Global Vision International,

2010 Report Series No. 002

GVI Ecuador

Rainforest Conservation and Community

Development

Phase Report 102

Friday 2nd April – Friday 11th June 2010
 GVI Ecuador/Rainforest Conservation and Community Development
Expedition Report 102
`
Submitted in whole to
Global Vision International
Yachana Foundation
Museo Ecuatoriano de Ciencias Naturales (MECN)

Produced by
Chris Beirne – Field Manager
Oliver Burdekin – Field Staff
Simon Mitchell –Field Staff
Jennifer Sinasac – Field Staff
Kristina Spicer – Short-term Intern

and

Bianca Amato Scholar Jacqueline Le Roux Volunteer

Benny Mansfield Scholar Chris Morgan Volunteer
Kristie Callahan Intern Charlotte Mugarra D’Cruze Volunteer
Adam Goldberg Intern Heather Murray Volunteer
Laura Jones Intern Benjamin Opeka Volunteer
Joe Langridge Intern Sophie Pesquidous Volunteer
Thomas Smith Intern Anastasia Porteous Volunteer
Edwin Vaca Intern Anneka Sutton Volunteer
Rebecca Barnard Volunteer Sloan Sweigart Volunteer
Melissa Bobowski Volunteer Jose Grefa Pasante
Kyrie Burgoine Volunteer Bexi Jimenez Pasante
Melissa Gardiner Volunteer Jairo Cerda Pasante
Hugh Greasley Volunteer Cristian Falcones Pasante
Jonathan Hamer Volunteer

Edited by
Karina Berg – Country Director

GVI Ecuador/Rainforest Conservation and Community Development

Address: Casilla Postal 17-07-8832
Quito, Ecuador
Email: ecuador@gviworld.com
Web page: http://www.gvi.co.uk and http://www.gviusa.com
Executive Summary
This report documents the work of Global Vision International’s (GVI) Rainforest
Conservation and Community Development Expedition in Ecuador’s Amazon region and run
in partnership with the Yachana Foundation, based at the Yachana Reserve in the province
of Napo. During the second phase of 2010 from Friday 2nd April to Friday 11th June, GVI
has:

 Added 18 new species to the reserve list, all birds; Tiny Hawk (Accipiter superciliosus),
Pale-tailed Barbthroat (Threnetes leucurus), White-necked Jacobin (Florisuga mellivora),
Tawny-throated Leaftosser (Sclerurus mexicanus), Black-banded Woodcreeper
(Dendrocolaptes picumnus), Chestnut-winged Foliage-gleaner (Philydor erythropterum),
Plain Xenops (Xenops minutus), Bicoloured Antbird (Gymnopithys leucaspis), Pygmy
Antwren (Myrmotherula brachyura), Crowned Slaty Flycatcher (Griseotyrannus
aurantioatrocristatus), White-winged Becard (Pachyramphus polychopterus), Golden-
crowned Spadebill (Platyrinchus coronatus), White-thighed Swallow (Neochelidon
tibialis), Black-faced Dacnis (Dacnis lineata), White-vented Euphonia (Euphonia minuta),
Fulvous Shrike-tanager (Lanio fulvus), Masked Tanager (Tangara nigrocincta), Canada
Warbler (Wilsonia canadensis).

 Continued assesseing the effect of habitat change in understory bird communities.

 Continued to collect data on the effect of structural habitat change on the amphibian and
reptile communities, using pitfall trapping and visual encounter surveys.

 Continued with a project investigating the effects of disturbance from the road upon
butterfly communities.

 Continued to sample dung beetles within different habitats around the reserve.

 Continued with English lessons for local school children in Puerto Rico twice a week.

 Continued giving English classes at Puerto Salazar whenever possible.

 Welcomed four pasantes (work experience students) from the Yachana Technical High
School to join the expedition, in order to exchange language skills, knowledge and
experience.

 Visited Yasuní National Park and Sumak Allpa, an island reserve and school run by a
local conservationist.

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 Continued helping the local organisation Amanecer Campisino with their projects in the
local region.

 Participated in two mingas (community projects); one at Puerto Salazar and one at
Puerto Rico.
 Conducted a stream quality assessment comparing stream health on the reserve and
stream health in the nearest community, Puerto Salazar.

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Contents
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................6
1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................7
2 Avian Research ..........................................................................................................10
2.1 Avian Mistnetting....................................................................................10
2.2 Point Counts ..........................................................................................14
3 Mammal Incidentals ....................................................................................................20
4 Herpetological Research.............................................................................................20
4.1 The Effect of Structural Habitat Change on Herpetofaunal Communities20
5 Butterfly Research ......................................................................................................26
5.1 Assessment of Antropogenic Disturbance on Butterfly Communities .....26
6 Benthic Surveying .......................................................................................................31
7 Community Development Projects ..............................................................................35
7.1 Colegio Técnico Yachana (Yachana Technical High School) .................35
7.2 TEFL at Puerto Rico...............................................................................36
7.3 English Classes at Puerto Salazar .........................................................36
8 Future Expedition Aims ...............................................................................................37
9 References .................................................................................................................38
9.1 General References ...............................................................................38
9.2 Field Use References.............................................................................39
9.3 Avifuanal References .............................................................................40
9.4 Amphibian References ...........................................................................43
9.5 Butterfly References...............................................................................46
9.6 Benthic References ................................................................................46
10 Appendices .................................................................................................................48
10.1 GVI Species List ....................................................................................48
Class Aves ..............................................................................................................48
Class Mammalia ......................................................................................................53
Class Sauropsida ....................................................................................................54
Class Amphibia .......................................................................................................55
Class Arachnida ......................................................................................................56
Class Insecta...........................................................................................................56
10.2 Yachana Reserve Map .............................................................................................61
10.3 Complete Benthic Surveying Results .......................................................................62

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List of Figures

Figure 1.1 – Map showing GVI Amazon location in Ecuador

Figure 2.1.1 - Map showing the location of each mist netting site

Figure 2.1.2 - Summary data from Phase 102

Figure 2.1.3 - Summary data for the whole project to date

Figure 2.2.1 - The number of species recorded by each observer

Figure 2.2.2 - Perecentage congruence with staff member versus hours of training.

Figure 4.1.1 - Number of individuals found in pitfalls in Phase 102

Figure 4.1.2 - Number of individuals found on visual encounter surveys in Phase 102

Figure 4.1.3 - Number of individuals found in pitfall traps in total in the project so far

Figure 4.1.4 - Number of individuals found in total for visual encounter surveys in the project
so far

Figure 4.1.5 - Distrobution of species diversity at each pitfall trap

Figure 5.1.1 - The new standardised dot codes introduced in week six of Phase 101 and
used consistently through Phase 102

Figure 5.1.2 - Individual butterfly numbers as distributed in trap sites along the road, on the
trail and in the forest for Frontier and Columbia Trails

Figure 5.1.3 - Species diversity indicated by number of species collected at each of the
disturbance levels – road, trail and forest for Frontier and Columbia Trails during Phase 102

6
 1 Introduction
The Rainforest Conservation and Community Development Expedition operated by Global
Vision International (GVI) is located in the Yachana Reserve in the Napo province (0° 50'
45.47"S/ -77° 13' 43.65"W; 300-350m altitude), Amazonian region of Ecuador. The reserve
is legally-designated a Bosque Protector (Protected Forest) consisting of approximately
1000 hectares of predominantly primary lowland rainforest, as well as abandoned
plantations, grassland, riparian forest, regenerating forest and a road. The Yachana
Reserve is owned and managed by the Yachana Foundation. It is surrounded by large
areas of pasture land, small active cacao farms and currently un-mapped disturbed primary
forest. The road within the Yachana Reserve is a large stone and gravel based road which
dissects the primary forest to the north and the abandoned cacao plantations and grassland
areas to the south.

GVI Amazon
Rio Napo, Napo Province

Figure 1.1 Map showing GVI Amazon location in Ecuador

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The Yachana Foundation is dedicated to finding sustainable solutions to the problems facing
the Ecuadorian Amazon region. The foundation works with rainforest communities to
improve education, develop community-based medical care, establish sustainable
agricultural practices, provide environmentally sustainable economic alternatives, and
conserve the rainforest. The Yachana Reserve is the result of the foundation’s efforts to
purchase blocks of land for the purpose of conservation. The Yachana Foundation has a
long-term plan of sustainable management for the reserve according to International Union
for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) protected forest guidelines and guidelines laid out by
the Ministerio del Ambiente (Ecuadorian Ministry of the Environment). One of GVI’s main
roles at the reserve is to provide support where deemed necessary for the development of
the management plan. This includes reserve boundary determination, baseline biodiversity
assessments, visitor information support, and research centre development.

GVI also works closely with the Yachana Technical High School, a unique educational
facility for students from the surrounding region. The high school provides students with
meaningful education and practical experience in sustainable agriculture, animal husbandry,
conservation, eco-tourism, and small business operations. As part of their experiential
learning program, students use the Yachana Reserve and GVI’s presence as a valuable
educational tool. As part of their conservation curriculum, the students visit the reserve to
receive hands on training in some of GVI’s research methodology, as well as familiarization
with ecological systems. On a rotational basis, students spend time at the reserve where
they participate in the current research activities, and receive conversational English classes
from GVI volunteers.

GVI additionally conducts TEFL classes (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) at the
nearby village of Puerto Rico, twice a week. Classes are prepared the day before and last
for one hour. Groups of two or three volunteers conduct the classes, covering relevant topics
to the local school children. This allows GVI to integrate with the local community, whilst
giving volunteers the opportunity to experience firsthand involvement in community
development through teaching English. This is also currently laying the foundation to
introduce environmental education programmes to the Puerto Rico community in the future.

GVI also works with local research institutions. The Museo Ecuatoriano de Ciencias
Naturales, MECN, (Ecuadorian Museum for Natural Sciences) provides technical assistance
with field research and project development. The museum is a government research
institution which houses information and conducts research on the presence and distribution
of floral and faunal species throughout Ecuador. GVI obtains their investigation permit with
8
the support of MECN for the collection of specimens. The data and specimens collected by
GVI are being lodged with the MECN in order to make this information nationally and
internationally available, and to provide verification of the field data. MECN technicians are
continuously invited to the Yachana Reserve to conduct in-field training and education for
GVI and Yachana students, as well as explore research opportunities otherwise unavailable.

A major goal for GVI’s research is to shift focus from identifying species in the reserve to
collecting data for management concerns and publication. In collaboration with all local and
international partners, GVI focuses its research on answering ecological questions related to
conservation. With this in mind, several key goals have been identified:

 Cataloguing species diversity in the Yachana Reserve in relation to regional diversity.

 Conducting long-term biological and conservation based research projects.
 Monitoring of biological integrity within the Yachana Reserve and the immediate
surrounding area.
 Publication of research findings in primary scientific literature.
 Solicitation of visiting researchers and academic collaborators.
 Identification of regional or bio-geographic endemic species or sub-species.
 Identification of species that are included within IUCN or Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) appendices.
 Identification of keystone species important for ecosystem function.
 Identification of new species, sub-species, and range extensions.
 Identification of charismatic species that could add value in promoting the Yachana
Reserve to visitors.

In order to achieve the key goals, volunteers participate in five or ten weeks of each phase
and are trained by GVI personnel to conduct research on behalf of the local partners in
support of their ongoing work. This report summarises the scientific research and
community-based programmes conducted during the ten-week expedition from Friday 2nd
April to Friday 11th June 2010, at the Yachana Reserve.

9
 2 Avian Research

2.1 Avian Mistnetting

Introduction
As human populations grow, an understanding of anthropogenic change is essential to
understand the conservation of the natural world. Habitat loss is undoubtedly one of the
greatest threats facing tropical forest diversity (Hawes et al. 2008), with over half the
potential tropical closed-canopy forest, defined as tree crown coverage exceeding 60%,
having already been removed and put to other use (Wright 2005). However, there is hope.
Despite deforestation reaching alarming levels, 15% of the land deforested in the 1990s has
been reclaimed by natural secondary succession (Wright 2005). This large scale expansion
of secondary landscapes may have important implications for long-term conservation of
wildlife (Faria et al, 2007). The total coverage of non-native and native regeneration will
most probably rise further in the near future due to private investment in carbon-
sequestration projects in the tropics and increased interest in bio fuels and timber (Barlow et
al. 2006).

Several studies have optimistically concluded that this expansion of secondary forest will
offset the loss of worldwide biodiversity through destruction of primary habitat (Wright 2005;
Wright and Muller–Landau 2006). Stating that, the observed time lags between habitat
destruction and species extinctions are of sufficient length to allow secondary forest to
mature and regenerate into suitable habitat (Brooks et al; 2002). Dunn (2004) states that;
regenerating tropical secondary forests recover sufficiently in 20-40 years to recover faunal
species diversity, but support lesser tree diversities than old growth forests. Species
compositions of flora and fauna communities often differ between secondary and primary
habitats (Blake and Loiselle 2000). The value of regenerating secondary forest will be
context and species dependant. There is a growing consensus that there is currently a lack
of empirical evidence to support the theories that regenerating disturbed habitats will be
sufficient to conserve most forest species in the future (Gardner et al. 2007). Undoubtedly,
further research needs to be performed before the true value of secondary regenerating
forest can be unequivocally determined.

There is currently a lack of consensus between many studies examining the impacts of
habitat change on bird communities. Despite birds being the most studied and understood
taxa in the Neotropics, a recent review of literature found that, pre-2008; only 17 studies
examined the value of secondary forest for tropical birds (Barlow et al. 2006). The majority of
studies conducted to date have concluded that secondary forests can support equivalent or
10
high levels of species richness compared to primary or relatively undisturbed forest (Barlow
et al, 2006). Despite these encouraging results, there are a whole host of problems with the
existing studies which make a strong conclusion of the value of secondary forest for
Neotropical birds impossible to determine (Gardner et al. 2006). For example, several of the
studies attribute the high species richness to the close proximity of primary habitat, resulting
in primary species being transiently recorded in secondary habitat. Several studies also
lacked a good primary forest baseline with which to compare their results (Barlow et al.
2006). This aims to address the problems highlighted by Gardner et al (2007), to compare
understory bird communities in the disturbed secondary patches of the Yachana Reserve
with the relatively undisturbed patches.

