Politics Chapter 12: Governments, Systems and Regimes

Key Terms

Political System: A network of relationships which government generates outputs

(policies) in response to input (demands or support) from general public.

Coup d’etat: (French) Sudden and forcible seizure of government power through
illegal and unconstitutional action.

Government Gridlock: Paralysis resulting from institutional rivalry within

government or attempt to respond to conflicting public demands

Ethnocentrism: Application of values and theories drawn from ones own culture to
other groups and peoples- implies bias or distortion.

Demagogue: Political leader whose control over the masses based on ability to whip
up hysterical enthusiasm

Republicanism: Principle that political authority stems ultimately from consent of

the people- the rejection of monarchial and dynastic principles

GDP: Total financial value of final goods/services produced in economy over 1 year.

Liberalization: Introduction of internal and external checks on government power

and/or shifts towards private enterprise/market.

Westminster Model: System government- executive drawn from and (in theory)
accountable to the assembly or parliament.

Consociational Democracy: Operates through power-sharing and close association

amongst a number of parties/ political formations.

Exceptionalism: Features of political system that are unique or particular to it and

restrict the application of broader categories.

Transition Countries: Former Soviet Bloc countries that are in the process of
transition from central planning to market capitalism.

New Democracies: Regimes in which process of democratic consolidation is

incomplete- democracy is not yet the only game in town.

Asian Values: Values supposedly reflect history, culture, and religious backgrounds
of Asian societies- social harmony, respect for authority, and belief in the family.
Shari’a: Islamic law, believed to be based on divine revelation and derived from
Koran, the Hadith (Teachings of Muhammed) and other sources.

Junta: (Spanish) “A council”- usually military- clique that seizes power through a
revolution or coup d’etat.

Key Thinkers

Fukuyama: Book End of history and the last man- history of ideas had ended with
the recognition of liberal democracy as the final form of human government.

Key Concepts

Government: Ordered rule is maintained- ability to make collective decisions and

capacity to enforce them- formal institutional processes operate at the national level
maintain public order and facilitate collective action- core functions: make laws,
(legislation) implement law, (execution) and interpret law. (Adjudication)

Utopia: “nowhere” or “good place”- ideal/perfect society- most characterized by

abolition of want, absence of conflict, and avoidance of violence/oppression-
Utopianism- critique of existing order by constructing a model of an ideal or perfect
alternative.

Absolutism: Government absolute in the sense that it possesses unfettered power-

government cannot be constrained by a body external to itself- absolutist principle
to unlimited right to rule- divine right.

Totalitarianism: All encompassing system of political rule, typically established by

pervasive ideological manipulation/open terror- seeks to politicize every aspect of
social/personal existence- totalitarian regimes sometimes identified through a 6
point syndrome: 1) Official ideology 2) One-party state, usually led by an all
powerful leader 3) System of terroristic policing 4) Monopoly of means of mass
communication 5) Monopoly of means of armed combat 6) State control of all
aspects of economic life

Liberal Democracy: Liberal commitment to limited government blended with

democratic belief in popular rule- key features- 1) right of rule gained through
success in regular and competitive elections based on universal adult suffrage 2)
Constraints on government imposed by constitution, institutional checks and
balances, and protections for individual and minority rights 3) A vigorous civil
society including a private enterprise economy, independent trade unions and free
press- liberal democracy synonymous to pluralist democracy.

Democratization: Transition from authoritarianism to liberal democracy- three

processes- 1) Breaking down of old regime, usually involves loss of legitimacy and
the faltering loyalty of police and military 2) Construction of new liberal-democratic
structures/processes 3) Democratic consolidation sees these new structures and
processes becoming so embedded in minds of elites and masses that democracy
becomes the only game in town.

Polyarchy: “Rule by many”- institutions and political processes of modern

representative democracy- polyarchy force rulers to take account of publics wishes-
central features- 1) Government is based on election 2) Elections are free/fair 3)
Practically all adults have right to vote 4) Right to run for office is unrestricted 5)
Free expression and right to criticize and protest 6) Citizens have access to
alternative sources of information 7) Groups enjoy at least relative independence
from government.

