Application Guide for

High Voltage Accessories

2nd edition
Application Guide for High Voltage Accessories

Creation: Brugg Cables

Authors: Hansjörg Gramespacher, Ruben Vogelsang, Matthias Freilinger

Copyright: All Rights Reserved. The use, reproduction and distribution of these information is
authorized only for a non-commercial purpose on condition that the source is explicitly
quoted.

A publication of the Brugg Cables Academy

2nd edition, 2015

Printed in Switzerland by Effingerhof, Brugg

ISBN: 978-3-033-04936-9
Preface
For modern societies all over the world, electric
energy is one of the key factors for industrial
growth and individual prosperity. This admit-
tedly simplified but true statement nevertheless
assumes a high level of availability of electric
energy, ensuring uninterruptible manufacturing
processes for heavy industries, as well as a reli-
able power supply for the IT infrastructure for
commercial business services, which both rely
on electric energy.
Besides single and spatially concentrated high
voltage equipment of major importance, such
as turbo generators or large power transform-
ers, the high voltage network represents the
most important asset for a utility and its cus-
tomers in terms of size, value and pertinence.
For many reasons, for example their environ-
mental impact, route consumption and the re-
sulting acceptance of the affected population,
high voltage lines are increasingly making use
of high voltage cable technology. Already very
common in urban regions for the medium volt-
age range, high voltage cable systems are also
used successfully in the power transmission
sector, particularly as the knowledge and expe-
rience of the major cable manufacturers is con-
stantly increasing, and as a result reliable prod-
ucts are available on the market.
As AC high voltage cables with production
lengths of some hundred metres up to several
kilometres, with a symmetrical cylindrical de-
sign, and well-known electrical field stress ap-
pear to be state-of-the-art for system voltages of
several hundred kilovolts, and therefore uncriti-
cal, cable accessories such as terminations and
joints have to be discussed in more detail.
High voltage cable accessories have to connect
two cable lengths together or, often, one cable
to other high voltage interfaces, such as gas-
insulated switchgears, oil-insulated transform-
ers or outdoor overhead lines. Illustratively
speaking, high voltage accessories have to con-
nect two worlds, which can be quite different in
terms of their geometry, material and behav-
iour. From the material point of view, electro-
chemical aspects have to be considered, when
joining an aluminium conductor to a copper
conductor, for instance. Also physical aspects
have to be taken into account, such as different
conductor diameters or materials with different
thermal coefficients of expansion. With regard
to the insulation materials, commonly silicone
rubber, polyethylene and oil-impregnated pa-
per, interactions also have to be considered.
And finally, pointing out the major challenge of
accessories, the ability to intransigently restore
the electrical insulation of two separate parts,
electrical field distribution has to be actively
controlled using proper materials and designs,
this being the most important secret of every
manufacturer of high voltage accessories.
All these technical aspects have to be taken into
account to design a reliable high voltage cable
accessory that meets the specified require-
ments. Economic aspects have to be considered
as well. To ensure a sufficient level of practical
usability, the design of the accessories also has
to tolerate a minimum level of faulty assembly
works, making them practicable for the “real
world” for a long operating period. Taking all
these factors into consideration, a customer will
of course choose high- quality high voltage ac-
cessories, as the accessories used ultimately
define the quality of a complete cable system,
and even major parts of a cable network.

This “Application Guide for High Voltage Ac-

cessories” will enable the reader to choose, and
define in advance the requirements for the ac-
cessories needed for his specific task, by under-
standing design principles, manufacturing pro-
cesses and test criteria in accordance with in-
ternational standards for quality assurance.

The City of Kiel, Germany, April 2015

Professor Kay Rethmeier

Director of the Institute of

Electrical Power Engineering and
High Voltage Laboratories of the

University of Applied Science Kiel

Foreword

After the appreciation from our customers and our industry for the 1st edition of our “Application Guide for High
Voltage Accessories”, we are tremendously proud to present this 2nd edition. It has been completely reworked
and summarises the complex topics relevant to the reliable operation of high voltage accessories in a fundamen-
tal way.