Methods

Study Plots
Four net locations were established around the reserve; two in relatively disturbed areas,
two in relatively undisturbed areas (see Fig. 2.1.1). The net locations were no closer than
500m apart at their nearest point as Barlow and Peres (2004) concluded, based on
recaptures of marked individuals, that plots 500m apart were spatially independent. The net
locations are restricted to trails within the reserve, as the hilly topography makes establishing
nets in other locations impossible without destroying large areas of native vegetation. Plots
are random with respect to tree fall gaps, fruiting trees or other factors which may influence
capture rates.

Mistnetting
Understory mistnetting was used to examine the avifauna at each of the four sites within the
reserve. Each site was sampled for 69 to 70 hours between the 12th April 2010 and the 3rd
June 2010. Four 12 x 2.5m mist nets with 10-40m spacing (to allow for difficult topography)
were established at each site. All nets could be checked within a 10-15 minute periods.
Captured birds were then released away from the net locations from an established banding
station. Nets were opened between 6.30am and 11.10am for four successive days, allowing
extra hours or days to account for periods of persistent wind or heavy rain. Nets were
checked every 30 minutes. All captures were placed in a bird bag and returned to the
banding station where they were be identified to species, banded, weighed, measured and
sexed whenever possible. All birds were banded to identify recaptures, except
hummingbirds, which have extremely delicate legs.

11
Figure 2.1.1 Map showing the location of each mist netting site in Yachana Reserve

The pink dots represent the ‘less disturbed’ sites of Laguna and Frontier, whilst the green
dots represent the ‘more disturbed’ sites of Cascada and Ficus. The blue circles represent
required site separation outlined by Barlow and Perez (2004) to ensure the sites are
independent.

Vegetation Mapping
Around each mist-netting site six 100m transects were assessed. Each transect started
250m away from the mist-netting center point and ended 150m away from the center point
and were spaced evenly to avoid psuedoreplication. The transects were stratified and
placed randomly with regard to topography and habitat. Along each transect, five canopy
coverage estimations were made by two independent observers and the dominant type of
canopy was noted (Absent, Low, Middle and High). All Melostomatacae and Heliconidae
within five metres either side of the transect line were counted. All trees >30cm Diameter at
Breast Height (DBH) were measured within five metres either side of the transect line. The
presence or absence of trees of the genus Theobroma and coffee plants were also noted.

Results

Vegetation Profiling
On the basis of vegetation mapping results from Phases 094 (October-December 2009) and
101 (January-March 2010) Cascada and Ficus are classified as ‘more disturbed’ and Laguna
and Frontier are classified as ‘less disturbed’.

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Avifaunal Sampling
In Phase 102 (Fig. 2.1.2), 89 birds were captured in 279 hours of mist-netting between the
dates of 12th April 2010 and 3rd June 2010. Individuals caught at each site varied from
eleven individuals to 30. Each site was subjected to between 69 hours and 70 net hours of
sampling. The total number of individuals captured in the ‘more disturbed’ areas was 32,
whereas the total number of individuals captured in the ‘less disturbed’ areas was 57. The
number of species captured at the ‘less disturbed’ sites was also lower than the number
captured in the ‘more disturbed’ sites (see Fig.2.1.2). The understory birds caught at each of
the ‘more disturbed’ areas represented only ten different bird families, where as birds caught
at the ‘less disturbed’ areas each represented by eight and six different bird families.
Capture efficiencies, represented by number of individuals per mist net hour, where also
higher in the ‘less disturbed’ sites (0.24 and 0.22 indiv.h-1) in comparison to the ‘more
disturbed’ sites (0.19 and 0.12 indiv.h-1).

Figure 2.1.2 Summary data from Phase 102

Frontier Laguna Cascada Ficus Total
Net Hours 69.40 69.40 70.00 69.40 279.00
Number of Individuals 30 27 21 11 89
Individuals per net hour 0.43 0.39 0.30 0.16 0.32
Total Num. of species 17 15 13 8 29
Species per net hour 0.24 0.22 0.19 0.12 0.10
Total Num. of famillies 5 10 8 6 13
UID Birds 0 0 2 0 2
Recaptures 5 4 4 0 13

Figure 2.1.3 shows summary data for all of the mist netting sessions to date. All locations
have been subjected to between 200 and 207 hours of sampling. Frontier appears to be the
most diverse site, with 34 species recorded, followed by Laguna with 31. Cascada has
produced 24 species where as Ficus has recorded only 15. Frontier and Laguna have
recorded many more individuals than Cascada and Ficus too. In terms of families the ‘less
disturbed’ sites of Frontier and Laguna support 14, whereas the ‘more disturbed’ Cascada
and Ficus have recorded eleven and nine respectively.

Figure 2.1.3 Summary data for the whole project to date

Frontier Laguna Cascada Ficus Total
Net Hours 200.50 206.50 206.44 204.56 819.20
Number of Individuals 113 88 60 35 296
Individuals per net hour 0.56 0.43 0.29 0.17 0.36
Total Num. of species 34 31 24 15 57
Species per net hour 0.17 0.15 0.12 0.07 0.13
Total Num. of famillies 14 14 11 9 22

13
Discussion

Understory Mist-netting
Several differences between the ‘less disturbed’ and ‘more disturbed’ sites have been
observed. These include; the number of species caught, the number of individuals caught,
the number of families represented and the percentage of individuals from a given family
caught at each site. However, the current sample size of 296 birds is prohibitive of any
statistically relevant analysis. The differences observed could be due to, but not limited to,
genuine differences in understory bird community richness and structure in each area,
seasonal variations in bird foraging patterns, different weather conditions, or simply a
function of the low number of birds in the data set. The only way to begin to address these
potential factors is to increase the size of data set through repeated sampling at each study
site until enough data is obtained. Until that point, any conclusions will simply be
speculation.

Looking at the summary data from the project as a whole, it would appear that the quality of
sites is currently as follows: Frontier>Laguna>Cascada>Ficus. When related to the current
vegetation mapping classifications of each site, the data suggests that ‘less disturbed’ sites
are able to support more individual, more species and more bird families than ‘more
disturbed’ sites. Again, this is currently just a suggestion. More data is needed before firm
statistically significant conclusions can be made.

Future Work

Both the understory mist-netting and vegetation mapping will be continued in their current
forms as they appear to be functioning effectively.

2.2 Point Counts

Introduction
Biodiversity Loss from Tropical Forest Destruction and Degradation
Habitat change has been highlighted as one of the most important factors driving global
biodiversity loss and is predicted to be the key factor in the loss of terrestrial biodiversity in
the coming years (Sala et al, 2000; Tilman et al, 2001). The largest components of this
habitat change in terrestrial ecosystems have been the destruction and degradation of
tropical forests (Wilson & Peter, 1998).

A complicating factor in assessing the scale of the problem is that there is a current lack of
consensus on the extent to which large areas of regenerating and planted forests will be
able to offset biodiversity loss from destruction of primary forest areas (Barlow et al, 2007;
14
Daily, 2001; Lindenmayer and Hobbs, 2004; Wright and Muller-Landau, 2006; Brook et al.,
2006; Gardner et al., in press). Some authors have argued that degraded and abandoned
lands in deforested landscapes are of high importance for the future conservation of tropical
forest wildlife (Daily, 2001; Lindenmayer and Franklin, 2002; Wright and Muller-Landau,
2006), whilst others have speculated that this may be over-optimistic given the current lack
of knowledge the biodiversity value of secondary forests, (Brook et al., 2006; Gardner et al.
in press).

Avian biodiversity in particular has been strongly affected by anthropogenic change in land-
use (E.g Sodhi et al, 2004), with the world carrying capacity of overall numbers of individuals
also thought to have been greatly reduced due to agriculture-driven changes (Gaston et al
2002). As many as 85% of the threatened bird species are at risk as a result of habitat loss
and degradation (Birdlife International, 2000), with the majority of these in tropical
ecosystems. Therefore, assessing the avian communities of the Yachana Reserve along a
disturbance gradient should provide an insight into the relative avian biodiversity values of
forest suffering varying levels of disturbance. Since land-use change is also known to affect
many other taxa, findings could also be particularly pertinent if coupled with those from
similar projects which have been undertaken on other taxa (reptiles, amphibian and dung
beetle assemblages across disturbance gradients are also being investigated on the
Yachana Reserve). As a well studied taxonomic group, birds have also been shown in
several cases to work as surrogates for assessing overall biodiversity loss (E.g Garson et al,
2002; Rodrigues and Brooks, 2007; Stotz, et. al., 1996; Kati et al, 2003).

Possible Methodologies for Assessing Avian Assemblages

Several survey methods are available for surveying avian communities, each with unique
limitations and advantages. A mist-netting methodology was initiated on the Yachana
Reserve in the latter part of 2009 aimed at elucidating the difference in the avian
communities between disturbed secondary relatively undisturbed patches primary forest
patches. Mist-netting has the advantage of capturing cryptic, secretive and otherwise
difficult to identify species and allowing the marking and recapturing of individuals
(Sutherland, 1996). However, mist-netting has limitations in that it requires a large amount
of time investment in order to produce sufficient data - only a sub-section of the avian
community (undergrowth and sub-canopy species) are recorded (Sutherland, 1996). It was
therefore considered that it would be worthwhile to conduct a point count methodology as
well as mist-netting work.

15
A point count methodology has the advantage that it detects higher proportions of the
species present than normally recorded via mist-netting (Blake & Loiselle, 2001). However,
point counts also have several potential limitations and are prone to a variety of biases.
Observer differences (Sauer et al. 1994, Kendall et al. 1996), habitat structure (Diehl 1981,
McShea and Rappole 1997), meteorological conditions (Mayfield 1981, Robbins 1981),
background noise (Simons et al. 2007), time of year (Best 1981, Skirvin 1981) and time of
day, (Robbins 1981, Skirvin 1981) are all factors known to affect detection probability.
Individual species which sing frequently are also far more likely to be detected than those
which sing infrequently, (E.g Farnsworth et al, 2002).

A plethora of literature exists detailing models and methodologies to mitigate biases in

detection rates, (E.g Nichols et al, 2000; Farnsworth et al., 2002; Royle & Nichols, 2003;
Alledrege et al., 2007; Rosenstock et al., 2002). However, many of these deal with the
influence of detection bias on population estimates rather than assessments of the number
of different species present, where a solution to the problem is to invest a large number of
observer hours. By plotting the cumulative number of species against sampling effort and
then determining the effort required for species accumulation curves to reach an asymptote
most bias in detection rates is accounted for, (e.g., Scott and Ramsey 1981; Shui & Lee,
2003).

Using Untrained Volunteers to Undertake Avian Point Counts

Although some studies have demonstrated the capacity of untrained volunteers (rather than
experienced observers) to undertake biological surveys, little has been attempted on avian
point counts in tropical forests. Some biological studies have shown training reduces
observer variability in visual-based assessments on habitat assessment (Hannaford et al,
1996) and that individuals improve at perceiving biological motion with practice (Grossman,
2004). It has also been shown that whilst only modest amounts of training are needed to
remove false-positive results, biases of false-negatives are only removed with much greater
observer experience (Tyre et al., 2003).

Recent years have seen a large increase in the number of people undertaking volunteering
work in the developing world, as an alternative to study or employment and conservation-
based projects are among the most popular (Year Out Group, 2010). Therefore determining
the capacity of these volunteers to undertake a point count methodology would have wider
applications which are expected to continue to expanding. It is hoped that by applying the
correct model to the data collected and teaching volunteers to a high enough level, a viable
analysis of the differing avian assemblages can also be conducted.
16
Methods

The Yachana Reserve (Bosque Protector) is located in the Napo Province, Ecuador, at
approximately 300m elevation. It is situated in an agricultural and extractive forest matrix.
The local topography is somewhat more undulating than neighbouring areas which may
have been one of the factors which preserved much of the areas of primary forest prior to its
attaining protected status. The presence of both primary and secondary-type forest within a
relatively small area provides an opportunity to explore the comparative biodiversity values
of primary and secondary forest at a small spatial scale. Though a single site analysis may
not be useful to highlight overall trends, the value of each forest type within large mixed
forest fragments has not been well-studied.

Twelve point count locations were distributed across forest of varying levels of disturbance.
Six were located in each primary-type relatively undisturbed and secondary-type disturbed.
The existing trail network was used to for point count locations, since for counts of infinite
radius (which normally record birds from 75m away or more), the influence of the forest
disturbance of trails is very minimal. Point count sites were located every 200m along a
survey transect following similar methodologies (E.g. Lees & Peres, 2006; Edwards et al.,
2010). This distance allowed for spatial independence of sites and minimised pseudo-
replication of individual birds.
At each site staff members and volunteers conducted a daily point count. These began at
around 0600 with each count lasting 15 minutes. During this period observers attempted to
identify all the species they could see or hear in the area independently. A complete set of
twelve point counts was deemed too many to be feasible in a single morning (since bird
song had dropped to virtually nothing by as early as 10am on some mornings). Each
volunteer conducted six sets of counts, on as many occasions as possible, in order to try
and generate a statistically significant and independent set of counts for each individual.
The starting point for each set of point counts was rotated every day as was the order of
points undertaken.