The West: In general refers to cultural and philosophical inheritance of Europe as

exported through migration or colonialism- roots- Judeo Christian religion and
learning of classical Greece and Rome, shaped in modern period by ideas/values of
liberalism- In Cold war the West meant- USA dominated capitalist bloc, as opposed
to the USSR-dominated East.

Communism: Communal organization of social existence on basis of collective

ownership of property- Marxists- communism theoretical ideal with classlessness,
rational economic organization, and statelessness- Orthodox communism: 1)
Marxism-Leninism used as official ideology 2) Communist party had monopoly of
power based on its leading and guiding role of society 3) Economic life was
collectivized and organized through system central planning.

Authoritarianism: Belief in or practice of government from above- authority is

exercised regardless of popular consent- Authoritarianism differs from authority- as
authority rests on legitimacy and arises from below- Authoritarian regimes
emphasize authority over individual liberty- Authoritarianism associated with
monarchical absolutism, traditional dictatorships, and most forms military rule
seeks to exclude masses from politics rather than abolish civil society.

Confucianism: System of ethics formulate by Confucius- Book The Analects- twin

themes of human relations and cultivation of self- ren (humanity or love)- support
for traditional ideas and values- filial, piety, respect, loyalty and benevolence- Junzi
(virtuous person)- capacity for human development and potential for perfection
realized through education.

Theocracy: “Rule by God”- Religious authority should prevail over political

authority- regime government posts are filled on basis of persons position in
religious hierarchy- Theocratic rule is illiberal two senses 1) Violates public/private
divide, takes religious rules and precepts to be guiding principles of personal and
political conduct. 2) Invests political authority with potentially unlimited power b/c
as temporal power derived from spiritual wisdom, it cannot be based on popular
consent or properly constrained within constitutional framework.
Dictatorship: Absolute power vested in one individual- synonymous with autocracy-
dictators above the law and beyond constitutional constraints- characterized by
arbitrary and unchecked exercise of power.

Boxes

 Is liberal democracy default position for human societies?

Yes: 1) Mandate of history: Modernization liberal democratic
2) Transition Paradigm: Cracks appear dictatorial regime lost legitimacy,
regime itself collapses and new democratic system emerges in its place- once
democratic elections held, even if democratic imperfections persist a return
to dictatorship is unlikely.
3) Unrivalled Performance: Liberal democracy humanitarian, economic, and
political benefits- citizens widest sphere freedom- intrinsic relationship with
capitalist economic structures- stability and consensus through
open/pluralistic politic.
No: 1) Global context: From US-led West to Asia diminished USA’s
willingness/ability promote democracy elsewhere- tarnished US
political/economic model- China and Russia= very different models VS
liberal democracy.
2) Rise of illiberal democracy: Many transition countries left in grey area-
states have become managed or illiberal democracies- weak checks and
balances, political elites bend democratic politics towards own ends.
3) Discontents of liberal democracy: Tendency towards plutocracy-
capitalism ultimately incompatible with popular rule- trend towards
atomism, declining civil engagement, and trade-offs between personal
freedom and majority opinion.

 Turkey: Between East and West?

Republic of Turkey firmly rooted in secularism, islamist political parties
gaining strength since 1990’s. Abdhullah Gul president 2007- first openly
devout Muslim president in history of Modern Turkey
-Turkey political character shifting combination- polyarchic, military and
Islamic features
-Kemalism- modern Turkey constitutional republic committed to rule of law,
popular sovereignty, and separation politics and religion.
-Critics warn AKP plans overturn secular nature Turkish state, establishing
Iranian-style Islamic republic.
-Supporters AKP- constitutional form of Islamism different VS Iran where
moderate conservative politics based Islamic values balanced against
acceptance of Turkey’s secular democratic framework- rather choosing
between East/West, AKP tries establish Turkish identity part of both.
-4 times between 1960 and 1997 Turkey’s generals staged military coups-
last forced from office country’s first Islamist prime minister
 -Some see 1 million strong army great obstacle Turkey’s onward march
towards democracy and EU membership others see it as vital guarantee of
secular/open politics- obstacle preventing AKP moderate Islamism from
becoming revolutionary Islamism.
-Although AKP and Turkey’s generals relationship frayed- Gradual shift
power military to civilians, with military more accountable civilian courts,
possibility, Turkish army future, remain in barracks and out of politics.

