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Chapter 2: Research Methods


January 17 (sec. 021) & 23 (sec. 011), 2020

Chapter 2: Psychological research


PSY 102

Instructor: Dr. Paolo Ammirante

Chapter 2 outline
Scientific Method (pp. 47-65)
Ethical Issues (pp. 66-69)
Statistics (pp. 69-72)

Chapter 2 outline
Scientific Method (pp. 47-65)
Ethical Issues (pp. 66-69)
Statistics (pp. 69-72)

Scientific Method
scientific theory used to generate predictions (called hypotheses) about how some aspect
of the world works
hypothesis: testable prediction about how the world will behave if our theory is correct
if it's not supported, then maybe the theory needs to be refined

Scientific Method

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Chapter 2: Research Methods file:///home/paolo/winter_2020_teaching/psy102_...

https://wikieducator.org/Introduction_to_research_methods_in_psychology/IRMP101/An_Introduction_to_Psychological_Science

Scientific Method
hypotheses often concern the relationship between two or more variables
variables: things to be measured that can take on different values

Scientific Method
goal in hypothesis testing is not to "prove" anything
it is about using "best practices" to be able to confidently reach a conclusion
e.g., isolating variables of interest, controlling for alternative explanations

Scientific Method

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Chapter 2: Research Methods file:///home/paolo/winter_2020_teaching/psy102_...

rods vary in material, length, and thickness (Halpern, 2003, pp.


146-147)
how would you test the hypothesis that "material" is a factor in
rod flexibility?

Scientific Method: Experiments


Two defining features of an experiment
1. researcher can manipulate at least one variable
e.g., in a drug experiment, some people receive the new treatment (experimental
group; p. 59)
and others (the control group) receive a placebo (p. 59)
2. random assignment to one group or the other

Scientific Method: Experiments


independent variable (IV): variable that is manipulated by the experimenter (p. 59)
the actual values are often called levels

Scientific Method: Experiments


dependent variable (DV): what the researcher measures to determine how much effect
the IV had (p. 59)
can have more than one IV and more than one DV

Scientific Method: Experiments


"A researcher is interested in how people's heart rates are affected by viewing a violent
sequence as opposed to a nonviolent film sequence"
IV?
DV?

Scientific Method: Experiments

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Chapter 2: Research Methods file:///home/paolo/winter_2020_teaching/psy102_...

between subjects design: different people for each level of the IV


within subjects design: same people for each level of the IV

Scientific Method: Experiments


critically important to control for confounding of variables
confounding of variables: when two variables are linked together in a way that makes it
difficult to sort out their specific effects (p. 50)

Scientific Method: Experiments


psychology often involves intangible variables
operational definition: working definition of what your measuring (p. 60)
important for replicating findings but also may be subject of dispute

Scientific Method: Experiments


experiments are the most powerful tool we have for hypothesis testing
always the preferred research method. Why?
If you have conducted a well-controlled experiment (random assignment, no confounds),
then you can be confident about cause

Scientific Method: Experiments


3 pitfalls of experimental design:
1. placebo effect (p. 61)
2. experimenter expectancy effect (p. 63)
3. demand characteristics (p. 64)

Scientific Method: Experiments


e.g. 1, placebo effect: getting better just because you expect to get better
solution: eliminate expectations by making participants blind to condition

Scientific Method: Experiments


Unscramble these sentences:
VERY ROOM FOUND HE THE PRIVATE
HAVE CURTAINS FOLDED CAN WRINKLES

Scientific Method: Experiments

Bargh et al. (1996) tested the hypothesis that people are unconsciously "primed" by certain
words

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Chapter 2: Research Methods file:///home/paolo/winter_2020_teaching/psy102_...

after completing the scrambled words task, participants with "old people" words walked
more slowly down the hall

Bargh, J. A., Chen, M., & Burrows, L. (1996). Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of
trait construct and stereotype priming on action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71,
230-244.

Scientific Method: Experiments


Doyen et al. (2012) failed to replicate Bargh's findings with two important changes:
Bargh Doyen
experimenters used a stopwatch sensors started and stopped the clock
experimenters knew which condition experiments didn't know
What might account for the different findings?

