
Amount Of hedging Required = Value of Existing Portfolio x (Existing Beta - Desired Beta)
When Existing beta < Desired beta
Objective:Increasing Risk
Position To Be Taken:Take Long Position
Amount Of hedging Required = Value of Existing Portfolio x (Desired Beta - Existing Beta )
OPTION- AN UNDERSTANDING
In Forward Contract : Both parties are obliged to perform
In Future Contract : Both the parties are obliged to perform
In Option Contract : Only one party is obliged to perform
POINT OF MAXIMUM PROFIT & LOSS- FOR CALL BUYER & SELLER
Call Buyer maximum loss--the amount of premium paid
Call Seller maximum profit will be equal to the amount of premium received
Call Buyer maximum profit will be unlimited
Call Seller maximum loss will be unlimited
POINT OF MAXIMUM PROFIT & LOSS- FOR PUT BUYER & SELLER
Put Buyer maximum loss is the amount of premium paid
Put Seller maximum profit will be equal to the amount of premium received
Put Buyer maximum profit will be equal to Strike Price - Premium Paid
Put Seller maximum loss will be Strike Price - Premium Received
TYPES OF RIGHT
Right To Buy Shares-Call Buyer ; Right To Sell Shares-Put Buyer
FAIR VALUE OF CALL OPTION BEFORE EXPIRY DATE MINIMUM THEORETICAL PRICE OF CALL OPTION
Theoretical Minimum Value of Call Option : = Spot Price – Present Value of Strike Price =Spot Price – Strike Price e–rt
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FAIR VALUE OF PUT OPTION BEFORE EXPIRY DATE : MINIMUM THEORETICAL PRICE OF PUT OPTION
Theoretical Minimum Value of Put Option:
= Present Value of Strike Price– Current Market Price =Strike Price e–rt –Current Market Price
STRADDLES
Straddle can be of two types:
1.Long Straddle :Buying a Call and a Put with the same strike price and the same exipry date. In Long straddle the investor will have
to pay premium on the call as well as on put option contract.
2.Short Straddle :Selling a Call and a Put with the same strike price and the same exipry date.In Short straddle the investor will
receive premium on the call as well as on put option contract.
If question is silent always assume Long Straddle.
VEGA
Vega( Sensitivity to Change in Volatility of Asset Price ):It is a measure of rate of change in option price with respect to the percentage
change in volatility.
Change in Option Premium
It is calculated as : Vega Change in Volatility of Price
THETA
Theta ( Sensitivity to Change in Time to Expiry ) : It is the rate of change in value of the option with respect to time to maturity.
Change in Option Premium
It is calculated as Theta Change in Time to Expiry
RHO
Rho ( Sensitivity to Change in Interest Rate ) : It is the rate of change in option price with respect to change in interest rate .
Change in Option Premium
It is calculated as : Rho Change in Rate of Interest
TREATMENT OFTAXATION
All cash inflows and outflows which are a part of Profit and Loss account should be taken after tax.
LESSEE VS BORROWER
Calculate Present Value Of Outflow under both the option separately by using the discount rate and choose such option which
involves least outflow.
LESSEE BORROWER
No Depreciation Charge Charge Depreciation
User User & Owner
Not Entitled To Salvage Value Entitled To Salvage Value
Pay Lease Rent No Lease Rent Is Paid
No Principal Repayment Principal Repayment
No Payment Of Interest Interest Payment
PRESENT VALUE OF INTEREST NET OFTAX & PRINCIPAL REPAYMENT MUST BE EQUALTO THE AMOUNT OF LOAN
PROVIDED DISCOUNT RATE IS KD
When discount rate is Kd then-PV of Interest Net Of Tax + Present Value Of Principal Repayment = Amount Of Loan
Note : The Net Present Value computed by using Risk Adjusted Discount Rate is known as Risk Adjusted Net Present Value .
Note : Higher Risk should be discounted by higher rate.
PROFITABILITY INDEX (PI) / BENEFIT COST RATIO / PRESENT VALUE INDEX / DESIRABILITY FACTOR
Present Value Of Inflows
Formula :Profitability Index (PI)
Present Value Of Outflows
Accept/Reject Criterion :Where PI > 1 Accept the proposal ; PI = 1 Indifference point ; PI < 1 Reject the proposal
PAY BACK PERIOD / PAY OFF PERIOD / CAPITAL RECOVERY PERIOD :IN CASE OF EVEN CASH FLOWS
Payback Period is the period within which the total cash inflows from the project equals the cost of the project.
Initial Investment
Formula :Payback Period =
Annual Cash Inflows
Decision : The project with the lower payback period will be preferred.
PAY BACK PERIOD / PAY OFF PERIOD / CAPITAL RECOVERY PERIOD : IN CASE OF UNEVEN CASH FLOWS
Remaining Amount
Formula : : Payback Period = Completed Years
Available Amount
Decision : The project with the lower payback period will be preferred.