Notes

Traditional Systems of Classification

Government refers to the institutional processes through which collective and

usually binding decisions are made- political system or regime: encompasses not
only the mechanisms of government and the institutions of state, also structures and
processes through which these interact with the larger society- political system- sub
system of larger social system- interrelationships relate to distribution of power,
wealth and resources in society. Regime: System of rule that endures despite fact
governments come/go- governments can be changed by elections- regimes can be
changed only by military intervention from without, or revolutionary upheaval from
within.

Why Classify Political Systems?

1) Essential aid to understanding of politics/government- understanding politics

derived through process of comparison- Tocqueville: Without comparisons to make,
the mind doesn’t know how to proceed.

2) Facilitate evaluation rather than analysis- descriptive understanding closely tied

up with normative judgments.

All systems classification have drawbacks: 1) Danger of simplification- regimes

similarities risk that differences that divide them will be ignored/disguised-
possible failure to see that a phenomenon may have different meanings in different
contexts- comparative analysis hampered by constant danger of ethnocentrism.

2) Value biases tend to intrude into classification process

3) Necessarily state-bound- treat individual countries as coherent or independent

entities in their own right- widely viewed as incomplete due to globalization.

Classical Typologies

Aristotle-Analysis of the 158 Greek city-states- governments categorized on basis of:

1) Who rules and 2) Who benefits from rule?
Aristotle 6 forms of Government: 1) Tyranny: 1 person, interests of ruler
2) Oligarchy: The few, interests of ruler
3) Democracy: The many, interests of ruler
4) Monarchy: 1 person, interests of all
5) Aristocracy: The few, interests of all
6) Polity: The many, interests of all

Tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy= perverted forms of rule- all govern in own
interests at expense of others- Monarchy, aristocracy, and polity preferred-
governed in interests of all- Tyranny= worst possible constitutions- reduced citizens
to slaves- Monarchy and aristocracy= impractical- based on God-like willingness
place good of community before rulers own interests- Polity (Rule by many,
interests of all) = most practicable of constitutions- criticized popular rule b/c
masses resent wealth of few and fall to easily under sway of a demagogue-
advocated mixed constitution, combining elements of democracy and aristocracy-
government in hands of middle classes.

Sovereignty: most high and perpetual power, a power that could alone guarantee
orderly rule

Bodin: Book The six bookes of a commonweale- absolutism most defensible

regimes, as it established a sovereign who makes law but is not bound by those
laws- vesting sovereignty in individual- indivisible- sovereignty expressed as single
voice that could claim final authority- Nevertheless, Bodin argued absolute
monarchs constrained by existence of higher law in form of God’s will/natural law.

Hobbes- Book Leviathan: Sovereignty= monopoly of coercive power- sovereign

entirely unconstrained

Locke- Book Two Treatises of Government: Sovereignty resided with the people-
advocated system of limited government provide protection for natural rights- life,
liberty and property

Montesquieu- Book The spirit of laws: Scientific study of human society- system of
checks and balances in the form of a separation of powers between executive,
legislative, and judicial institutions.

Traditional systems of classification displaced by growing emphasis on

constitutional and institutional features of political rule- built on Montesquieu’s
work- attention paid to relationships between various branches government-
monarchies were distinguished from republics, parliamentary government (fusing
legislative and executive branches- government formed by assembly elections)
distinguished from presidential government (Separation powers between legislative
and executive- separately elected- executive authority concentrated in hands of
president) and unitary systems distinguished from federal systems.
The Three Worlds Typology

Fascists encouraged view that world divided into 2 kinds of regimes: democratic
state and totalitarian states

Three-world approach: Political world could be divided into three distinct blocs:
1) Capitalist- first world 2) Communist- Second world 3) Developing- Third World

Industrialized western regimes were first in economic terms population enjoyed

highest levels of mass affluence- Communist regimes second as largely
industrialized and capable satisfying populations basic material needs- less
developed countries (Africa, Asia, and Latin America) third- economically
dependent and often suffered widespread poverty.