S. Doyen, O. Klein, C. L. Pichon and A. Cleeremans. (2012). Behavioral priming: it's all in the
mind, but whose mind? PLoS One, 7, e29081

Scientific Method: Experiments


e.g. 2, experimenter expectancy effect: unintentionally act in ways that influence
experimental results so that we obtain results that are consistent with our expectations
solution: double-blind procedure: where neither the experimenter nor the participant
know which group the participant is in (p. 63)

Scientific Method: Experiments


e.g. 3, demand characteristics: when participants think they are "on to" what a study is
about and change their responses to what they think the experimenter expects
solution: provide a "cover story" for the purpose of the study (deception); include
"distractions" from your question of interest (p. 65)

Scientific Method: Correlational


we are often unable to conduct a true experiment because it would be:
unethical
impossible
so some research done by just measuring variables
no manipulation
no random assignment

Scientific Method: Correlation


Correlational research aims to specify the relationship between two variables (x and y; p.
54)
correlational coefficient: a statistic that indicates whether two variables are related in a

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Chapter 2: Research Methods file:///home/paolo/winter_2020_teaching/psy102_...

systematic way; number between -1 and +1 (p. 54)


direction and strength of the correlational coefficient

Scientific Method: Correlation


If correlation is positive (+), then as x increases, so does y; as x decreases, so does y
Average Number of
Temperature Malaria Cases
Country 1 34 degrees 410
Country 2 32.7 degrees 382
Country 3 30 degrees 331
Country 4 29.2 degrees 298
Country 5 25 degrees 270
Country 6 21.3 degrees 254
Country 7 20 degrees 220

Scientific Method: Correlation

Scientific Method: Correlation


If correlation is negative (-), then as x increases, y decreases; as x decreases, y increases
Number of Erratic Reading
Eye Movements Comprehension
Person 1 15 59%
Person 2 11 64%
Person 3 10 73%

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Person 4 6 80%
Person 5 4 84%
Person 6 2 92%
Person 7 1 97%

Scientific Method: Correlation

Scientific Method: Correlation


strength: consistency with which changes in x are associated with changes in y
a value between -1.0 and +1.0 is calculated
sign (+ or -) indicates the direction
extremes (i.e., -1 or +1) are "perfect" correlations (never happens!)
0 indicates no relationship between x and y
usually satisfied with weaker correlations of around +0.4 or -0.4

Scientific Method: Correlation

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Strong Correlation

Scientific Method: Correlation

No Correlation

Scientific Method: Correlation

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Scientific Method: Correlation


limits on conclusions that can be drawn from correlation (pp. 50-51)
maybe x causes y; maybe y causes x
it's also possible that a third factor (z) influences x and y

Scientific Method: Correlation


media commits causation fallacy all the time
e.g., "Drinking and Grades: How Student Alcohol Consumption Affects GPA"
(https://www.thedailybeast.com/drinking-and-grades-how-student-alcohol-consumption-
affects-gpa)

Scientific Method: Correlation


illusory correlation: belief that two variables are correlated when they in fact are not (p.
56)
why do people do this?
maybe confirmation bias (ch. 1)
maybe need to find meaning in a chaotic world

Scientific Method: Reliability

Reliability consistency of measurements (p. 59)


e.g. 1, test-retest reliability: are repeated
measurements of the same thing consistent? (p. 51)
e.g. 2, interrater reliability: are measurements
between people fairly consistent? (p. 51)

Scientific Method: Validity


Validity: extent to which a measure is measuring what you want it to (p. 51)
e.g. 1, convergent validity: extent to which several measures all converge on the same
conclusion (NOT IN TEXTBOOK)
e.g. 2, external validity: extent to which measures generalize to the real world (p. 48)

Scientific Method
some research designs:
case studies (pp. 48-49)
naturalistic observation (p. 47)
self-report measures and surveys (pp. 49-50)

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Scientific Method: Case Study


case study: in-depth investigation of an individual subject (pp. 42-43)
advantages: existence proofs: demonstration that a given psychological phenomenon can
occur (p. 48)
disadvantages: generalizability? (p. 49)

Scientific Method: Naturalistic Observation


naturalistic observation: careful observation of behaviour without intervening directly
with research subjects (p. 47)

Scientific Method: Naturalistic Observation

e.g., Abel and Kruger (2010)


tested the theory that "being
positive" is associated with
living longer
baseball players from 1952
season
smile was index of "being
positive"
http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-good-life/201004/smiles-and-
longevity-game-faces-and-life-faces

Scientific Method: Naturalistic Observation

players with "real" (Duchenne) smile lived


longer!

http://www.sabernomics.com/sabernomics/index.php

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Chapter 2: Research Methods file:///home/paolo/winter_2020_teaching/psy102_...

/2010/03/

Scientific Method: Self-report measures


self-report measures (i.e., questionnaires) -> personality, preferences, etc.
surveys -> opinions and attitudes

Scientific Method: Self-report measures

population: entire group about which one wants to


make predictions
sample: a subset of a population that is studied to
make inferences about the population

Scientific Method: Self-report measures

to be able to generalize findings, sample must be


representative of the population
mistakes can occur if your sample is biased
solution: random selection: every person in the
population of interest has an equal chance of being
chosen to participate (p. 50) (NB: not the same as
random assignment!)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alf_Landon

Chapter 2 outline
Scientific Method (pp. 47-65)
Ethical Issues (pp. 66-69)
Statistics (pp. 69-72)

Ethical Issues

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Chapter 2: Research Methods file:///home/paolo/winter_2020_teaching/psy102_...