Working in the field of high voltage accessories, we are constantly being asked a variety of questions concerning
the application of accessories for high voltage cable systems. These vary from simple questions, such as the dif-
ference between composite and porcelain insulators for terminations to the more complex, such as how to de-
sign an appropriate earthing layout for cable systems. Although diverse, most of the questions have one thing in
common: They are related to the application of accessories for high voltage cable systems.

High voltage cable systems are only as good as the installed high voltage accessories. Therefore we aim to sup-
ply high voltage accessories that are safe and reliable. We at Brugg Cables constantly expand our know-how and
expertise on the application of high voltage accessories and are pleased to share our knowledge with you.

We wish you happy reading and a lot of useful benefits in your practical work!

Roger Braun Aman Sapra

Head of Business Unit Head of Marketing

Power Accessories & Cables Power Accessories & Cables
Contents
PREFACE
FOREWORD

CONTENTS

1 FUNDAMENTALS .................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Fundamental electric relations ...................................................................................3

1.1.1 Electric charges, current, electric field, voltage and potential ....................................................... 3
1.1.2 Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws....................................................................................................... 5
1.1.3 Terms of electric power .................................................................................................................... 5
1.1.4 Electric resistivity, conductivity, insulators and semiconductivity................................................ 7
1.1.5 Magnetic field .................................................................................................................................... 8
1.1.6 Electromagnetic induction ................................................................................................................ 9

1.2 Electric field..............................................................................................................10

1.2.1 Electric field and field lines ............................................................................................................. 10
1.2.2 Electric field in technical objects .................................................................................................... 11
1.2.3 Capacity ............................................................................................................................................ 13

1.3 Insulating materials in high voltage technology.......................................................14

1.3.1 Solid materials ................................................................................................................................. 14
1.3.2 Liquids .............................................................................................................................................. 15
1.3.3 Gases ................................................................................................................................................ 15

1.4 Power transmission ..................................................................................................15

1.4.1 Basics of electric power transmission systems ............................................................................ 15
1.4.2 Overhead lines ................................................................................................................................. 17
1.4.3 Power cables .................................................................................................................................... 17
1.4.4 Transmission capability .................................................................................................................. 18
1.4.5 Power transmission and environment........................................................................................... 19

1.5 Terms and definitions ...............................................................................................21

1.5.1 Definition of voltage values for cable systems ............................................................................. 21
1.5.2 Definition of terms for terminations and cable systems .............................................................. 22

2 AGEING AND LIFE EXPECTANCY....................................................................................................... 23

2.1 Ageing in polymers ...................................................................................................25

2.1.1 Theory of electric lifetime law ........................................................................................................ 25
2.1.2 Practical experiences with electric lifetime law and electric ageing ........................................... 26
2.1.3 Thermal ageing................................................................................................................................ 27

2.2 Volume effect of real polymeric arrangements ........................................................27

2.3 Life expectancy .........................................................................................................28

2.3.1 Basic failure behaviour.................................................................................................................... 28
2.3.2 Short-term failures .......................................................................................................................... 28
2.3.3 Occasional failures .......................................................................................................................... 29
2.3.4 Failures due to ageing..................................................................................................................... 30
3 TESTS AND STANDARDS .................................................................................................................... 31

3.1 Tests .........................................................................................................................33

3.1.1 Basic idea of testing ........................................................................................................................ 33
3.1.2 Development tests........................................................................................................................... 33
3.1.3 Type tests ......................................................................................................................................... 33
3.1.4 Prequalification tests ....................................................................................................................... 37
3.1.5 Requalification tests ........................................................................................................................ 38
3.1.6 Routine tests .................................................................................................................................... 39
3.1.7 After installation tests ..................................................................................................................... 40
3.1.8 Alternative methods for after installation tests............................................................................. 42

3.2 Standards ..................................................................................................................43

3.2.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 43
3.2.2 Main differences between IEC and IEEE standards ...................................................................... 43
3.2.3 Relevant IEC standards ................................................................................................................... 45
3.2.4 Relevant IEEE, AEIC, ANSI and ICEA standards............................................................................ 46

4 HIGH VOLTAGE XLPE CABLES .......................................................................................................... 47

4.1 Design and types of high voltage XLPE cables.........................................................49

4.1.1 Cable design..................................................................................................................................... 49
4.1.2 Types of high voltage XLPE cables ................................................................................................ 51