First world capitalist principles- desirability private enterprise, material incentives

and free market- Second world communist values- social equality, collective
endeavor and need for centralized planning

First world regimes- liberal-democratic politics based on competitive struggle for

power at election time- Second world regimes= one party states, dominated by
ruling communist parties- Third world regimes= authoritarian and governed by
traditional monarchs and dictators.

Since 1970’s system of classification difficult sustain- new patterns economic

development brought material affluence to parts of 3rd world- oil-rich states of
middle east- Contrast- poverty became deeply entrenched in part sub-Saharan
Africa- 1990’s constituted kind 4th world- advance of democratization in Asia, Latin
America and Africa- third world regimes no longer uniformly authoritarian- term
developing world seen as preferable.

Eastern European revolutions of 1989-91 led to collapse orthodox communist

regimes in USSR- unleashed process of political liberalization and market reform-
Fukuyama: Development led to end of history- ideological debate effectively ended
with worldwide triumph of Western Liberal democracy- Second and third world
regimes were collapsing as result of recognition that only capitalist first world
offered prospect of economic prosperity/political stability.

Regimes of The Modern World

Image of a world of liberal democracies- superiority of a specifically Western model

of development- USA- implied values such as individualism; rights and choice are
universally applicable.

Systems of classification prioritize different sets of criteria: Who rules? How is

compliance achieved? Is government power centralized or fragmented? How is
government power acquired and transferred? What is balance between state and
individual? What is level of material development? How is economic life organized?
How stable is a regime?

Constitutional –institutional approach influenced by classical typologies 19th and

early 20th centuries- differences between codified and uncodified constitutions,
parliamentary and presidential systems and federal and unitary systems

Structural-functionalist Approach developed out of systems theory- concerned with

how political systems work in practice and how they translate inputs into outputs

Three worlds approach= Economic-ideological- attention to a systems level of

material development and its broader ideological orientation- regimes
characterized not so much by particular political, economic, or cultural factors as by
the way these interlock in practice. (Political, economic, and cultural factors
interlock and overlap one another)- emphasizes degree to which formal political
and economic arrangements may operate differently depending on their cultural
context.

5 Regime Types in Modern World

Western Polyarchies: Broadly equivalent regimes categorized as liberal

democracies- although polyarchies evolved moves towards democratization and
liberalization, polyarchy is preferable to liberal democracy: 1) Liberal democracy
sometimes treated as a political ideal with broader normative implications
2) Use of polyarchy acknowledges that these regimes fall short of goal of democracy

Polyarchy first used describe system of rule by Dahl and Lindbolm- political regimes
2 features: 1) High tolerance of opposition that is sufficient at least to check the
arbitrary inclinations of government- guaranteed by competitive party system,
institutionally guaranteed and protected civil rights and healthy civil society

2) Opportunities for participating in politics should be sufficiently widespread to

guarantee reliable level of popular responsiveness- existence of regular and
competitive elections operating as a device where people can control and if
necessary displace rulers.

Lindolbm and Dahl- impact on polyarchies of disproportional power of major

corporations- deformed polyarchy.

Polyarchy- describe large and growing number of regimes throughout the world-
multiparty elections have polyarchal features- Western polyarchies representative
government, capitalist economic organization and cultural and ideological
orientation derived from western liberalism

Individualism- most distinctive of western values- stresses uniqueness each human-

society should be organized best meet needs/interests of individuals within it-
political culture western polyarchies influenced by liberal individualism- generates
sensitivity to individual rights- general perception choice and competition= healthy
tendency fear government and regard state as potential threat to liberty.