Results

Collected results took a significant amount of time to fully summarise. Therefore all that is
presented here are the results for increasing detection rates of six volunteers. In due course
it is expected that a full summary and analysis of results will be presented including the
results of all volunteers and investigating the differences in the avian communities in primary
and secondary forest.

17
 Figure 2.2.1 shows that on an observer’s first survey they show between 0.26-0.45%
congruence with the fully trained staff observer. By the fourth survey congruence was
between 0.31-0.93%, this suggests a degree of improvement with increasing hours training.
The degree of improvement is shown visually on Figure 2.2.2.

Fig. 2.2.2 shows the percentage of congruence with staff member versus hours of training
the observer received up to that point. This graph shows the information contained in the
previous table as a scatter graph. The mean number of species recorded by each observer
(expressed as a percentage of the mean number of species recorded by staff on the same
survey), is plotted against the number of cumulative hours training received by each

Figure 2.2.1 The Number of Species Recorded by Each Observer

Survey 1 Survey 2 Survey 3 Survey 4 Survey 5 Survey 6
Adam Goldberg (AG) Mean
Number of Species per Point 2.25 2.75 2.33 4.33 4.83
AG Percentage of Staff Mean
Recorded 0.45 0.57 0.64 0.93 0.88
Chris Morgan (CM) Mean
Number of Species per Point 2.16 2.5 2 2.83 3.6 3.83
CM Percentage of Staff Mean
Recorded 0.38 0.54 0.5 0.77 0.78 0.61
Kristina Spicer (KS) Mean
Number of Species per Point 3 2.66 3 2.5
KS Percentage of Staff Mean
Recorded 0.13 0.20 0.17 0.31
Edwin Vaca (EV) Mean
Number of Species per Point 1.5 1 1.5 1.5
EV Percentage of Staff Mean
Recorded 0.26 0.25 0.38 0.41
Anastasia Porteous (AP) Mean
Number of Species per Point 3 2 2.66 1.6
AP Percentage of Staff Mean
Recorded 0.46 0.5 0.67 1
Rebecca Barnard (RB) Mean
Number of Species per Point 2.66 1.66 4.5 4.16
RB Percentage of Staff Mean
Recorded 0.41 0.42 0.97 0.76

18
Fig. 2.2.2 The percentage of congruence with staff member versus hours of training the
observer received up to that point

1.2

Adam Goldberg
1
Chris Morgan
Kristina Spicer
0.8
Edwin Vaca

0.6 Anastasia Porteous

Rebecca Barnard
0.4 Linear (Adam Goldberg)
Linear (Chris Morgan)
0.2
Linear (Kristina Spicer)
Linear (Edwin Vaca)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 Linear (Anastasia Porteous)

Discussion

Of the six observers whose results were analysed (those who went out on the most
occasions were chosen), five of these showed a distinct positive correlation between number
of hours training and increased species detection rates (See Fig.2.2.2). Only one of this six
did not reflect this trend and showed a weak negative correlation or no correlation at all
(Kristina Spicer).

The trend found was not analysed for statistical significance. However, it was expected that
a full analysis of a greater amount of data from the project would be likely to show at
statistically significant correlation between hours training and species detection rates. It was
noted that volunteers, even after several hours training, were normally unable to record
much more than eighty percent of the detection rates recorded by staff. It was suspected
that for secondary forest a very high percentage of all the different species detected were
learned by volunteers, but that this was not necessarily reflecting primary forest results,
where the greater diversity of species meant that a smaller proportion of the calls were
recognised.

These initial results seem likely to be statistically significant which is very promising and
suggest that the current methodological is setup correctly in order to produce usable results
for a wider study. Therefore the project will continue to run under the same methodology as

19
it did for the previous phase and it is anticipated that additional results will yield more robust
results of which a full discussion can take place.

3 Mammal Incidentals

Introduction

GVI continues to document mammal species activity in the reserve predominately through
incidental mammal and track sightings. This is confined to incidental recordings due to the
low occurrence of conspicuous diurnal mammals. Excessive mammal surveying has proved
to not be sufficiently productive.

Methods

All mammal species encountered outside of specific mammal surveys were recorded.
Incidental sightings can take place during any of the other survey or project work within the
reserve, or during long walks into the forest. At the occurence of each incidence, the time,
location, date, species, and any other key characteristics or notes are taken and later
entered into a database in camp.

Sightings

During this phase various mammal species were recorded incidentally, whilst groups were
participating in other survey work or walks in the forest. Incidental sightings included
encounters with the Amazon Red Squirrel (Sciurus sp.), Black Agouti (Dasyprocta
fuliginosa), Black-mantled Tamarins (Saguinus nigricollis), Coatis (Nasua nasua), Kinkajou
(Potos flavus), Night Monkeys (Aotus sp.), Common Opossum (Didelphis marsupialis),
Water Opossum (Chironectes minimus) and Water Rat (Nectomys squamipes), Paca (Agouti
paca). Also recorded were various unidentified small rodents found in the amphibian pitfall
traps.

4 Herpetological Research

4.1 The Effect of Structural Habitat Change on Herpetofaunal Communities

Introduction
One of the key drivers of worldwide species loss is habitat change; defined as habitat
deforestation, fragmentation and deterioration (Urbina-Cardona, 2008). The rapid rate of
forest conversion in the Neotropics has been offset by large-scale expansion of secondary
forest, plantation and pastureland (Wright SJ, 2005; Gardner et al. 2007b). Despite the
increasingly dominant role of these degraded habitats in the tropical landscape, there is little
consensus within the scientific community about the extent of its conservation value
20
(Gardner et al. 2007c, Lo-Man-Hung1, et al. 2008). Wright & Muller-Landau (2006) predict
that the future loss of primary forest will be offset by regenerating secondary forest and
consequently suggest that the predicted loss of species due to habitat change may be
premature. However, there is currently a lack of empirical evidence to support the theory
that regenerating forests can fully support native forest species (Gardner 2007c).

Two recent multiple taxa assessments, conducted on the cubraca cacao plantations of
Bahia, Brazil (Pardini et al. IN PRESS) and eucalyptus plantations of the Jari forestry project,
Brazil (Barlow et al. 2007), found that responses to structural habitat change were taxon
specific. Barlow et al. (2007) found that four of the fifteen taxa analysed (trees and lianas,
birds, fruit feeding butterflies, and leaf litter amphibians) were found to decrease in species
richness with increasing habitat disturbance. However, five taxa (large mammals, epigiec
arachnids, lizards, dung beetles and bats) exhibit idiosyncratic responses to habitat change
(Barlow et al. 2007). Both studies concluded that responses to structural habitat change will
be species specific, not simply taxon specific. Analysis of a generalised taxon response is
likely to hide a higher level of species specific disturbance responses which are important
when designing conservation strategies (Barlow et al 2007; Pardini et al. 2009). These
studies highlight the importance of performing multiple taxa assessments that are species
specific relating to the conservation value of secondary and plantation forests.

Problem Statement

The Neotropics are estimated to contain nearly 50% of the worlds amphibians (IUCN, 2007)
and 32% of the worlds reptiles (Young et al. 2004), this equates to over 3000 species of
each taxon. Within the continental Neotropics, the 17 countries in Central and South
America, there are 1685 species of amphibian and 296 species of reptiles considered
endangered. Amphibians and reptiles are considered to be the most threatened groups of
terrestrial vertebrates (J. Gardner 2007b). There have been many factors implicated in
threatening populations of amphibians and reptiles, including habitat loss and change, the
virulent Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis pathogen, climate change (Whitfield et al. 2007),
ultraviolet-B radiation (Broomhall et al. 2000), and agrochemical contaminants (Bridges et al.
2000).

Current State of Amphibian and Reptile Research

Amphibians and reptiles are important primary, mid-level and top consumers in Neotropical
ecosystems; therefore, it is important to understand the responses of these organisms to
structural habitat change (Bell et al. 2006). Despite its apparent severity, the amount of
research time given to studying the impacts of habitat change on amphibian and reptile
21
populations is relatively low. This is especially true in the Neotropics which, despite an
estimated 89% of threatened species being affected by habitat loss, has only been the
subject of 10% of the world’s herpetological studies (Gardner et al 2007a). There is a
general consensus amongst herpetologists that the effect of structural habitat change on
determining amphibian and reptiles and distributions is limited (Pearman, 1997;
Krishnamurthy, 2003; Urbina-Cardona, 2006; Gardner et al, 2007b).

A recent global scale review of the state of amphibian and reptile research regarding
structural habitat change highlighted several serious deficiencies: i) There is currently a
strong study bias away from the Neotropics towards North America and Australia. ii)
Published studies report contradictory responses of amphibian and reptile populations to
habitat change. iii) There are several common limitations in study methodology and analysis
(Gardner et al. 2007a).

Aims of the Research

 Assess the ability of secondary forest (abandoned cacao plantation) to preserve
leaflitter herpetofaunal richness, distribution and abundance in comparison to primary
forest habitat.
 Understand the effects of structural habitat change within the Neotropics.
 Identify the responses of different herpetofaunal groups/species to structural habitat
change.

Methods

In Phase 102, pitfall data was collected for 10 days (16th April to 25th April) and 15 visual
encounter surveys were conducted from 15th April to 1st June.

Nocturnal Visual Encounter Surveys

Twelve 75m transects in both the primary and secondary locations were established. Care
was taken to space transects sufficiently to avoid psuedoreplication. Transects were marked
with coloured transect tape to avoid unnecessary habitat modification. Where possible, the
transects were located at least 10m from streams and 100m from forest edges to avoid
biases resulting from increases in species richness and abundance, which could result in
confusion about the true effect of structural habitat change on amphibian and reptile
diversity.

Visual encounter surveys have been shown to be one of the most effective methods for
sampling tropical herpetofaunas (Bell et al, 2006). They have been repeatedly shown to
22
yield greater numbers of individuals per effort than other sampling methods in recent
publications (Ernst and Rodel, 2004; Donnelly et al 2005) and GVI’s own preliminary
investigations. Each transect was searched by six observers (strip width = 6m, duration = 1h
30m).

Pitfall Trapping

Twelve pitfall arrays were also established in both primary and secondary forest. Each array
consists of four 25L buckets with 8m long by 50cm high plastic drift fence connecting them in
linear shaped design. When open, the pitfalls were checked once a day.

Particular care was taken to ensure that sampling effort is equal for both primary and
secondary habitats. This ensures maximum comparability in the resultant data sets.

Any amphibians or reptiles encountered through either method were identified in the field
using available literature and released. Any individual which could not be identified was
taken back to the GVI base camp for further analysis. A small proportion of the captured
individuals, including those that could not be identified, were anaesthetised with Lidocaine
and fixed with 10% formalin. All preseserved specimens are stored at the Museo
Ecuatoriano de Ciencias Naturales (MECN).

Surveying primary rainforest habitat is a privileged opportunity; however there is the potential
to negatively affect the ecosystem by passing infections between sites and species. Good
practices are strictly adhered to so as to ensure transmissions are not possible. This is
achieved by systematic cleaning of tools, equipment, and sterile bags are changed when
handling different individuals. Under no circumstances did amphibians or reptiles come in
contact with exposed human skin tissue.

Results
Species Encountered in 101
During this phase, 284 identified reptile and amphibian individuals were encountered,
comprising 19 species of amphibian and 16 species of reptile.

23
Pitfalls in Phase 102
Figure 4.1.1 Number of individuals found in pitfalls in Phase 102
Amphibians and reptiles Amphibians Reptiles

Total 51 38 13

Visual Encounter Surveys in Phase 102

Figure 4.1.2 Number of individuals found on visual encounter surveys in Phase 102
Amphibians and reptiles Amphibians Reptiles

Total 136 122 14

(approx 1350 mins survey time with
5/6 searchers)

Species Encountered Overall in the Project So Far:

During the whole project to date, 1666 identified reptile and amphibian individuals have been
encountered.

Pitfalls

Figure 4.1.3 Number of individuals found in pitfall traps in total in the project so far
Amphibians and Amphibians Reptiles
reptiles
Total 762 627 135

Visual Encounter Surveys

Figure 4.1.4 Number of individuals found in total for visual encounter surveys in the project
so far
Amphibians and Amphibians Reptiles
reptiles
Total 914 841 73
(approx 7110 mins survey
time with 5/6 searchers)

24
Figure 4.1.5 Distribution of species diversity at each pitfall trap

Pitfall species diversity was projected onto a map of the Yachana Reserve. The projection
shows clearly that there appears to be higher species diversity at the less disturbed ‘primary’
sites as opposed to the ‘secondary’ sites.

Discussion

The amphibian and reptile work continues to provide a wealth of species which are
continuing to show that some species are more prevalent than others and there are certainly
some differences in the numbers and types of species found within different areas of the
reserve. The amphibians Ameerga bilinguis, Pristimantis kichwarum, Pristimantis
lanthanites, Bolitoglossa peruvianus (Dwarf-climbing Salamander) and the lizard Lepsoma
parietale are still found in greater numbers than other species at various habitat types
around the reserve. The diversity projection (Fig. 4.1.5) appears to work well, in future
reports this will be expand to inclued all trapping techniques and surveys.

Data collection is now complete. The sites have been surveyed for one full year. In
following phases work will continue with new pitfall sites and visual encounter survey
transects. As a continuation of this project, the new sites will include riparian habitats in
addition to disturbed and less disturbed habitats.

As data collection is now complete further analysis can begin. This may involve multivariate
analysis such as principal component analysis in addition to decision tree analysis that may

25
be applied to the development of a model used to determine the types of amphibians and
reptiles found in specific habitat types.

5 Butterfly Research

5.1 Assessment of Antropogenic Disturbance on Butterfly Communities

Introduction
Butterflies are widely regarded as important ecological indicators due to dependence of the
larval stage on a specific host plant, combined with adult pollinating roles (Ehrlich and
Raven, 1965). Herbivorous species are considered to indicate the diversity and health of
their habitats as they may closely reflect patterns of diversity in, as well as disturbances to,
plant species (DeVries and Walla, 1999; Sparrow et al. 1993). Due to this, they may be
used to predict patterns in other taxonomic groups.