4.2 Cable layout and system design ...............................................................................53

4.2.1 General ............................................................................................................................................. 53
4.2.2 Electric field, capacity and charging current ................................................................................. 54
4.2.3 Inductive values of the cable .......................................................................................................... 55
4.2.4 Cable losses ..................................................................................................................................... 56
4.2.5 Dynamic forces ................................................................................................................................ 58

4.3 Laying of high voltage cables ...................................................................................58

4.3.1 Laying arrangements ...................................................................................................................... 58
4.3.2 Current carrying capacity and temperature calculation ............................................................... 61
4.3.3 Reduction of magnetic field............................................................................................................ 62

4.4 Cable selection process ............................................................................................62

5 HIGH VOLTAGE ACCESSORIES FOR POLYMER CABLES .............................................................. 63

5.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................65

5.2 Technologies for slip-on elements ............................................................................66

5.2.1 Control of the electric field.............................................................................................................. 66
5.2.2 Semiconducting parts ..................................................................................................................... 68
5.2.3 Comparison of main materials ....................................................................................................... 68
5.2.4 Cold shrink elements....................................................................................................................... 70
5.2.5 Three-piece silicone rubber slip-on elements ............................................................................... 71
5.2.6 One-piece silicone rubber slip-on elements.................................................................................. 72
5.2.7 One-piece EPDM/EPR slip-on elements ......................................................................................... 73
5.2.8 Lapped technology .......................................................................................................................... 74
5.2.9 Final comparisons and conclusions............................................................................................... 74

5.3 Terminations .............................................................................................................75

5.3.1 Basic design ..................................................................................................................................... 75
5.3.2 Outdoor terminations...................................................................................................................... 76
5.3.3 Explosion resistant terminations.................................................................................................... 78
5.3.4 Classic SF6 and transformer terminations ..................................................................................... 79
5.3.5 Dry-type plug-in terminations ........................................................................................................ 80
5.4 Joints ........................................................................................................................82
5.4.1 Basic design ..................................................................................................................................... 82
5.4.2 Conductor connections ................................................................................................................... 82
5.4.3 Moisture and mechanical protection of joints .............................................................................. 84
5.4.4 Application of joints with different protection degrees................................................................ 85
5.4.5 Grounding connections................................................................................................................... 86

6 ADDITIONAL ACCESSORIES............................................................................................................... 89

6.1 Cable clamps.............................................................................................................91

6.1.1 Main requirements .......................................................................................................................... 91
6.1.2 Forces in a cable system ................................................................................................................. 91
6.1.3 Types of cable clamps..................................................................................................................... 93
6.1.4 Cable clamps at joints ..................................................................................................................... 94
6.1.5 Cable clamps at terminations ......................................................................................................... 94
6.1.6 Cable clamps for cable laying......................................................................................................... 95

6.2 Surge arresters .........................................................................................................98

6.2.1 Fundamentals .................................................................................................................................. 98
6.2.2 Application of sheath voltage limiters in cable systems.............................................................. 98
6.2.3 Dimensioning of sheath voltage limiters....................................................................................... 99

6.3 Earthing devices for joints and terminations..........................................................100

6.3.1 Fundamentals ................................................................................................................................ 100
6.3.2 IP and NEMA protection classes .................................................................................................. 100
6.3.3 Earthing boxes ............................................................................................................................... 102
6.3.4 Cross-bonding boxes .................................................................................................................... 103
6.3.5 Earthing clamps for terminations................................................................................................. 103

7 INSTALLATION AND OPERATION .................................................................................................... 105

7.1 Installation of accessories ......................................................................................107

7.1.1 Basics.............................................................................................................................................. 107
7.1.2 Installation of terminations........................................................................................................... 108
7.1.3 Installation of joints ....................................................................................................................... 114

7.2 Earthing ..................................................................................................................120

7.2.1 Background of earthing................................................................................................................. 120
7.2.2 Induced voltages at cable screen ................................................................................................. 120
7.2.3 Principles of earthing systems ..................................................................................................... 120
7.2.4 Earthing of terminations ............................................................................................................... 122
7.2.5 Earthing of joints ........................................................................................................................... 123