Milgram's notorious study of


obedience:
https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=yr5cjyokVUs

http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/beginning-psychology/s18-02-
interacting-with-others-helpin.html

Ethical Issues
controversy around ethics:
lying to participants
causing distress
research today is monitored by research ethics boards (REBs) (p. 67)

Ethical Issues
Canadian ethical guidelines = Tri-Council Policy Statement (TCPS)
Tri-council:
Canadian Institute for Health Research (CIHR)
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC)
Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC)
implemented at the institutional level

Ethical Issues
2 basic principles:
1. informed consent: tell participants what they are getting in to beforehand (p. 67)
Deception can be used under limited circumstances (p.68):
a) couldn't have performed study without it
b) doesn't negatively affect the rights of the participant
c) research doesn't involve medical or therapeutic intervention
2. debriefing: inform participants what the study was about
inform if deception was used

Chapter 2 outline
Scientific Method (pp. 47-65)
Ethical Issues (pp. 66-69)

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Chapter 2: Research Methods file:///home/paolo/winter_2020_teaching/psy102_...

Statistics (pp. 69-72)

Statistics
descriptive statistics: means of summarizing and organizing data
for an experiment, they describe how scores are distributed

Statistics

often scores have a normal


distribution

Statistics

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Chapter 2: Research Methods file:///home/paolo/winter_2020_teaching/psy102_...

Two important pieces of


distributional information:
1. central tendency: where the
peak is
2. variability: how spread out
the scores are

Statistics

3 measures of central tendency:


mean = "average"
median: middle value in a set of scores
mode: value that occurs most often in a set of scores

Statistics

e.g., given sample IQ scores of 80, 85, 95, 95, 220 (negative skew):
Mean (80+85+95+95+220)/5=115
Median 95
Mode 95

Statistics

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bar graphs usually show


the mean of a normal
distribution

Statistics

variability: a measure of how


much the scores in a data set
differ from each other
in some cases, scores may differ
very little

Statistics

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in some cases, there may be a


wide variety of scores

Statistics
range is the simplest measure of variability, but it can be deceptive (see Fig. 2.6)
standard deviation: average amount that an individual data point differs from the mean

Statistics

variability can be shown


on a bar graph with
standard error bars

Statistics

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Chapter 2: Research Methods file:///home/paolo/winter_2020_teaching/psy102_...

difference between groups is small:


difference between averages =
.66 points
How much difference is needed to
conclude that my findings are not
due to random chance?

Statistics

correlation is not very strong:


r = -.13
How strong does it need to be to
conclude that my findings are not
due to random chance?

Statistics
inferential statistics: used laws of probability to interpret data and draw conclusions
way of deciding whether there are fewer than 5 chances in 100 that your data are due to
chance

Statistics
if < 5 out of 100, result is statistically significant
statistical significance: when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance
is very low
NB: "significance" does NOT mean "important" or "interesting"

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Statistics
statistics can be misleading (whether done purposefully or accidentally) and confusing even
for "experts" (pp. 72-73)
solution is statistical literacy

Statistics

Statistics

Statistics

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Statistics
October 1995: warning from UK Committee on Safety of Medicines:
new oral contraceptive pills increase the risk of potentially life-threatening blood clots by
100%

Statistics
100% is the relative increase in the risk of blood clots
base rate (p. 73), i.e., how many women got blood clots from old pill?
absolute increase, i.e., how many more women got blood clots from new pill?

Statistics
study involved a sample of 7000 women
old contraceptive pills -> # of blood clots = 1 (base rate)
new contraceptive pills -> # of blood clots = 2
Absolute risk increase: 1 in 7000
Relative risk increase: 100%

Gigerenzer, G., Gaissmaier, W., Kurz-Milcke, E., Schwartz, L. M., & Woloshin, S. (2008). Helping
doctors and patients make sense of health statistics. Psychological Science in the Public Interest,
8, 53-96.

Statistics
"Absolute risks are typically small numbers while the corresponding relative changes tend
to look big - particularly when the base rate is low" (Gigerenzer et al., 2008, p. 54)

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Gigerenzer, G., Gaissmaier, W., Kurz-Milcke, E., Schwartz, L. M., & Woloshin, S. (2008). Helping
doctors and patients make sense of health statistics. Psychological Science in the Public Interest,
8, 53-96.

Statistics

Increase in abortion cost National Health


Service $70 million and increased
pregnancy
Ironically, abortion and pregnancy are
associated with higher blood clot risk than
pill

For next week

read Ch. 3

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