Road systems sharply define and fragment forest ecosystems, resulting in changes to plant
species composition and structure from road edges to the surrounding interior (Bennett,
1991). The presence of roads and trails opens up the forest canopy, creating light gaps,
modifying plant communities and resources available for other species. Butterfly
communities have been shown to be sensitive to environmental variables, such as sunlight,
gaps and edges (Ramos, 2000). Sparrow et al. (1994) found 74% more butterfly species
along a road transect than in undisturbed forest.

The Yachana Reserve comprises approximately 1000 hectares of predominantly primary

lowland rainforest in addition to a matrix of abandoned plantations, grassland, riparian and
regenerating forest. A road 15m wide runs through the middle of the reserve, connecting it
to the surrounding agricultural landscape. In addition to this, there are a number of trails on
either side of the road which are walked regularly by individuals and groups of up to eight
volunteers. This presents an excellent opportunity to investigate the effects of disturbance
from the road, in addition to making paired comparisons between disturbed trails and nearby
undisturbed forest transects. Sparrow et al. (1994) recommend including both disturbed and
undisturbed habitat types in monitoring programs investigating butterfly community variation.

Methods

Data collection continued on the established series of 200m transects on the Columbia and
Frontier Trails. The same sampling sites located every 50m continued to be monitored. The
Columbia and Frontier Trails run roughly perpendicular to the road and receive heavy usage
from GVI volunteers, Yachana tourtists and locals. Each sampling site was paired with an
26
undisturbed site located 75m perpendicular to the trail in the forest to assess the impact of
the trails on fruit-feeding nymphalid butterfly communities. Trap sites 1-10 were located on
Frontier while traps 11-20 were on Columbia. Trap sites 1, 12, 11 and 12 were located
alongside the well-used road in proximity to the two trails. The remaining odd-numbered
traps were on the trails while the even-numbered traps were in the forest.

As in the previous phases of the study, two baited traps were suspended at each trap site
approximately 5 metres apart with the base hanging approximately 1.5 meters above the
ground at each sampling site. The traps were baited with mashed, fermented bananas, was
prepared following the methods of DeVries and Walla (1999). New bait was added to the
traps every three days of sampling. Traps were checked daily in the afternoon and
maintained for 14 consecutive days for two sampling periods, 13th-26th April and 19th May-1st
June 2010 for a total of 28 days of sampling.

Captured butterflies were identified to species in the field by GVI volunteers and staff. When
identification in the field was not possible, photos of the specimen where taken for further
study. During previous phases of study butterflies had been marked on the hindwing with
non-toxic permanent marker and replaced in the traps in order to measure escape rates.

Although marking in order to measure recapture rates has continued since the initiation of
the project, the dot codes used to refer to different traps have been inconsistent, rendering a
long period of recapture data unusable. A standardized dot-code was developed in the latter
half of Phase 101, and was continuously used through Phase 102 to effectively mark
butterflies (Fig.5.1.1). Since Nymphalidae and other detritivorous families can have a life
span of three to six months (Florida Museum Of Natural History, 2010; Turner 1971)
recapture data should be considered unsafe for the next phase and carefully monitored until
no further discrepancies from the new dot codes are noted.

27
Figure 5.1.1 The new standardised dot codes introduced in week six of phase 101 and used
consistently through Phase 102.

It is worth noting that although specific, dot-code data is unreliable unless all butterflies
caught continued to be marked before release. However, butterflies are not marked if they
are too small (ie. smaller than Tigridia acesta), or their wings show dramatic effects of wear
(ie. if there are pieces of wing missing) to prevent further damage to the wings. Despite this,
it will still be possible to differentiate between recaptures and newly-caught individuals and
hence avoid any pseudo-replication.

Light levels, relative humidity and temperature were assessed at each sampling site.
However, this was inconsistent in Phase 102; a malfunctioning weather data collector only
allowed for three days in the early part of the phase for weather data to be collected.
Therefore, weather data pertaining to this survey is incomplete for this sampling set.

Since data collection to explore escape rates and the nymphalid-vegetation relationship had
both been undertaken at the outset of the project, it was not necessary to undertake further
vegetation mapping or escape experiments during Phase 102.

Results

Overall, 355 individual butterflies of 51 positively-identified species were trapped during two
14-day sampling periods from April–June 2010 (Figure 5.1.2). Of those, 23 individuals are
still pending identification. No new species were identified for the Yachana Reserve species
list, however those still awaiting identification may produce new reserve species.

28
There were no major differences in the number of individuals found at the three disturbance
levels; slightly fewer individuals (105) were collected at the road sites compared to the trail
and forest trap sites (Figure 5.1.2). Only slight variations were found otherwise and
individuals collected on the trail and forest sites for both Frontier and Columbia Trails were
comparable (Figure 5.1.2).

A preliminary analysis of species diversity by assessing the number of species shows that
there was no difference in the number of species collected in the road and trail disturbance
sites, both with 31 species found at each area over the 28 days sampling period (Figure
5.1.3). However, the preliminary species found at each site differed; Archaeoprepona
demophon (Charaxinae: Preponini), Opsiphanes invirae (Satyrinae: Brassolini) and Colobura
annulata (Nymphalinae: Nyphalini) were predominantly found at the highly-disturbed road
sites. Tigridia acesta (Nymphalinae: Nymphalini), Nessaea hewitsonii (Biblidinae: Epicaliini),
Colobura annulata (Nymphalinae: Nymphalini) and Nessaea obrina (Biblidinae: Epicaliini)
were predominantly found along semi-disturbed trail sites.

Figure 5.1.2 Individual butterfly numbers as distributed in trap sites along the road, on the
trail and in the forest for Frontier and Columbia Trails.

Frontier Columbia Total

Road 65 40 105

Trail 59 63 122

Forest 63 65 128

Total 187 168 355

Less-disturbed forest trap sites which encompassed more surrounding vegetation and higher
canopy cover demonstrated a higher species diversity overall with 38 species found
collectively at forest trap sites (Figure 5.1.3). Tigridia acesta (Nymphalinae: Nymphalini),
Nessaea hewitsonii (Biblidinae: Epicaliini), Archaeoprepona demophon (Charaxinae:
Preponini) and Caligo idomeneus (Satyrinae: Brassolini), were predominantly found at in
forest traps. Of those 38, 15 species (39%) were only found at forest sites, including Caligo
eurilochus (Satyrinae: Brassolini), Cithaerias aurora (Satyrinae: Haeterini) and Pyrrhogyra
otoldis (Biblidinae: Epiphilini).

29
Figure 5.1.3 Species diversity indicated by number of species collected at each of the
disturbance levels – road, trail and forest for Frontier and Columbia Trails during Phase 102.
Total number of species for the three disturbance levels are indicated in the final “Frontier
and Columbia” column.
Frontier Columbia Frontier and
Columbia

Road 23 19 31

Trail 17 26 31

Forest 27 24 38

Discussion

In phase 101, a total of 187 individuals were collected in the traps; 355 individuals in phase
102 accounts for a 53% increase in the number of individuals trapped in the same 28-day
sampling period. This increase can be a result of a number of factors. The seasonality of
lowland rainforest could affect the number of butterflies. During the months of April and May
2010, there was an increase in the amount of rain compared to the previous phase.
Seasonal effects in the feeding and reproductive cycles of butterflies can account for an
increase at various times of the year. However, this study will need to be continued for over
a year to gain the effects of annual trends in the butterflies feeding and breeding cycles.
This increase could also be an effect of the quality of the bait used; however, no deviations
were made in the process and fermentation times allotted for the preparation of the bait.

Species diversity was markedly higher at the forest trap sites than at the more disturbed trail
and road sites. A higher number of species at forest trap sites, including species found only
at forest sites and lacking at trail and road sites, indicates that a majority of Nymphalidae
butterflies prefer less-disturbed habitats. These sites have much less human traffic than the
other two types of sites; GVI staff and volunteers only enter these site areas when the
project is running, and for very short periods of time. Trail sites are used more heavily on a
regular basis by GVI personnel and locals, and the road is highly active by vehicle traffic.
This indicates that human activity could have a negative effect on the Nymphalidae butterfly
communities on the Yachana Reserve. A higher species diversity at the forest trap sites
could also be attributed to the preference of light levels that reach these sites, as canopy
cover is higher and less light reaches the forest floor, perhaps a preference among many
nymphalid species. This may affect the amount of natural food sources for these butterflies,
as well as plant diversity and host plants for many species, since plant diversity would be
assumed to be higher in the less-disturbed forest away from the trails and road.
30
This project will continue using the same methods as initially set out in the project proposal
(Brimble, 2009) next phase to acquire a larger sample size. A new, comprehensive
Nymphalidae butterfly identification plates have been developed for more accurate
identification on this project, ready for the upcoming Phase 103. Specimens and photos of
the unidentified species have been retained for future identification.

6 Benthic Surveying
The following is a pilot study into the potential use of BMWP score system for the
assessment of stream quality in the Yachana Reserve. The report was composed by a short
term intern, Kristina Spicer.

Introduction

The BMWP (Biological Monitoring Working Party) score system was developed in the UK as
a quick and easy method to assess water quality, using macroinvertebrates as bioindicators.
BMWP score system utilizes the fact that each macroinvertebrate family exhibits different
sensitivity to pollutant and their presence or absence defines level of water quality. Each
family is therefore assigned a sensitivity value ranging from 1, being the most tolerant to 10,
being most sensitive (Stein et.al. 2008). The family level identification makes the index more
practical and applicable through out the world (Cao et.al., 1997); therefore, it has been
successfully applied in many countries. Czerniawska-Kusza, (2005), investigating
macroinvertebrate communities in the lower Nysa Klodzka River catchment in Poland, found
strong potential for application of the BMWP system in Poland. Further, in the tropics Azrina
et.al. (2006) used BMWP index to assess the water quality of the Langat River in Peninsular
Malaysia.

In the tropics, the use of benthic macroinvertebrates for assessment of water quality is yet
not well established, due to the fact that knowledge of their ecology and distribution is still
incomplete (Stein et.al., 2008). However, the necessity for development of biomonitoring
has been recognized and consequently there has been increase in the research and
development of biological monitoring and potential use of BMWP score system in the tropics.

In the Dominican Republic, Soldner et.al. (2004) sampled macroinvertebrates within the
Yacque del Norte River catchment area to determine whether macroinvertebrate monitoring
techniques that are routinely used elsewhere could be successfully applied in the tropics.
They found that, since BMWP scores have been developed for British macroinvertebrates,
not all families found in the study had designated scores and therefore had to be excluded

31
from the statistical analysis. However, they concluded that this is unlikely to have biased the
analysis, as a consistent approach has been used to analyze all sites (Soldner et.al., 2004).
Furthermore in the Neotropics, BMWP index has been used and modified for Costa Rica.
Stein et.al. (2008) used such adapted BMWP-CR index while testing two different sampling
methods in order to determine water quality and possible anthropogenic influences on the
river Do Novillos. In Ecuador, this biological monitoring technique is still not widely applied
and there has not been attempt to adapt BMWP index to Ecuadorian macroinvertebrate
fauna.

In the Yachana Reserve, previously Escolar et.al. (2009) used EPT and Sensitivity Indices to
assess the water quality, though their results were contradictory. Therefore, the aims of this
study were:
 To determine whether BMWP index can be applied in the Yachana Reserve.
 To assess and compare water quality of primary rainforest stream and stream near
the villages.
 To give the account and comparison of diversity of macroinvertebrates in both
streams.
 To determine whether kick nets are more efficient and reliable than surber nets in
sampling benthic macroinvertebrates.

Methods

The study was conducted in Yachana Reserve and village of Puerto Rico. Two sites were
selected. The first site was within Stream 1 of the Yachana Reserve in primary forest. The
second site selected, Stream 2, was in close proximity of the community of Puerto Rico.
Stream 1 has been chosen on the assumption that it is of a good quality since there are no
anthropogenic disturbances, while Stream 2 is in close proximity of farmland and is
subjected to uncontrolled pesticide influx. The main criteria in selection of two sites were
safe and easy access, similar width, presence of riffles and 100 m distance from any road.

At each site three measurements of width of the stream were taken and flow velocity was
measured by timing a floating object over a 10m stretch of the river with the stop watch. For
the collection of the macroinvertebrates a hand held net was used. At each site four
samples were taken by employing kick sampling technique. One observer was disturbing
and kicking the substrate for three minutes, while the other was catching dislodged
invertebrates in a net held at a short distance downstream. The content of the net was then
emptied on the tray where another two observers were sorting and placing
macroinvertebrates in the killing jars with 70% ethanol.
32
The macroinvertebrates were sorted in four jars:
1. Coleoptera
2. Trichoptera
3. Ephemeroptera
4. Everything else
The two observers that were collecting samples moved 5, 10 and than 15m upstream, to
avoid biases from sampling disturbances, so that in total four samples were taken. Collected
specimens were taken to the base, where they were identified to family level using Carrera
and Fierro (2001) taxonomic key. Precipitation levels on the days of surveying were
recorded, then BMWP indices for all sites were calculated.

Results

Stream 1 in the primary forest was sampled on two occasions; on the 25th May 2010 and 26th
May 2010 and four samples were taken each day. In total 209 individuals belonging to 19
families were found. The most diverse order was Trichoptera, represented by four different
families, followed by Coleoptera and Ephemeroptera both represented by three families.
The most abundant order was Coleoptera (69 individuals), followed by Trichoptera (53) and
Ephemeroptera (42), (see Appendix 10.3).