Lijphart: Distinguished majority democracies from consensus democracies-

majority democracies organized along parliamentary lines of Westminster model-
majoritarian tendencies associated with any or all following features: Single party
government, fusion powers between executive and assembly, assembly that’s either
unicameral or weakly bicameral, a two party system, single member plurality or
first past-the-post electoral system (Country divided into single member
constituencies equal size, voters select single candidate, candidate wins through a
plurality of votes-first past post rule- UK, US, Canada) unitary and centralized
government, and an uncodified constitution/ sovereign assembly.

VS: Other western polyarchies characterized by diffusion of power throughout

governmental and party systems- Belgium, Austria- consociational democracy-
appropriate to societies divided by deep religious, ideological, regional, cultural or
other differences

Consensual/pluralistic tendencies associated with: Coalition government, (rival

political actors brought together by recognizing cant achieve goals by working
separately/common threat-electoral: parties agree not compete against one
another- Legislative: support particular bill- Governing: cross party distribution
ministerial portfolios) a separation of powers between executive and assembly,
effective bicameral system, multiparty system, proportional representation, (%
seats= %votes) federalism or devolution, codified constitution and bill of rights

US exceptionalism linked absence feudal past- USA’s deeply individualist political

culture- USA most overtly religious Western regimes- Christian fundamentalism.

New Democracies: Transition countries/new democracies- lack developed

democratic political cultures- have to handle strains external forces globalization-
rapid internal change- vulnerability re-emergence armed forces politics- EX:
military coups Pakistan 1979, Thailand 2006

Problems post communist states in bring about democratization: 1) Need to deal

with consequences of communist rule- Ex: ramifications Stalinist totalitarianism

2) Process economic transition- shock therapy transition from central planning to

laissez-faire capitalism- unleashed deep insecurity- growth unemployment and
inflation- significantly increase social inequality

3) Weakness of state power- when state confronted by centrifugal forces effectively

suppressed during communist era
Since late 1990’s process democratization in many successor states to the USSR has
slowed down and been reversed leavening them in a grey zone between
dictatorship and liberal democracy.

East Asian Regimes: Widespread assumption modernization=Westernization-

implies that industrial capitalism is always accompanied by liberal democracy-
Interpretation fails take into account polyarchical institutions operate differently in
Asian context VS Western on- Ignored difference between cultures influenced by
Confucian ideas/values and those shaped by liberal individualism -> idea there are
specific set Asian Values that distinct from Western ones- although this notion less
attention since Asian financial crisis 1997-98.

East Asian regimes similar characteristics: 1) Orientated around economic goals

than around political ones- boost growth/deliver prosperity rather than enlarge
individual freedom in western sense liberty.

2) Broad support for strong government- powerful ruling parties tolerated- general
respect for state- low taxes relatively low public spending- little room for Western
model of welfare state- nevertheless- state as father figure should guide decisions of
private/public bodies- strategies national development

3) General disposition respect leaders b/c Confucian stress on loyalty, discipline and
duty- Western viewpoint invests East Asian regimes with authoritarianism

4) Emphasis placed on community and social cohesion- central role accorded to

family- Japanese call group think- tends restrict scope for assimilation of ideas such
as individualism and human rights understood in West.

Differentiation between East Asian Regimes: China, North Korea political/economic

terms unreconstituted communist regimes- monopolistic communist party still
dominates state- East Asian regimes becoming industrialized and increasingly
urbanized- Japan and tiger economies (Taiwan and Singapore) growth based
technological innovation- emphasis education/training, whereas China continues
rely on massive rural population provide cheap and plentiful labor.

Islamic Regimes: Islam complete way of life, defining correct moral, political and
economic behavior for individuals/nations alike- Way of Islam- teachings of Prophet
Muhammad revealed in Koran, regarded by all Muslims as revealed word of God,
and Sunna/Beaten path-traditionalist customs observed by a devout Moslim said to
be based on prophets own life- political Islam: theocracy political affairs structured
according to higher religious principles

Political Islam contrasting forms: Fundamentalist VS Pluralist

-Fundamentalist version Islam- Iran- mix theocracy and democracy-Popular elected
president- all legislation ratified by council of protection of constitution, ensures
conformity to Islamic principles- Shari’a law Iran- legal and moral code.
Muslims objected classification of any Islamic regime as fundamentalist as
perpetuates Western prejudice against exotic or repressive East.