7.3 Operation ................................................................................................................123

7.3.1 Terminations in non-vertical position.......................................................................................... 123
7.3.2 Terminations on high voltage towers.......................................................................................... 124
7.3.3 Wind load for terminations........................................................................................................... 124
7.3.4 Seismic calculations ...................................................................................................................... 125

8 MEASUREMENTS, MONITORING AND DIAGNOSTICS ................................................................... 127

8.1 Introduction and basic definitions ..........................................................................129

8.1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 129
8.1.2 Basic definitions............................................................................................................................. 129

8.2 Possible PD phenomena in high voltage cables, terminations or joints.................130

8.3 Measurements of PD...............................................................................................131

8.3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 131
8.3.2 Challenges of on-site PD measurements..................................................................................... 132
8.3.3 Measurement methods ................................................................................................................. 132
8.3.4 Sensor types established for on-site measurements ................................................................. 136
8.3.5 PD pattern recognition .................................................................................................................. 138
8.3.6 PD measurement and monitoring system design ...................................................................... 139

8.4 Temperature measurements and monitoring of cables ..........................................141

8.4.1 Basics.............................................................................................................................................. 141
8.4.2 Applications ................................................................................................................................... 142

8.5 Other measurement and monitoring methods ........................................................143

8.5.1 Infrared temperature measurements for terminations .............................................................. 143
8.5.2 Water monitoring for cables......................................................................................................... 143

8.6 Other diagnostic methods ......................................................................................144

8.6.1 Oil analysis for terminations......................................................................................................... 144
8.6.2 Diagnostics based on loss-factor and polarisation-depolarisation measurements................. 144

9 TENDENCIES AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS................................................................................ 145

10 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 151

11 SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS..................................................................................................... 157

12 APPENDIX............................................................................................................................................ 161

12.1 SI units and SI prefixes ..........................................................................................163

12.2 Conversion table to the metric system ..................................................................164

BRUGG CABLES
1. Fundamentals 1

Chapter 1

Fundamentals
2
1. Fundamentals 3

1.1 Fundamental electric is always proportional to the charge q. Therefore

an electric field 𝐸 can be defined between the

relations
charges. Like the force 𝐹 the electric field 𝐸 is a
1.1.1 Electric charges, current, elec- vector. Consequently, 𝐸 is defined by:
tric field, voltage and potential

Electric charges
𝐹
All electric phenomena are based on the flow or
𝐸= (Eq. 1-1)
𝑞
accumulation of electric charges. The electric
charges can be positive or negative and are always
related to atoms. The basic unit of the electric field is newton per
coulomb (N/C). In practice, however, the unit volt
The atoms themselves consist of three different
per metre (V/m) is much more frequently used.
types of particles: protons, electrons and neutrons.
Together, the heavy neutrons and protons form the Common units for 𝐸 are:

atomic nucleus of the atoms. The much lighter 𝑁 𝑉 𝑘𝑉

electrons form the atomic shell. 𝐸 = = = 10!!
𝐶 𝑚 𝑚𝑚
While neutrons are electrically neutral particles,
hence the name “neutron”, the protons and elec-
Since in most technical expressions, only the abso-
trons possess an electric charge. The charge “e” of
lute value of the electric field is considered, in the
these particles is a fundamental parameter in our
following the electric field is given as “E”, without
universe and has a value of e = 1.602⋅10-19 C. Pro-
the vector.
tons possess the positive charge e and electrons
the negative charge e.

The electric charge is given as “q” or “Q”. The unit

of electric charge q is coulomb (C), named after the
French engineer and physicist August Coulomb.