Stream 2 was sampled on the 24th May 2010 and 27th May 2010, and four samples in total
were taken. 246 individuals, belonging to 17 families were found. The most diverse order
was Diptera, represented by four families, followed by Coleoptera (three families), and
Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Trichoptera and Oligochaeta, all represented by two families. The
most abundant order was Ephemeroptera (51), followed by Coleoptera (48 individuals) and
Trichoptera (47), (see Appendix 10.3).

Order Oligochaeta of which Annelidae and Tubificidae were present and family
Chironomidae and Simuliidae from order Diptera were only found in stream 2.

Plot 1, at Steam 1 scored 134, while plot 2 scored 119. Mean BMWP index for Stream 1
was 126.5 (see Fig. 6.1.1) which indicates excellent water quality.

Figure 6.1.1: BMWP scores for Stream 1

Samples BMWP Mean BMWP
25/05/10 134 126.5
26/05/10 119

33
Plot 1, at Stream 2 scored 90, while plot 2 scored 92. Mean BMWP index for Stream 2 was
91 (see Fig. 6.1.2), which indicates regular quality, eutrophic, medium polluted stream.

Figure 6.1.2: BMWP scores for Stream 2

Samples BMWP Mean BMWP
24/05/10 90 91
27/05/10 92

Discussion

High BMWP score of Stream 1 is associated with clean, unpolluted conditions in primary
forest. On the contrary, lower BMWP score (91) of Stream 2 was expected, as it is in close
proximity of farm and certain influx of pesticides can be expected. However, as Stream 2 is
not surrounded by vast area of farmland, the medium polluted score fits in with our
expectations. Our results correlate with findings of Azrina et.al. (2006). They found that
pristine upstream stations of Langat River scored high BMWP indices, while downstream
stations which received anthropogenic impact scored lower, indicating lower water quality.
Therefore it can be assumed that BMWP scoring system can be used in and around
Yachana Reserve. However, even though BMWP index has been reported easily applicable
and reliable in assessing water quality in other countries, results obtained from it should be
regarded with some caution (Soldner et.al., 2004). Ideally, it should be adapted to the
country it is used in. Adaptations should include additions of new families and changes in
some scores (Zamora-Munoz et.al., 1995). Since not enough samples were taken, further
statistical analysis of the sample would be unreliable and therefore has not been performed.

Although, it is apparent that order Oligochaeta and family Chironomidae and Simuliidae are
only found in Stream 2, which correlates with findings of Cao et.al. (1997) which stated that
polluted sites, particularly intermediate polluted sites, gain some tolerant species which are
very rare or absent at clean sites. Oligochaeta is known to be able to tolerate pollutants and
their high density is a good indicator of organic pollution (Azrina et.al., 2006). Similarly,
Chironomidae show higher abundance with increase in organic pollution. They appear to be
least affected by environmental changes and have efficient recolonization mechanisms
(Czerniawska-Kusza, 2005).

In general, organic pollutants such as agricultural pesticides cause severe variations in

macroinvertebrate assemblages (Azrina et.al., 2006).

34
The use of adapted kick nets proved to be effective though, as suggested by Escolar et.al.
(2009) combination of both surber and kick net should be used to yield best results. Also,
macroinvertebrates found in the Stream 1 were significantly smaller than ones found in the
Stream 2. As samples were sorted by untrained volunteers, there is a high chance that high
number of individuals was overlooked and discarded from samples collected in Stream 1.
This potentially resulted in higher number of individuals found in Stream 2.

Furthermore, the identification key used was quite basic and substantial amount of
individuals had to be classed as other, which meant their BMWP score was 0. This
potentially resulted in limited accuracy of the study. To further help with identification
laminated plates from Contreras et.al. (2008) were used, however photos were so shaded
that they were not useful for identification of Ephemeroptera, since their gills, which are key
identification features could not be distinguished.

Conclusion and Recommendations

BMWP score system could be used in Yachana Reserve, although potentially one adapted
to the Neotropics would gather better results. A photograph or diagramatic key with a larger
number of individuals should be used in the future. Ideally, a benthic macroinvertebrate key
for Yachana Reserve should be constructed and potential bioindicators should be identified.
Also, more samples should be taken to allow reliable statistical analysis as well as greater
area should be sampled. Sampling should be done using the combination of surber and kick
nets.

Sampling should also be carried out for a longer period of time to determine whether
seasonal variations of precipitation levels influence macroinvertebrate abundances.
Precipitation levels were taken for this study, although since sampling was done over short
period of time any sort of analysis would probably be inaccurate. Volunteers should also be
given short training before sampling, in order to become familiar with benthic
macroinvertebrates, leading to less individuals being overlooked and discarded while sorting.

7 Community Development Projects

7.1 Colegio Técnico Yachana (Yachana Technical High School)

GVI continues to work closely with the Yachana Technical High School. Four current
students from the Yachana Technical High School joined the expedition for a period of four
weeks each. They participated in all aspects of the expedition, including survey work, camp
duty and satellite camps. Conversation sessions for language exchange were also arranged
35
between the students and GVI volunteers and/or staff. The students are of great assistance
during field work, sharing their knowledge about local uses for plants as well as helping with
the scheduled project work. They share their culture with volunteers and allow a greater
insight into their background, teaching traditional basket-weaving, traditional achiote-
painting. The benefits to the students are large, as they learn about the realities of
conserving and managing a reserve first-hand, along with the techniques used for monitoring
different speices. They also get to practise and improve their conversational English
language skills for an extended period of time, during the field work, but also around base
camp. This sort of shared practical learning experience is invaluable in the developing world
and those students who have the opportunity and interest to join GVI for a period of time
(whether it be two weeks of longer periods), make great progress in their English language
as well as having the opportunity to experience inter-cultural exchange with native English
speakers from different parts of the globe. It is hoped that these exchanges will continue in
the future as they are beneficial to GVI volunteers, staff and of course to the students
themselves.

7.2 TEFL at Puerto Rico

Fifteen English classes were given at Puero Rico this phase. This resulted in 60 ‘volunteer
hours’ of teaching, to 22 older students (7-13 years old) and 14 younger students (4-7 years
old). The next expedition will see the continuation of these lessons, augmented by an
occasional tropical ecology class given at the end of each five weeks. The English lessons
and interaction with the Puerto Rico community has had the long term aim of developing and
encorporating environmental education for the children at the school. One conservation
class was given druring the expedition. They addressed the topics: Why is rainforest
Important?, What happens if you cut down the rainforest?, What does GVI do on the
Yachana Reserve?

7.3 English Classes at Puerto Salazar

Five informal English classes were given at Puerto Salazar on Saturday afternoons. The
feedback from both the children and the volunteers was fantastic. We hope to continue and
expand on these classes in the future, however are somewhat tied to time and resources
given that Puerto Salazar is approximately 45 minutes walk away from GVI base camp in the
Yachana Reserve. GVI is aiming to support the communities around the reserve as much
as possible, but also very aware of the limitations due to fluctuations in numbers of
volunteers and therefore do not want to over-commit to programmes with the communities
when there are high numbers of volunteers on base, to then find that if the numbers drop
GVI is unable to maintain the local commitments. For this reason the work with Puerto
36
Salazar will continue on the occasions when it is convenient to both the local community and
the GVI Amazon schedule, with a view to continuing the work in the future.

8 Future Expedition Aims

 The biodiversity programme will be continued, opportunistically re-surveying sites, and
expanding the surveey areas within the rserve.

 Avian research will continue, including point counts and mist netting.

 Herpetological research will continue, repeating pitfall trapping and visual encounter
surveys, and incorporating the collection of environmental data (temperature, humidity,
air flow and light levels) at each of the surveying sites, so that specific climatic conditions
can be compared.

 The butterfly project will continue, examining the effects of road and trail disturbance
upon fruit feeding species, in relation to changes in vegetation.

 GVI will continue to participate in exchanges with the Yachana Technical High School.

 TEFL at Puerto Rico will continue with a defined focus for each ten week block, for each
age group and the aim is to encourage students to put their learning into practise and get
them conversing in English.

 Simple environmental lessons will be continued at the school in Puerto Rico (to be given
in Spanish).

 An expansion of teaching will branch out with weekend lessons at the local community of
Puerto Salazar. These lessons will be the basis for a future opportunity of more
structured teaching times within this community.

37
 9 References

9.1 General References

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 9.2 Field Use References

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guide. University Press of Florida, Gainsville.

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Carrera, C., Fierro, K., 2001. Manual de monitoreo los macroinvertebrados acuáticos.
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de la Torre, S., 2000. Primates of Amazonian Ecuador. SIMBIOE, Quito.

DeVries, P.J., 1997. The butterflies of Costa Rica and their natural history. Volume II:
Riodinidae. Princeton University Press, Princeton.

Duellman, W.E., 1978. The biology of an equatorial herpetofauna in Amazonian Ecuador.

The University of Kansas, Lawrence.

Eisenberg, J.F., Redford, K.H., 1999. Mammals of the Neotropics: The central Neotropics.
Volume 3 Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Emmons, L.H., Feer, F., 1997. Neotropical rainforest mammals. A field guide, second
edition. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Moreno E., M., Silva del P., X., Estévez J., G., Marggraff, I., Marggraff, P., 1997. Mariposas
del Ecuador. Occidental Exploration and Production Company, Quito.

Neild, A.F.E., 1996. The butterflies of Venezuela. Meridain Publications. London.

Ridgely, R.S., Greenfield, P.J., 2001. The birds of Ecuador. Volume I. Status, distribution
and taxonomy. Christopher Helm, London.

Ridgely, R.S., Greenfield, P.J., 2001. The birds of Ecuador. Volume II. A field guide.
Christopher Helm, London.

Tirira S., D., 2001. Libro rojo de los mamíferos del Ecuador. SIMBIOE/EcoCiencia, Quito.

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Mist Netting
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Blake and Loiselle (2009) Species Composition of Neotropical Understory Bird Communities:
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Brooks, T.M. et al. (2002) Habitat loss and extinction in the hotspots of biodiversity. Conserv.
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Dunn, R.R. (2004) Recovery of faunal communities during tropical forest regeneration.
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Faria D., Mateus Luı´s Barradas Paciencia, Marianna Dixo, Rudi Ricardo Laps, Julio
Baumgarten, (2007) Ferns, frogs, lizards, birds and bats in forest fragments and shade
cacao plantations in two contrasting landscapes in the Atlantic forest, Brazil Biodiversity
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Hawes J., Jos Barlow, Toby A. Gardner, Carlos A. Peres (2008) The value of forest strips for
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Point Counts

Alldredge, M., W., Simons, T., R., Pollock, K., H., Factors Affecting Aural Detections of
Songbirds Ecological Applications, 17:3 (Apr., 2007), pp. 948-955

Barlow J., Mestre, L., Gardner, T., A., Peres, C., A., 2007 The value of primary, secondary and
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Blake, J., G., and Loiselle, B., A., 2001 Bird Assemblages in Old-growth and Second-growth
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Colwell, R., K., Mao, C., X., Chang, J., Interpolating, Extrapolating and Comparing Incidence-
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visual-based assessments of stream habitat Journal of the North American Benthological

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9.4 Amphibian References

J. Barlow, T. A. Gardner, I. S. Araujo, T. C. Avila-Pires, A. B. Bonaldo, J. E. Costa, M. C.

Esposito, L. V. Ferreira, J. Hawes, M. I. M. Hernandez, M. S. Hoogmoed, R. N. Leite, N. F.
Lo-Man-Hung, J. R. Malcolm, M. B. Martins, L. A. M. Mestre, R. Miranda-Santos, A. L.
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Beebee, T.J.C., Griffiths, R.A., (2005). The amphibian decline crisis: A watershed for
conservation biology? Biological Conservation 125, 271–285.

43
K. E. Bell and M. A. Donnelly (2006) Influence of Forest Fragmentation on Community
Structure of Frogs and Lizards in Northeastern Costa Rica Conservation Biology Volume 20,
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Bridges, C.M., Semlitsch, R.D., (2000). Variation in pesticide tolerance of tadpoles among
and within species of Ranidae and patterns of amphibian decline. Conservation Biology 14,
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Broomhall, S.D., Osborne, W.S., Cunningham, R.B. (2000). Comparative effects of ambient
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Samuel A. Cushman (2006) Effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on amphibians: A

review and prospectus Biological Conservation 128; 231 –240

Donnelly, M. A., M. H. Chen, and G. C.Watkins. (2005) Sampling amphibians and reptiles in
the Iwokrama Forest ecosystem. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
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Toby A. Gardner*, Jos Barlow, Carlos A. Peres (2007a) Paradox, presumption and pitfalls in
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Biological Conservation 138; 166–179

T. A. Gardner, M.A.Ribeiro-Junior, J. Barlow, T. S. Avila-Pires, M.S. Hoogmeod and C. A.

Peres (2007b) The Value of Primary, Secondary, and Plantation Forests for a Neotropical
Herpetofauna Conservation Biology Vol 21, 3; 775–787

T. A. Gardner, J. Barlow, L. W. Parry, and C. A. Peres (2007c) Predicting the Uncertain

Future of Tropical Forest Species in a Data Vacuum BIOTROPICA 39(1): 25–30 2007

Gibbons, J. W., Scott, D. E., Ryan, T. J., Buhlmann, K. A., Tuberville, T. D., Metts, B. S.,
Greene, J. L., Mills, T., Leiden, Y., Poppy, S. and C. T. Winne. 2000. The global decline of
reptiles, deja-vu amphibians. Bioscience 50: 653–667.