Islam compatible with a political pluralism- Malaysia- form of guided democracy

operates as the dominance of the United Malays National Organization. (UMNO)

Military Regimes: Leading posts in the government are filled on basis of persons
position within military chain of command- opposition such as elected assemblies
and free press weakened or abolished.

1) The armed forces assume direct control of government- classical form= military
Junta- (Latin America) collective military government centered on a command
council of officers who represent the army, navy, and air force- Junta regimes
characterized by rivalry between services and between leading figures-
consequence being formal positions of power tend to change hands frequently

2) Military-backed personalized dictatorship- individual gains pre-eminence within

the Junta or regime- bolstered by a cult of personality- designed to create
charismatic authority

3) Loyalty of armed forces is decisive factor that uphold the regime- military leaders
content themselves pulling the strings behind the scenes- post 1945 Brazil- armed
forces recognized legitimacy regime strengthened maintenance distinction
political/military offices/personnel.

Circumstances military seize power: Military coups appear be associated 4 key

characteristics: 1) Link between incidence of military coups and economic
underdevelopment- developing world- prosperity appears be antidote military
intervention
2) Military is likely intervene in politics when senses legitimacy of existing
institutions/ruling elite challenged and when calculates intervention will be
successful.
3) Military intervention associated with degree, which values, goals and interests of
armed forces differ from those of broader regime- newly-independent developing
states- military- “save the nation”- seeing itself as a westernizing or modernizing
force confronting traditionalist, rural divided political elite
4) Military’s decision seize power also affected by international considerations.
Summary

 Government is any mechanism through which ordered rule is maintained, its

central feature being its ability to make collective decisions and enforce
them. A political system, or regime, however, encompasses not only the
mechanisms of government and institutions of the state, but also the
structures and processes through which these interact with the larger
society.
 The classification of political systems serves two purposes. First, it aids
understanding by making comparison possible, and helping to highlight
similarities and differences between otherwise shapeless collections of facts.
Second, it helps us to evaluate the effectiveness or success of different
political systems.
 Regimes have been classified on a variety of bases. 'Classical' typologies,
stemming from Aristotle, concentrated on constitutional arrangements and
institutional structures, while the 'three worlds' approach highlighted
material and ideological differences between the systems found in 'first
world' capitalist, 'second world' communist and 'third world' developing
states.
 The collapse of communism and advance of democratization has made it
much more difficult to identify the political contours of the modern world,
making conventional systems of classification redundant. It is, nevertheless,
still possible to distinguish between regimes on the basis of how their
political, economic and cultural characteristics interlock in practice, even
though all systems of classification are provisional.
 'End of history' theorists have proclaimed that history has ended, or is
destined to end, with the worldwide triumph of western liberal democracy.
Indeed, the most common form of regime in the modern world is now some
form of democracy. However, there is evidence that regime types have
become both more complex and more diverse. Significant differences can be
identified among western polyarchies, new democracies, East Asian regimes,
Islamic regimes and military regimes.
 Those who view democratization as an irresistible process usually argue that
once instigated democratic reform gains an internal momentum, deriving
from ways in which the holding of competitive elections alter public
expectations about the political process. Others, however, point out that
many transition countries have been left in perhaps a permanently grey area
between democracy and authoritarianism.

Questions
1) Aristotle definition democracy: Rule by many in their own interests
2) Why has 3 world classification of regimes largely being abandoned? Term 3rd
world widely resented as demeaning, new patterns economic development brought
material affluence to parts of the 3rd world, collapse orthodox communist regimes in
USSR and elsewhere
3) End of history ideas associated with: Francis Fukuyama
4) NOT a central feature of Polyarchy: Coalition Government (Consensus
Democracy)

Rationale: In a polyarchy: groups/associations enjoy relative independence from

government, elections are free and fair, and right to run for office is unrestricted

5) Characteristic East Asian Regimes: Priority boost growth and deliver prosperity,
rather than widen civil liberty