PROBABILITY OF OCCURRENCE IFTHE CASH FLOWS ARE (A) PERFECTLY DEPENDENT OVERTIME (B) INDEPENDENT
OVERTIME
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The probability of occurrence of the worst or best case if the cash flows are
(a) Perfectly Dependent Overtime is Required Probability (b) Independent Overtime is (Required Probability) n
Where n = Life Of The Project
BETA OFA FIRM / FIRM BETA / OVERALL BETA OF FIRM / ASSET BETA / PROJECT BETA-IF TAX IS NIL
Equity Debt
Overall Beta or Firm Beta or Asset Beta or Project Beta = Equity Beta Debt Equity + Debt Beta Debt Equity
BETA OFA FIRM / FIRM BETA / OVERALL BETA OF FIRM / ASSET BETA / PROJECT BETA-IF TAX IS CONSIDERED
Equity Debt (1 – tax)
Overall Beta or Firm Beta or Asset Beta or Project Beta = Equity Beta + Debt Beta
Debt(1 – tax) Equity Debt (1 – tax) Equity
DEBT RATIO
Debt
Debt Ratio = Equity Debt
For example : Overall Beta of Idea Company will be same as Overall Beta of Airtel Company as both the company belong to the same
industry .But there Equity Beta and Debt Beta may be different at different Capital Structure .
BREAKEVEN UNITS
Fixed Cost
BEP refers to that volume of sales where the profit or loss is zero. Break Even Units = 100
Contributi on Per Unit
MODIFIED NPV
The Net Present Value calculated so far was based on an assumption that the cash inflow that is generated over the years is invested
at the same rate at which our cash flows are discounted . But this may not be true in all cases . It may so happen that the cash inflows of
the project may be invested at different rates . In such case we should compute Modified NPV as follows :
Find the Future Value of cash inflows at the given rate of investment for the remaining years.So if the project is for 5 years ,the cash
inflow generated in first year end shall be compounded for 4 years.Similarly the cash inflow generated in second year end shall be
compounded for 3 years and so on .
Take the total of future values which may be termed as Future Value or Terminal Value
Terminal Value
Find the Present Value Of Cash Inflows in the following manner :
(1 Cost Of Capital)n
Modified Net Present Value = Present Value Of Cash Inflows Initial Cash Outflow
MODIFIED IRR
Modified IRR is the rate at which Modified NPV is zero.
MARKETVALUE ADDED(MVA)
MVA is yet another concept which is used to measure the performance and value of the firm .
Symbolically :
From Equity Point Of View
MVA =Current Value of the securities of the Company in the Market - Total Amount of Shareholder's Funds[Balance Sheet Fig. ]
Note: Shareholder's Funds[Balance Sheet Fig.]includes Equity Share Capital + Retained Earning - Accumulated Loss - P/L Account (
Debit Balance )
From Overall Company's Point Of View
MVA = Value of the Company Based On Free Cash Flows - Total Capital Employed or Amount Invested
The lower the ratio, the more the company is burdened by debt expense. An interest coverage ratio below 1 indicates the company is
not generating sufficient revenues to satisfy interest expenses.
Decision: Higher the better
CAPITALGEARING RATIO (CGR)
Fixed Income Bearing Funds (Preference Share Capital Debentures Long Term Loan)
Formula:Capital Gearing Ratio = Equity Shareholders' Fund = (Equity Share Capital Reserves & Surplus - Losses)
Decision: Lower the better
FIXED INTERESTAND DIVIDEND COVERAGE
PAT Debenture Interest
Interest and Fixed Dividend Coverage =
Debenture Interest Preference Dividend
Decision: Higher the better
EXPONENTIALMOVINGAVERAGE (EMA)
Formula: EMA = EMA yesterday + a x [ Price Today - EMA Yesterday ] Where a = Smoothing Constant / Multiplier.It will be normally
given in question .If not given than it can be calculatedAADITYA JAIN
by using a = 2/(N+1) where N is the number of items in the average.
THE BEST SFM FACULTY OF INDIA
SHARPE'S OPTIMAL PORTFOLIO/APPLICATION OF CUT OFF POINT
1.Find out the “excess return to beta” ratio for each stock under consideration.
2.Rank them from the highest to the lowest.
3.Proceed to calculate Cut Off Point Of Security (Ci) for all the stocks according to the ranked order using the following formula:
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N (R – R ) β
σ2m i f i
i 1 σ2
Ci ei
N β 2
1 σ2m i
2
i 1 σ ei
Where σ 2 ei = variance of a stock’s movement that is not associated with the movement of market index i.e. stock’s unsystematic risk.
The highest Ci value is taken as the cut-off point i.e. C*.It is the cut off rate.Security with C* value and the securities before this security
are to be included in the portfolio and others are rejected.
βi R i R f
4.The next step is to calculate weights.For this purpose we have to calculate Zi. :Zi = C*
2
σ ei β i
By using Zi ,weights are calculated.
VALUE OF EQUITYAS PER RISK PREMIUM APPROACH
Actual Yield Of The Company
Value of Equity Share = PaidUp Value Per Share
Expected Yield Of Industry Adjusted According To Risk
Yield On Shares
Actual Yield On Equity Shares(%) 100
Equity Share Capital
BOND IMMUNIZATION
A portfolio is immunized when its duration equals the investor’s time horizon. In other words, if the average duration of portfolio must
be equals the investor’s planned investment period.
A portfolio is immunized when it is “unaffected” by interest rate changes.
AADITYA JAIN
THE BEST SFM FACULTY OF INDIA
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AADITYA JAIN
THE BEST SFM FACULTY OF INDIA