S.V. Krishnamurthy (2003) Amphibian assemblages in undisturbed and disturbed areas of

Kudremukh National Park, central Western Ghats, India Environmental Conservation 30 (3):
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P. B. Pearman (1997) Correlates of Amphibian Diversity in an Altered Landscape of

Amazonian Ecuador Conservation Biology, Volume 11, No. 5 Pages 1211–1225

44
R. Pardini, D. Faria, G. M. Accacio, R. R. Laps, E. Mariano-Neto, M. L.B. Paciencia, M. Dixo,
Julio Baumgarten (2009) The challenge of maintaining Atlantic forest biodiversity: A multi-
taxa conservation assessment of specialist and generalist species in an agro-forestry mosaic
in southern Bahia Biological Conservation 142; 1170-1182

M. Rödel & R. Ernst (2004) MEASURING AND MONITORING AMPHIBIAN DIVERSITY IN

TROPICAL FORESTS. I. AN EVALUATION OF METHODS WITH RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR STANDARDIZATION Ecotropica 10: 1–14,

Sala, O.E., Chapin, F.S.I., Armesto, J.J., Berlow, E., Bloomfield, J., Dirzo, R., Huber-
Sanwald, E., Huenneke, L.F., Jackson, R.B., Kinzig, A., Leemans, R., Lodge, D.M., Mooney,
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Stuart, S.N., Chanson, J.S., Cox, N.A., Young, B.E., Rodrigues, A.S.L., Fischman, D.L. and
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Science 306: 1783-1786.

J. N. Urbina-Cardona, M. Olivares-Pe´rez, V. H. Reynoso (2006) Herpetofauna diversity and

microenvironment correlates across a pasture–edge–interior ecotone in tropical rainforest
fragments in the Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve of Veracruz, Mexico Biological
Conservation 132; 61–75

J. N. Urbina-Cardona (2008) Conservation of Neotropical Herpetofauna: Research Trends

and Challenges Tropical Conservation Science Vol.1(4):359-375

Wright SJ (2005) Tropical forests in a changing environment Trends Ecol Evol 20:553–560.

Whitfield SM, Pierce MSF (2005) Tree buttress microhabitat use by a neotropical leaf-litter
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45
 9.5 Butterfly References

Bennett, A. F., 1991. Roads, roadsides and wildlife conservation: A review. In: Saunders, D.
A., Hobbs, R. J. (eds.). Nature Conservation 2: The role of corridors. Chipping Norton, NSW,
Australia: Surrey Beatty pp. 99-118.
Cottam, G., Curtis, J.T., 1956. The use of distance measures in phytosociological sampling.
Ecology 37: 451-460.

DeVries, P. J., Walla, T. R., 1999. Species diversity in spatial and temporal dimensions of
fruit-feeding butterflies from two Ecuadorian rainforests. Biological Journal of the Linnean
Society 68: 333-353.

Ehrlich, P. R., Raven, P. H., 1965. Butterflies and plants: A study in co-evolution. Evolution
18: 586-608.

Ramos, A. F., 2000. Nymphalid butterfly communities in an Amazonian forest fragment.

Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 35:29-41.

Sparrow, H. R., Sisk, T. D., Ehrlich, P. R., Murphy, D. D., 1994. Techniques and guidelines
for monitoring neotropical butterflies. Conservation Biology. 8: 800-809.

9.6 Benthic References

Azrina, M.Z., Yap, C.K., Ismail, A.R., Ismail, A. and Tan, S.G. (2006). Anthropogenic impacts
on the distribution and biodiversity of benthic macroinvertebrates and water quality of the
Langat River, Peninsular Malaysia, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 64, 337-347

Cao, Y., Bark, A.W. and Williams, P.(1997). Analysing benthic macroinvertebrate community
changes along a pollution gradient: A framework for the development of biotic indices, Wat.
Res., 31, 884-892

Carrera, C. and Fierro (2001). Guia de identification de los macroinvertebrates acuaticos

mas comunes del tropico americano, Ecociencia, Quito, Ecuador

Contreras, J., Roldan, G., Arango, A. and Alvarez, L.F. (2008). `Evalucion de la calidad del
agua de las microcuencas La Laucha, La Lejia y La Rastrojera, utilizando los
macroinvertebrados como bioindicadores, Municipio de Durania, Depertamento Norte de
Santander, Colombia’, Rev. Acad. Colomb. Cienc., 32, 171-193

Czerniawska-Kusza, I. (2005). Comparing modified biological monitoring working party score

system and several biological indices based on macroinvertebrates for water quality
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46
Escolar, J., Mercer, A. and Urpeth, H. (2009). Assessment of Global Vision International’s
impact on water quality in the Bosque Protector Yachana- Preliminary report, GVI Amazon,
Ecuador

Solder, M., Stephen, I., Ramos, L., Angus, N., Wells, C., Grosso, A. and Crane, M. (2004).
Relationship between macroinvertebrate fauna and environmental variables in small streams
of the Dominican Republic, Water Research, 38, 863-874

Stein, H., Springer, M. and Kohlmann, B. (2008) Comparison of two sampling methods for
biomonitoring using macroinvertebrates in the Dos Novillos River, Costa Rica, Ecological
Engineering, 34, 267-275

Zamora-Munoz, C., Sainz-Cantero, C.E., Sanchez-Ortega, A. and Albina-Tercedor, J.,

(1995). Are biological indices BMWP and ASPT and their significance regarding water
quality seasonally dependent? Factors explaining their variations, Wat.Res., 29, 285-290

47
10 Appendices Accipiter superscilious Tiny Hawk**

Spizaetus ornatus Ornate Hawk-eagle

10.1 GVI Species List
Buteo magnirostris Roadside Hawk
June 2010
Buteo polyosoma Variable Hawk
** New additions to the Yachana
Elanoides forficatus Swallow-tailed Kite
Species List in Phase 102
Harpagus bidentatus Double-toothed Kite

Ictinia plumbea Plumbeous Kite

Class Aves
Leptodon cayanensis Gray-headed Kite
Class Aves
Leucopternis melanops Black-faced Hawk
Tinamiformes
Leucopternis albicollis White Hawk
Tinamidae Tinamous
Pandion haliaetus Osprey
Crypturellus bartletti Bartlett's Tinamou

Crypturellus cinereus Cinereous Tinamou

Falconidae Falcons and Caracaras
Crypturellus soui Little Tinamou
Daptrius ater Black Caracara
Crypturellus undulatus Undulated Tinamou
Falco rufigularis Bat Falcon
Crypturellus variegatus Variegated Tinamou
Ibycter americanus Red-throated Caracara
Tinamus major Great Tinamou
Herpetotheres cachinnans Laughing Falcon

Micrastur gilvicollis Lined Forest-Falcon

Ciconiformes
Micrastur semitorquatus Collared Forest-Falcon
Ardeidae Herons, Bitterns and Egrets
Milvago chimachima Yellow-headed Caracara
Ardea cocoi Cocoi Heron

Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret

Galliformes
Butorides striatus Striated Heron Curassows, Guans, and
Cracidae Chachalacas
Egretta caerulea Little Blue Heron
Nothocrax urumutum Nocturnal Curassow
Egretta thula Snowy Egret
Ortalis guttata Speckled Chachalaca
Tigrisoma lineatum Rufescent Tiger-Heron
Penelope jacquacu Spix's Guan

Cathartidae American Vultures

Odontophoridae New World Quails
Cathartes aura Turkey Vulture
Odontophorus gujanensis Marbled Wood-Quail
Cathartes melambrotus Greater Yellow-headed Vulture

Coragyps atractus Black Vulture

Charadriiformes
Sarcoramphus papa King Vulture Sandpipers, Snipes and
Scolopacidae Phalaropes

Actitis macularia Spotted Sandpiper

Falconiformes
Tringa solitaria Solitary Sandpiper
Accipitridae Kites, Eagles, Hawks etc

48
Recurvirostridae Plovers and Lapwings

Hoploxypterus cayanus Pied Plover Opisthocomidae Hoatzin

Opisthocomus hoazin Hoatzin

Gruiformes

Rallidae Rails, Gallinules, and Coots Strigiformes

Anurolimnatus castaneiceps Chestnut-headed Crake Strigidae Typical Owls

Aramides cajanea Gray-necked Wood-Rail Glaucidium brasilianum Ferruginous Pygmy-Owl

Lophostrix cristata Crested owl

Columbiformes Otus choliba Tropical Screech-Owl

Columbidae Pigeons and Doves Otus watsonii Tawny-bellied Screech-owl

Claravis pretiosa Blue Ground-Dove Pulsatrix perspicillata Spectacled owl

Columba plumbea Plumbeous Pigeon

Geotrygon montana Ruddy Quail-Dove Caprimulgiformes

Leptotila rufaxilla Gray-fronted Dove Nyctibiidae Potoos

Nyctibius aethereus Long-tailed Potoo

Psittaciformes Nyctibius grandis Great Potoo

Psittacidae Parrots and Macaws Nyctibius griseus Common Potoo

Amazona farinosa Mealy Amazon

Amazona ochrocephala Yellow-crowned Amazon Caprimulgidae Nightjars and Nighthawks

Ara severa Chestnut-fronted Macaw Nyctidromus albicollis Pauraque

Nyctiphrynus ocellatus Ocellated Poorwill

Psittacidae Cont. Parrots and Macaws

Aratinga leucophthalmus White-eyed Parakeet Apodiformes

Aratinga weddellii Dusky-headed Parakeet Apodidae Swifts

Pionites melanocephala Black-headed Parrot Chaetura cinereiventris Grey-rumped Swift

Pionopsitta barrabandi Orange-cheeked Parrot Streptoprocne zonaris White-collared Swift

Pionus menstruus Blue-headed Parrot

Pyrrhura melanura Maroon-tailed Parakeet Trochilidae Hummingbirds

Heliothryx aurita Black-eared Fairy

Cuculiformes Amazilia franciae cyanocollis Andean Emerald Hummingbird

Cuculidae Cuckoos and Anis Amazilia fimbriata Glittering-throated Emerald

Crotophaga ani Smooth-billed Ani Anthracothorax nigricollis Black-throated Mango

Crotophaga major Greater Ani Campylopterus largipennis Grey-breasted Sabrewing

Piaya cayana Squirrel Cockoo Eutoxeres condamini Buff-tailed Sicklebill

Piaya melanogaster Black-bellied Cuckoo Glaucis hirsuta Rufous -breasted Hermit

49
Thrrenetes niger Pale-tailed Barbthroat**

Phaethornis bourcieri Straight-billed Hermit Picidae Woodpeckers and Piculets

Phaethornis hispidus White-bearded Hermit Campephilus melanoleucos Crimson-crested Woodpecker

Phaethornis malaris Great-billed Hermit Campephilus rubricollis Red-necked Woodpecker

Thalurania furcata Fork-tailed Woodnymph Celeus elegans Chestnut Woodpecker

Floriduga mellivora White-necked Jacobin** Celeus flavus Cream-coloured Woodpecker

Heliodoxa aurescens Gould's Jewelfront Celeus grammicus Scale-breasted Woodpecker

Chrysoptilus punctigula Spot-breasted Woodpecker

Piciformes Dryocopus lineatus Lineated Woodpecker

Galibulidae Jacamars Melanerpes cruentatus Yellow-tufted Woodpecker

Jacamerops aureus Great Jacamar Picumnus lafresnayi Lafresnaye's piculet

Galbula albirostris Yellow-billed Jacamar Veniliornis passerinus Little Woodpecker

Bucconidae Puffbirds Dendrocolaptidae Woodcreepers

Chelidoptera tenebrosa Swallow-winged Puffbird Dendrocolaptes picumnus Black-banded Woodcreeper**

Bucco macrodactylus Chestnut-capped Puffbird Dendrexetastes rufigula Cinnamon-throated Woodcreeper

Malacoptila fusca White-chested Puffbird Dendrocincla fuliginosa Plain Brown Woodcreeper

Monasa flavirostris Yellow-billed Nunbird

Monasa morphoeus White-fronted Nunbird Glyphorynchus spirurus Wedge-billed Woodcreeper

Monasa nigrifrons Black-fronted Nunbird Lepidocolaptes albolineatus Lineated Woodcreeper

Notharchus macrorynchos White-necked Puffbird Xiphorhynchus guttatus Buff-throated Woodcreeper

Xiphorhynchus ocellatus Ocellated Woodcreeper

Xiphorhynchus picus Straight-billed Woodcreeper

Capitonidae New World Barbets

Capita aurovirens Scarlet-crowned Barbet Furnariidae Ovenbirds

Capita auratus Gilded Barbet Ancistrops strigilatus Chestnut-winged Hookbill

Phylidor erythropterum Chestnut-winged Foligae-gleaner**

Eubucco bourcierii Lemon-throated Barbet
Automolus rubiginosus Ruddy Foliage-gleaner
Philydor pyrrhodes Cinammon-rumped Foliage-gleaner

Xenops minutus Plain Xenops**

Ramphastidae Toucans
Scelerurus caudacutus Black-tailed Leaftosser
Pteroglossus azara Ivory-billed Aracari Scelerurus mexicanus Tawny-throated Leaftosser**

Pteroglossus castanotis Chestnut-eared Aracari Scelerurus rufigularis Short-billed Leaftosser**

Trogoniformes
Pteroglossus inscriptus Lettered Aracari
Trogonidae Trogons and Quetzals
Pteroglossus pluricinctus Many-banded Aracari Pharomachrus pavoninus Pavonine Quetzal

Ramphastos vitellinus Channel-billed Toucan Trogon melanurus Black-tailed Trogon

Trogon viridis Amazonian White-tailed Trogon
Ramphastos tucanus White-throated Toucan
Trogon collaris Collared Trogon
Selenidera reinwardtii Golden-collared Toucanet
50
 Attila spadiceus Bright-rumped Attila
Trogon rufus Black-throated Trogon
Colonia colonus Long-tailed Tyrant
Trogon violaceus Amazonian Violaceous Trogon