An attractive force occurs between positively and

negatively charged particles. As atoms in general
have the same number of electrons and protons, Electric field and force of two charged objects; Left:
the forces are usually not noticed in our daily life. Objects have charges with different polarity and hence
attracting force; Right: Both objects have same posi-
However, if an object A has more electrons (nega-
tive charges and hence repellent force
tively charged) than protons, whilst another object
B has fewer electrons than protons (positively
charged), then an attractive force occurs between
the two objects. This force is given by the expres- Electric current

sion 𝐹. The arrow above the letter indicates that the If there is an electric conductor between the pairs

force is a vector, which means that both the abso- of charged objects, a movement of the charged

lute value and the direction of the force have to be particles takes place and an electric current flows.

considered. The electric current “I” is defined as “the amount

of charge that moves through a cross section of an
object per unit of time” [Lindner 93]. Therefore, the
definition of the current I is given as:
Electric field

The force 𝐹, which accelerates the positive charge q

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑄
towards the negative object, is proportional to the 𝐼= = (Eq. 1-2)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
absolute value of the charge q. In general, this
force is different at each point. However, the force
4

The basic unit of the current is coulomb per second Here, the difference between two potentials Φ1 and
(C/s). A much more frequently used unit for the cur- Φ2 is called voltage “U” (sometimes written as
rent is ampere (A), named after the French physi- voltage V). Consequently, the voltage U is de-
cist André Marie Ampère. It is described as: scribed as the difference between two potentials.
𝐶 The unit of the voltage is Volt (V), named after the
𝐼 = =𝐴
𝑠 Italian physicist Alessandro Volta.

Electric potential and voltage DC and AC current, frequency

If a charge Q in an electric field is moved from a The term “DC” (sometimes given as “d.c.” or “dc”)
reference point P0 to another point P1, then a cer- stands for “direct current”. The term “AC” (some-
tain amount of energy has to be applied. According times given as a.c. or ac) stands for “alternating
to equation 1-1, this energy not only depends on current”.
the position of point P1 but also on the charge Q. If
A current is called DC if it does not change its am-
the same charge is moved to a second point P2, this
plitude and direction over time.
energy changes. Similar to the definition of the
A current is called AC if it changes direction and if
electrical field, these energies can be divided by the
its value (magnitude) changes on a regular basis.
charge Q. The result of this mathematical relation is
The sum of the positive and negative values inte-
a parameter, which is related to the electric field.
grated over time is zero.
This parameter is called potential “Φ“ of the elec-

tric field 𝐸 . All points on a line that have the same

1
potential are placed on a so-called equipotential 0.8
Sinusoidal current (voltage)
dc current (voltage)
line. To move a charge along an equipotential line, 0.6

0.4
no energy is necessary.
Amplitude

0.2

0
However, energy is necessary for moving a charge
-0.2

Q from a point P1 with potential Φ1 to a point P2 -0.4

-0.6
with potential Φ2. This energy Welectric is [Lind-
-0.8

ner 93]: -1
Time t

Amplitude of DC and AC currents

𝑊%#%&!"$& = 𝑄 ∙ Φ! − Φ! = 𝑄 ∙ 𝑈 (Eq. 1-3)

Although the terms DC and AC refer to “currents”,

they are also used to describe voltages. Conse-
quently, DC voltage stands for a non-changing
voltage and ac voltage stands for a voltage that
changes its value (magnitude) on a regular basis.

The number of turns of an AC current per unit of

time is referred to as the frequency “f” of that cur-
rent. The unit of the frequency f is given in 1/s or
“Hz” (Hertz), named after the German physicist
Heinrich Hertz.

In ac power supply systems, the standard frequen-

cy is 50 Hz for most European and Asian states and
60 Hz for most American states.

In the case of railway systems, lower frequency

Electric field lines (black) and equipotential lines (vio- values, such as 16 ⅔ Hz, are often used.
let) in between differently charged objects
1. Fundamentals 5

1.1.2 Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s connection of resistors, the currents split in each
line of the circuit.
laws

Ohm’s law
Second Kirchhoff’s law: Mesh rule
When a conductor is present between two poten-
The second law of Kirchhoff says that the sum of all
tials in an electrical field, an electric current will
voltages around any closed loop (electric circuit) is
flow. The current can be calculated as follows:
zero. The second law of Kirchhoff is defined as
[Lindner 93]:
𝑈
𝐼= (Eq. 1-4)
𝑅 (Eq. 1-7)
𝑈=0

Consequently, the resistance “R” of the conductor

This law states that the sum of all voltage sources
is given as:
is equal to the sum of all voltage users – in other
words: the electric charges in an electric circuit re-
𝑈 main in the circuit itself. This means that in an elec-
𝑅= = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 (Eq. 1-5)
tric circuit with a series connection of resistors, the
𝐼
current is the same in each part of the circuit.
Both laws are named after the German physicist
This equation is called Ohm’s law, named after the
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff.
German physicist, Georg Simon Ohm. The unit of
the resistance is “Ω” (Ohm) and is given as:

𝑉
𝑅 = =Ω
𝐴 1.1.3 Terms of electric power

Effective power P
Ohm’s law reveals a distinct linear relation between The effective electric power P is the product of elec-
voltage and current. This means that with a con- tric current and voltage and is given as:
stant electric resistance at a voltage level of 50%,
only 50% of the current flows.
𝑃 =𝑈∙𝐼 (Eq. 1-8)

First Kirchhoff’s law: Nodal rule

The first law of Kirchhoff considers a node in an When applying Ohm’s law (Eq. 1-5), the electric

electric circuit. It describes the principle of the con- power can also be given as:

servation of electric charge. The law says that at

any node (or electric junction) the sum of all cur-
𝑃 = 𝐼! ∙ 𝑅 (Eq. 1-9)
rents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of
all currents flowing out of that node. The first law
of Kirchhoff can be expressed as [Lindner 93]: or:

𝑈!
𝑃= (Eq. 1-10)
𝑅
𝐼"! = 𝐼#!" (Eq. 1-6)

Equations 1-9 and 1-10 show that the electric power

has a quadratic relation to voltage and current. This

If incoming currents are taken as positive and out- means that doubling the current (or voltage) and

going currents are taken as negative, the first law keeping the resistance constant means increasing

describes the sum of all currents in a knot as zero. the power by a factor of four.

This means that in an electric circuit with a parallel

6
The effective power P is the electric power that can
be directly transferred into other forms of power,
such as light, mechanical, thermal or chemical
power. A useful example of such a transfer is elec-
tric heating. An unwanted example is the ohmic
losses in the conductor of a cable during current
flow.
The unit of the effective power is Watt (W), named
after the Scottish inventor James Watt, and is de-
fined as:
𝑃 =𝑉∙𝐴 =𝑊
Reactive power Q
In contrast to the effective power P, the reactive
power “Q” cannot be transferred directly into any
other terms of power. Reactive power is needed to
create electric and/or magnetic fields.
When transferring electric energy in a cable or an
overhead line, not only the effective power P (in the
conductor), but also the reactive power Q (in the
insulation and in the magnetic field around the line)
is transferred. Since reactive power cannot be di-
rectly used, it usually contributes to losses and
must therefore be limited as much as possible (as
far as practical application for cable systems are
concerned).
To differentiate the types of power from each other,
the unit of reactive power is given in “var” (volt
ampere reactive).
Apparent power S
The geometric sum of effective power P and reac-
tive power Q is the apparent power “S”. The ap-
parent power can be calculated by using the law of
Pythagoras and is given as:
𝑆= 𝑃! + 𝑄! (Eq. 1-11)
To differentiate between the different types of
power, the unit of apparent power S is given in
“VA” (Volt Ampere). Since in almost all electric
equipment effective and reactive power are con-
sumed (e.g. in a cable: effective power in the con-
ductor, reactive power in the magnetic and the
electric field), apparent power is usually given to
describe the power capacity of the equipment.
Power factor
The presence of reactive power leads to a phase
shift between the current I and the voltage V. The
angle of this phase shift is called “ϕ“ (phi). Usually
this phase shift is described by the cosines of the
corresponding angle ϕ and is named as the “power
factor“. The greater the reactive power, the higher
is the phase shift. In most electrical power equip-
ment, the power factor cos ϕ is between 0.82 and
0.93.
Considering Equation 1-11 and taking the power
factor into account, the effective and reactive pow-
er in a three-phase system with voltage U can be
given as:
𝑃 = 𝑈 ∙ 𝐼 ∙ 3 ∙ cos 𝜑 (Eq. 1-12)
𝑄 = 𝑈 ∙ 𝐼 ∙ 3 ∙ sin 𝜑 (Eq. 1-13)
Example 1-1:
Æ A 30 MVA transformer and a 132 kV polymer ca-
ble connecting it
 Electric current in the cable
P According to equation 1-11 together with 1-12
and 1-13 the current can be calculated as:
𝑆 30 000 𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝐼= = = 131 𝐴
𝑈∙ 3 132 𝑘𝑉 ∙ 1.73
Example 1-2:
Æ A 30 MW generator, a power factor of cos ϕ =
0.85 and a 132 kV polymer cable connecting it
 Electric current in the cable
P According to equation 1-12 the current can be
calculated as:
𝑃 30 𝑀𝑊
𝐼= = = 155 𝐴
𝑈 ∙ 3 ∙ cos 𝜑 132 𝑘𝑉 ∙ 1.73 ∙ 0.85
Electric energy
Electric energy is defined as the product of (usable)
effective power in a certain unit of time. It is there-
fore given as:
𝑊%#%&!"$& = 𝑃 ∙ 𝑡 (Eq. 1-14)
The unit of energy is joule (J or Ws), named after
the British physicist James Prescott Joule.
1. Fundamentals 7