Conopias cinchoneti Lemon-browed Flycatcher

Trogon curucui Blue-crowned Trogon

Conopias parva Yellow-throated Flycatcher

Contopus virens Eastern Wood-Pewee

Coraciiformes

Hemitriccus zosterops White-eyed Tody-tyrant

Alcedinidae Kingfishers

Legatus leucophaius Piratic Flycatcher

Chloroceryle amazona Amazon Kingfisher

Griseotyrannus aurantioatrocristatus Crowned Slaty Flycatcher**

Chloroceryle americana Green Kingfisher

Leptopogon amaurocephalus Sepia-capped Flycatcher

Chloroceryle inda Green and Rufous Kingfisher

Lipaugus vociferans Screaming Piha

Megaceryle torquata Ringed Kingfisher

Megarynchus piangu Boat-billed Flycatcher

Mionectes oleagineus Ochre-bellied Flycatcher

Momotidae Motmots

Myiarchus ferox Short-crested Flycatcher

Baryphthengus martii Rufous Motmot

Myiarchus tuberculifer Dusky-capped Flycatcher

Electron platyrhynchum Broad-billed Motmot

Myiobius barbatus Whiskered Flycatcher

Momotus momota Blue-crowned Motmot

Myiodynastes luteiventris Sulphur-bellied Flycatcher

Myiodynastes maculatus Streaked Flycatcher

Cotingidae Cotinga

Myiozetetes granadensis Gray-capped Flycatcher

Cotinga cayana Spangled Cotinga

Myiozetetes luteiventris Dusky-chested Flycatcher

Cotinga maynana Plum-throated Cotinga

Myiozetetes similis Social Flycatcher

Gynnoderus foetidus Bare-necked Fruitcrow

Ochthornis littoralis Drab Water-Tyrant

Iodopleura isabellae White-browed Purpletuft

Pachyramphus marginatus Black-capped Becard

Querula purpurata Purple throated Fruitcrow

Pachyramphus viridis White-winged Becard**

Pitangus sulphuratus Great Kiskadee

Pipridae Manakins

Rhynchocyclus olivaceus Olivaceous Flatbill

Chiroxiphia pareola Blue-backed Manakin

Rhytipterna simplex Grayish Mouner

Chloropipo holochlora Green Manakin

Tityra inquisitor Black-crowned Tityra

Dixiphia pipra White-crowned Manakin

Tityra semifasciata Masked Tityra

Lepidothrix coronata Blue-crowned Manakin

Tityra cayana Black-tailed Tityra

Machaeropterus regulus Striped Manakin

Terenotriccus erythrurus Ruddy-tailed Flycatcher

Manacus manacus White-bearded Manakin

Todirostrum chrysocrotaphum Yellow-browed Tody-Flycatcher

Pipra erythrocephala Golden-headed Manakin

Tolmomyias poliocephalus Gray-crowned Flatbill

Tyranneutes stolzmanni Dwarf Tyrant Manakin

Tolmomyias viridiceps Olive-faced Flatbill

Tyrannidae Tyrant Flycatchers Tyrannulus elatus Yellow-crowned Tyrannulet

Platyrinchus coronatus Golden-crowned Spadebill** Tyrannus melancholicus Tropical Kingbird

51
Tyrannus savana Fork-tailed Flycatcher Dendroica fusca Blackburnian Warbler

Tyrannus tyrannus Eastern Kingbird Dendroica striata Blackpoll Warbler

Zimmerius gracilipes Slender-footed Tyrannulet

Thraupidae Tanagers
Chlorophanes spiza Green Honeycreeper
Corvidae Crows, Jays, and Magpies
Cissopis leveriana Magpie Tanager
Cyanocorax violaceus Violaceous Jay
Cyanerpes caeruleus Purple Honeycreeper

Dacnis flaviventer Yellow-bellied Dacnis

Vireonidae Vireos
Dacnis lineata Black-faced Dacnis**
Vireo olivaceus Red-eyed Vireo
Euphonia laniirostris Thick-billed Euphonia

Euphonia rufiventris Rufous-bellied Euphonia

Turdidae Thrushes
Euponia xanthogaster Orange-bellied Euphonia
Catharus ustulatus Swainson's Thrush
Euphonia chrysopasta White-lored Euphonia
Turdus albicollis White-necked Thrush
Euphonia minuta White-vented Euphonia**
Turdus lawrencii Lawrence's Thrush
Habia rubica Red-crowned Ant-Tanager

Hemithraupis flavicollis Yellow-backed Tanager

Hirundinidae Swallows and Martins
Piranaga olivacea Scarlet Tanager
Atticora fasciata White-banded Swallow

Piranaga rubra Summer Tanager

Stelgidopteryx ruficollis Southern rough-winged swallow

Ramphocelus carbo Silver-beaked Tanager

Neochelidon tibialis White-thighed Swallow**
Ramphocelus nigrogularis Masked Crimson Tanager
Tachycineta albiventer White-winged Swallow
Tachyphonus cristatus Flame-crested Tanager

Tachyphonus surinamus Fulvous-crested Tanager

Troglodytidae Wrens
Lanio fulvus Fulvous Shrike-tanager
Campylorhynchus turdinus Thrush-like Wren
Tangara callophrys Opal-crowned Tanager
Donacobius atricapillus Black-capped Donacobius
Tangara chilensis Paradise Tanager
Henicorhina leucosticta White-breasted Wood-wren
Tangara nigrocinta Masked Tanager**
Microcerculus marginatus Southern Nightingale-Wren
Tangara mexicana Turquoise Tanager
Thryothorus coraya Coraya Wren
Tangara schrankii Green-and-gold Tanager

Tangara xanthogastra Yellow-bellied Tanager

Polioptilidae Gnatcatchers and Gnatwrens

Tersina viridis Swallow Tanager

Microbates cinereiventris Tawny-faced Gnatwren
Thraupis episcopus Blue-gray Tanager

Thraupis palmarum Palm Tanager

Parulidae New World Warblers

Wilsonia canadensis Canada Warbler**

Thamnophilidae Typical Antbirds
Dendroica aestiva Yellow Warbler
Cercomacra cinerascens Gray Antbird
Basileuterus fulvicauda Buff-rumped Warbler
Chamaeza nobilis Striated Antthrush

52
Dichrozona cincta Banded Antbird

Formicarius analis Black-faced Antthrush Fringillidae Cardueline Finches

Frederickena unduligera Undulated Antshrike Carduelis psaltria Lesser Goldfinch

Hersilochmus dugandi Dugand's Antwren American Orioles, and

Icteridae Blackbirds
Hylophlax naevia Spot-backed Antbird Cacicus cela Yellow-rumped Cacique
Cacicus solitaries Solitary Cacique
Hylophylax poecilinota Scale-backed Antbird
Clypicterus oseryi Casqued Oropendola
Hypocnemis cantator Warbling Antbird
Gymnomystax mexicanus Oriole Blackbird

Gymnopithys leucapis Bicoloured Antibird** Icterus croconotus Orange-backed Troupial

Molothrus oryzivorous Giant Cowbird

Hypocnemis hypoxantha Yellow-browed Antbird
Psarocolius angustifrons Russet-backed Oropendola
Megastictus margaritatus Pearly Antshrike Psarocolius decumanas Crested Oropendola

Psarocolius viridis Green Oropendola

Myrmeciza hyperythra Plumbeous Antbird

Myrmeciza immaculata Sooty Antbird Class Mammalia

Myrmeciza melanoceps White-shouldered Antbird Marsupialia

Myrmornis torquata Wing-banded Antbird Didelphidae Opossums

Caluromys lanatus Western woolly opposum

Myrmothera campanisona Thrush-like Antpitta
Chironectes minimus Water opossum
Myrmotherula axillaris White-flanked Antwren Didelphis marsupialis Common opossum

Marmosa lepida Little rufous mouse opossum

Myrmotherula hauxwelli Plain-throated Antwren
Long-furred woolly mouse
Micoureus demerarae opossum
Myrmotherula longipennis Long-winged Antwren

Philander sp. Four-eyed opossum

Myrmotherula obscura Short-billed Antwren

Myrmotherula ornata Ornate Antwren

Xenarthra
Mymotherula brahyrura Pygmy Antwren**

Megalonychidae
Phlegopsis erythroptera Reddish-winged Bare-eye

Subfamily Choloepinae Two-toed sloths

Phlegopsis nigromaculata Black-spotted Bare-eye

Choloepus diadactylus Southern two-toed sloth

Pithys albifrons White-plumbed Antbird

Schistocichla leucostigma Spot-winged Antbird

Dasypodidae Armadillos
Thamnomanes ardesiacus Dusky-throated Antshrike

Cabassous unicinctus Southern naked-tailed armadillo

Thamnophilus murinus Mouse-colored Antshrike

Dasypus novemcinctus Nine-banded armadillo

Thamnophilus schistaceus Plain-winged Antshrike

Cardinalidae Saltators, Grosbeaks etc

Chiroptera
Cyanocompsa cyanoides Blue-black Grosbeak

Saltator grossus Slate-colored Grosbeak Carollinae Short-tailed Fruit bats

Saltator maximus Buff-throated Saltator
Carollia brevicauda

Emberizidae Emberizine Finches Carollia castanea

Ammodramus aurifrons Yellow-browed Sparrow

Carollia perspicullatus Short-tailed fruit bat
Oryzoborus angloensis Lesser Seed-Finch
Rhinophylla pumilio Little fruit bat

53
 Mustelidae Weasel

Eira barbara Tayra

Desmodontinae Vampire bats
Lontra longicaudis Neotropical otter

Desmodus rotundus Common vampire bat

Felidae Cat

Herpailurus yaguarundi Jaguarundi

Emballonuridae Sac-winged/Sheath-tailed Bats
Leopardus pardalis Ocelot
Saccopteryx bilineata White-lined bat
Puma concolor Puma

Glossophaginae Long tongued bats

Artidactyla Peccaries and Deer
Glossophaga soricina Long tongued bat
Mazama americana Red brocket deer
Lonchophylla robusta Spear-nosed long-tongued bat
Tayassu tajacu Collared peccary

Stenodermatidae Neotropical Fruit bats

Rodentia Rodents
Artibeus jamaicensis Large fruit-eating bat
Echimyidae
Artibeus lituratus Large fruit bat
Dactylomys dactylinus Amazon bamboo rat
Artibeus obscurus Large fruit bat
Nectomys squamipes Water rat
Artibeus planirostus Large fruit bat
Proechimys semispinosus Spiny rat
Chiroderma villosum Big-eyed bat

Sturrnia lilium Hairy-legged bat

Sciuridae Squirrels
Sturnria oporaphilum Yellow shouldered fruit bat
Sciurus sp. Amazon red squirrel
Uroderma pilobatum Tent-making bat
Sciurillus pusillus Neotropical pygmy squirrel
Vampyrodes caraccioli Great Stripe-faced bat

Large Cavylike Rodents

Phyllostominae Spear-nosed Bats
Agouti paca Paca
Macrophyllum macrophyllum Long-legged bat
Coendou bicolor Bi-color spined porcupine
Mimon crenulatum Hairy-nosed bat
Dasyprocta fuliginosa Black agouti
Phyllostomus hastatus Spear-nosed bat
Hydrochaeirs hydrochaeirs Capybara

Myoprocta pratti Green acouchy

Vespertilionidae Vespertilionid Bats

Myotis nigricans Little brown bat

Class Sauropsida

Primates Monkeys Lizards

Callitrichidae Gekkonidae

Saguinus nigricollis Black-mantle tamarin Gonatodes concinnatus Collared forest gecko

Gonatodes humeralis Bridled forest gecko

Cebidae Pseudogonatodes guianensis Amazon pygmy gecko

Allouatta seniculus Red howler monkey

Aotus sp. Night monkey Gymnophthalmidae

Cebus albifrons White-fronted capuchin Alopoglossus striventris Black-bellied forest lizard

Arthrosaura reticulata reticulata Reticulated creek lizard

Carnivora Carnivores Cercosaurra argulus
Procyonidae Raccoon Cercosaura ocellata
Nasua nasua South american coati Leposoma parietale Common forest lizard
Potos flavus Kinkajou Neusticurus ecpleopus Common streamside lizard

Prionodactylus argulus Elegant-eyed lizard

54
Prionodactylus oshaughnessyi White-striped eyed lizard Oxyrhopus formosus Yellow-headed calico snake

Oxyrhopus melanogenys Black-headed calico snake

Iguanas Oxyrhopus petola digitalus Banded calico snake

Hoplocercidae Pseustes poecilonotus polylepis Common bird snake

Enyalioides laticeps Amazon forest dragon Pseustes sulphureus Giant bird snake

Sphlophus compressus Red-vine snake

Spilotes pullatus Tiger rat snake

Polychrotidae
Tantilla melanocephala
Anolis fuscoauratus melanocephala Black-headed snake
Slender anole

Anolis nitens scypheus Xenedon rabdocephalus Common false viper

Yellow-tongued forest anole

Anolis ortonii Xenedon severos Giant false viper

Amazon bark anole

Anolis punctata Xenoxybelis argenteus Green-striped vine snake

Amazon green anole

Anolis trachyderma Common forest anole

Viperidae

Scincidae Bothriopsis taeniata Speckeled forest pit viper

Mabuya nigropunctata Bothriopsis bilineata bilineata Western Striped Forest Pit Viper
Black-spotted skink
Bothrops atrox Fer-de-lance
Amazonian Hog-Nosed
Tropiduridae Bothrops hyoprora Lancehead

Tropidurus (Plica) plica Collared tree runner Lachesis muta muta Amazon Bushmaster

Tropidurus (plica) umbra ochrocollaris Olive tree runner

Boidae

Teiidae Boa constrictor constrictor Red-tailed boa

Kentropyx pelviceps Forest whiptail Boa constrictor imperator Common boa constrictor

Tupinambis teguixin Golden tegu Corallus enydris enydris Amazon tree boa

Epicrates cenchria gaigei Peruvian rainbow boa

Snakes

Colubridae Elapidae

Atractus elaps Earth snake sp3 Micurus hemprichii ortonii Orange-ringed coral snake

Atractus major Earth snake Micrurus langsdorfii Langsdorffs coral snake

Atractus occiptoalbus Earth snake sp2 Micrurus lemniscatus Eastern ribbon coral snake

Chironius fuscus Olive whipsnake Micrurus spixii spixxi Central amazon coral snake

Chironius scurruls Rusty whipsnake Micurus surinamensis surinamensis Aquatic coral snake

Clelia clelia clelia Musarana

Dendriphidion dendrophis Tawny forest racer Crocodilians

Dipsas catesbyi Ornate snail-eating snake Alligatoridae

Dipsas indica Big-headed snail-eating snake Paleosuchus trigonatus Smooth-fronted caiman

Drepanoides anomalus Amazon egg-eating snake

Drymoluber dichrous Common glossy racer

Class Amphibia
Banded south american water
Helicops angulatus snake Caecilians

Helicops leopardinus Spotted water snake Typhlonectidae

Imantodes cenchoa Common blunt-headed tree snake Caecilia aff. tentaculata

Imantodes lentiferus Amazon blunt-headed tree snake

Leptodeira annulata annulata Common cat-eyed snake Plethodontidae Lungless Salamanders

Leptophis cupreus Brown parrot snake Bolitoglossa peruviana Dwarf climbing salamander

Liophis miliaris chrysostomus White-lipped swamp snake

Liophis reginae Common swamp snake Bufonidae Toads

55
Rhinella marina
Rhinella complex margaritifer
Rhinella dapsilis
Dendrophryniscus
Dendrophryniscus minutus
Centrolenidae
Centrolene sp.
Cochranella anetarsia
Cochranella midas
Cochranella resplendens
Dendrobatidae
Ameerega bilinguis
Ameerega ingeri
Ameerega insperatus
Ameerega parvulus
Ameerega zaparo
Colostethus bocagei
Colostethus marchesianus
Dendrobates duellmani
Hylidae
Cruziohyla craspedopus
cf. Sphaenorhychus carneus
Dendropsophus bifurcus
Dendropsophus marmorata
Dendropsophus rhodopeplus
Dendropsophus triangulium
Hemiphractus aff. scutatus
Hyla lanciformis
Hyla maomaratus
Hylomantis buckleyi
Hylomantis hulli
Hypsiboas boans
Hypsiboas calcarata
Hypsiboas geographica
Hypsiboas punctatus
Hypsiboas geographica
Hypsiboas punctatus
Osteocephalus cabrerai complex
Osteocephalus cf. deridens
Osteocephalus leprieurii
Osteocephalus planiceps
Trachycephalus resinifictrix
Cane Toad
Crested Forest Toad
Sharp-nosed Toad
Leaf Toads
Orange bellied leaf toad
Glass Frogs
undescribed Glass Frog
Glass Frog
Glass Frog
Glass Frog
Poison Frogs
Ruby Poison Frog
Sanguine Poison Frog
Ucayali Rocket Frog
Duellmans Poison Frog
Tree Frogs
Amazon Leaf Frog
Pygmy hatchet-faced Tree Frog
Upper Amazon Tree Frog
Neotropical Marbled Tree Frog
Red Striped Tree Frog
Variable Clown Tree Frog
Casque-headed Tree Frog
Rocket Tree Frog
Gladiator Tree Frog
Convict Tree Frog
Map Tree Frog
Common Polkadot Tree Frog
Map Tree Frog
Common Polkadot Tree Frog
Forest bromeliad Tree Frog
Common bromeliad Tree Frog
Flat-headed bromeliad Tree Frog
Amazonian Milk Tree Frog
Phyllomedusa tarsius
Phyllomedusa tomopterna
Phyllomedusa vaillanti
Scinax garbei
Scinax rubra
Trachycephalus venulosus
Microhylidae
Chiasmocleis bassleri
Leptodactylidae
Edalorhina perezi
Prystimantis acuminatus
Prystimantis aff peruvianus
Prystimantis altamazonicus
Prystimantis conspicillatus
Prystimantis lanthanites
Prystimantis malkini
Prystimantis martiae
Prystimantis ockendeni complex
Prystimantis sulcatus
Prystimantis variabilis
Hypnodactylus nigrovittatus
Strabomantis sulcatus
Engystomops petersi
Leptodactylus andreae
Leptodactylus knudseni
Leptodactylus mystaceus
Leptodactylus rhodomystax
Leptodactylus wagneri
Lithodytes lineatus
Oreobates quixensis
Vanzolinius discodactylus
Ranidae
Rana palmipes
Class Arachnida
Araneae
Nephila clavipes
Ancylometes terrenus
Class Insecta
Coleoptera
Euchroma gigantea
Warty Monkey Frog
Barred Monkey Frog
White-lined monkey Tree Frog
Fringe lipped Tree Frog
Two-striped Tree Frog
Common milk Tree Frog
Sheep Frogs
Bassler's Sheep Frog
Rain Frogs
Eyelashed Forest Frog
Green Rain Frog
Peruvian Rain Frog
Amazonian Rain Frog
Chirping Robber Frog
Striped-throated Rain Frog
Malkini's Rain Frog
Marti's rainfrog
Carabaya Rain Frog
Broad-headed Rain Frog
Variable Rain Frog
Black-banded Robber Frog
Broad-headed Rain Frog
Painted Forest Toadlet
Cocha Chirping Frog
Rose-sided Jungle Frog
Moustached Jungle Frog
Wagneris Jungle Frog
Painted Antnest Frog
Common big headed Rain Frog
Dark-blotched Whistling Frog
True Frogs
Neotropical Green Frog
Golden Silk Spider
Giant Fishing Spider
Giant Ceiba Borer
56
Homoeotelus d'orbignyi Pleasing Fungus Beetle Eunica alpais

Eunica amelio

Scarabaeidae Eunica clytia

Canthon luteicollis Eunica volumna

Deltochilum howdeni Hamadryas albicornus

Dichotomius ohausi Hamadryas arinome

Dichotomius prietoi Hamadryas chloe

Eurysternus caribaeus Hamadryas feronia

Hamadryas laodamia
Eurysternus confusus
Nessaea batesii
Eurysternus foedus
Nessaea hewitsoni
Eurysternus inflexus
Nica flavilla
Eurysternus plebejus
Panacea prola

Panacea regina
Grylloptera
Paulogramma peristera
Panacanthus cuspidatus Spiny Devil Katydid
Phrrhogyra amphiro
Hemiptera
Pyrrhogyra crameri
Dysodius lunatus Lunate Flatbug
Pyrrhogyra cuparina

Pyrrhogyra cf nasica
Lepidoptera
Pyrrhogyra otolais
Lycaenidae
Temenis laothoe
Celmia celmus

Janthecla sista
Charaxinae
Thecla aetolius
Agrias claudina
Thecla mavors
Archaeoprepona amphimachus
Colobura annulata
Archaeoprepona demophon
Colobura dirce
Archaeoprepona demophon muson

Archaeoprepona licomedes
Nymphalidae
Consul fabius
Apaturinae
Hypna clytemnestra
Doxocopa agathina
Memphis arachne
Doxocopa griseldis
Memphis oenomaus
Doxocopa laurentia
Memphis philomena
Doxocopa linda
Memphis offa

Prepona eugenes
Biblidinae
Prepona dexamenus
Biblis hyperia
Prepona laertes
Callicore cynosura
Prepona pheridamas
Catonephele acontius
Zaretis isidora
Catonephele esite
Zaretis itys
Catonephele numilia

Diaethria clymena
Cyrestinae
Dynamine aerata
Marpesia berania
Dynamine arthemisia
Marpesia crethon
Dynamine athemon
Marpesia petreus
Dynamine gisella

Ectima thecla lerina

57
Danainae Heliconius doris

Pieridae Philaethria dido

Appias Drusilla

Dismorphia pinthous Limenitidinae

Eurema cf xanthochlora Adelpha amazona

Perrhybris lorena Adelpha cocala

Phoebis rurina Adelpha cytherea

Adelpha erotia

Danainae Adelpha iphicleola

Danaini Adelpha iphiclus

Danaus plexippus Adelpha lerna

Ithomiini Adelpha melona

Aeria eurimidea Adelpha mesentina

Ceratinia tutia Adelpha naxia

Hypoleria sarepta Adelpha panaema

Hyposcada anchiala Adelpha phrolseola

Hyposcada illinissa Adelpha thoasa

Hypothyris anastasia Adelpha viola

Hypothyris fluonia Adelpha ximena

Ithomia amarilla

Ithomia salapia Nymphalinae

Mechanitis lysimnia Anartia amathae

Mechanitis mazaeus Anartia jatrophae

Mechanitis messenoides Baeotus deucalion

Methona confusa psamathe Eresia eunice

Methone Cecilia Eresia pelonia

Oleria gunilla Historis odius

Oleria ilerdina Historis acheronta

Oleria tigilla Metamorpha elisa

Tithorea harmonia Metamorpha sulpitia

Phyciodes plagiata

Heliconinae Siproeta stelenes

Acraeini Smyrna blomfildia

Actinote sp. Tigridia acesta

Heliconiini

Dryas iulia Satyrinae

Eueides Eunice Brassolini

Eueides isabella Bia actorion

Eueides lampeto Caligo eurilochus

Eueides lybia Caligo idomeneus idomeneides

Heliconius erato Caligo illioneus

Heliconius hecale Caligo teucer

Heliconius melponmene Catoblepia cassiope

Heliconius numata Caligo placidiamus

Heliconius sara Catoblepia berecynthia

Heliconius xanthocles Catoblepia cassiope

58
Catoblepia generosa Magneuptychia tiessa

Catoblepia sorannus Pareuptychia hesionides Pareuptychia hesionides

Catoblepia xanthus Pareuptychia ocirrhoe

Opsiphanes invirae Taygetis cleopatra Cleopatra Satyr

Taygetis echo Echo Satyr

Haeterini Taygetis mermeria

Cithaerias aurora Taygetis sosis Sosis Satyr

Cithaerias menander

Cithaerias pireta Papilionidae

Haetera macleannania Battus belus varus

Haetera piera Battus polydamas

Pierella astyoche Papilio androgeus

Pierella hortona Papilio thoas cyniras

Pierella lamia Parides aeneas bolivar

Pierella lena Parides lysander

Pierella lucia Parides pizarro

Parides sesostris

Morphini

Antirrhea hela Riodinidae

Antirrhea philoctetes avernus Common Brown Morpho Amarynthis meneria

Morpho achilles Ancyluris endaemon

Morpho deidamia Ancyluris aulestes

Morpho helenor Ancyluris etias

Morpho menelaus Anteros renaldus

Morpho peleides Calospila cilissa

Morpho polycarmes Calospila partholon

Calospila emylius

Satyrini Calydna venusta

Caeruleuptychia scopulata Cartea vitula

Chloreuptychia agatha Emesis fatinella

Chloreuptychia herseis Emesis lucinda

Euptychia binoculata Emesis mandana

Euptychia labe Emesis ocypore

Euptychia myncea Eurybia dardus

Euptychia renata Eurybia elvina

Hermeuptychia hermes Eurybia franciscana

Sarota chrysus Eurybia halimede

Sarota spicata Eurybia unxia

Setabis gelasine Hyphilaria parthenis

Stalachtis calliope Isapis agyrtus

Stalachtis phaedusa Ithomiola floralis

Synargis orestessa Lasaia agesilaus narses

Magneuptychia analis Lasaia pseudomeris

Magneuptychia libye Leucochimona vestalis

Magneuptychia ocnus Livendula amaris

Magneuptychia ocypete Livendula violacea

59
Lyropteryx appolonia

Mesophthalma idotea

Mesosemia loruhama

Mesosemia latizonata

Napaea heteroea

Nymphidium mantus

Nyphidium nr minuta

Nymphidium lysimon

Nymphidium balbinus

Nymphidium caricae

Nymphidium chione

Pandemos Pasiphae

Perophtalma lasus

Pirascca tyriotes

Rhetus arcius

Rhetus periander

60
10.2 Yachana Reserve Map

61
 10.3 Complete Benthic Surveying Results

ORDER FAMILY BMWP P1 P2 S1 S2

Diptera Caratopogonidae 3 1 1
Chironomidae 2 5 11
Simuliidae 5 1
Tipulidae 3 1 2 9
Coleoptera Elmidae 6 6 2 6 6
Psephenidae 10 10 26 23 12
Ptilodactylidae 10 5 18 1
Other 0 2
Crustacea Decapoda 8 1 2
Ephemeroptera Batidae 7 1
Euthyplocidae 9 2 1
Leptohyphidae 7 1 6
Leptophlebiidae 9 20 12 5 28
Other 0 6 6 5
Hemiptera Naucoridae 7 6 8 11 14
Neuroptera Corydalidae 6 7
Odonata Anisoptera 8 1 1 1
Zygoptera 8 8 3 12 23
Oligochaeta Annelidae 1 1 3
Tubificidae 1 1 3
Plecoptera Perlidae 10 1 3 1 1
Trichoptera Glossosomatidae 7 2 9
Hydropsychidae 8 8 13 2
Leptoceridae 9 1
Odontoceridae 10 3 12 14 31
Other 0 1 4
Tricladia Planarida 5 2
Total 134 119 90 92
BMWP
Mean 126.5 91
BMWP

Legend:
P1= Abundances at site 1 at Stream 1 (25/05/10)
P2= Abundances at site 2 at Stream 1 (26/05/10)
S1= Abundances at site 1 at Stream 2 (24/05/10)
S2= Abundances at site 2 at Stream 2 (27/05/10)

62