1.1.4 Electric resistivity, conduc- conductor decreases and with conductors of a

greater length, the resistance increases.
tivity, insulators and semi-
conductivity
Change of resistance with temperature
Resistivity and resistance
A rise of temperature causes the lattice in the mate-
The current flow through a metallic conductor is a
rial to oscillate at higher amplitude, resulting in a
transport of electrons. These electrons interact with
stronger interaction of the electrons with the lattice.
the lattice structure of the metals. The electrons
This process leads to a higher loss of energy and,
lose kinetic energy when interacting with the lattice
ultimately, to a rise in temperature of the conduc-
structure. On a macroscopic scale this loss of kinet-
tor. Most metals including all common conductor
ic energy is described by the electrical resistivity
materials, such as copper or aluminium, show an
(ρ). As the degree of interaction of electrons with increase in the resistance when subjected to a rise
the lattice structure differs according to the type of in temperature. Such materials are called positive
metal, the degree of electric resistivity also varies. temperature coefficient materials. The relation of
The electric resistivity of each material can be resistance and temperature is given by [Lindner
found in appropriate literature. Typical values of 93]:
metals are given in the table below.

Electric resistivity of common materials at 20 °C 𝑅 𝑇 = 𝑅!" ∙ (1 + 𝛼!" 𝑇 − 𝑇!" ) (Eq. 1-16)

[Lide 03], [Friedrich 93]

Material Electric resistivity In which:

R (T): Resistance at a certain temperature T
Silver 0.015 ⋅ 10-6 Ωm
R20: Resistance at 20°C
Copper 0.017 ⋅ 10-6 Ωm
α20: Temperature coefficient of the material
Gold 0.021 ⋅ 10-6 Ωm at 20°C; αAl = 16.8⋅10-6 1/K, αCu = 23.9⋅10-6
Aluminium 0.027 ⋅ 10-6 Ωm T: Temperature
T20: Temperature of 20°C
Brass 0.064 ⋅ 10-6 Ωm

Iron 0.10 ⋅ 10-6 Ωm

Conductivity
Lead 0.21 ⋅ 10-6 Ωm The opposite of electric resistivity is electric con-
Stainless steel 0.71 ⋅ 10-6 Ωm ductivity. The electric conductivity “κ” (Kappa) is
defined as:
The resistance of a conductor is given by the mate-
rial specific values and its geometry. It is defined as 1
[Lindner 93]: 𝜅= (Eq. 1-17)
𝜌

𝑙 The unit for κ is siemens per metre (S/m). The unit

𝑅 =𝜌∙ (Eq. 1-15)
𝐴 S (Siemens) is named after the German engineer
and inventor Werner v. Siemens.
In which:
R: Resistance of the conductor Electric conduction
ρ: Resistivity of the conductor
As stated in Section 1.4, electric current is the flow
l: Length of the conductor
of electrons. As all metals allow a very high flow of
A: Cross-section area of the conductor electrons, they are referred to as “electric conduc-
Equation 1-15 shows that with higher cross-section tors” or merely “conductors”.
values the resistance (and therefore losses) of a
8

Ionic conduction 1.1.5 Magnetic field

In addition to the flow of electrons, entire atoms
Magnetic field and magnetic field strength
can also move through a material. The charged at-
A magnetic field occurs between the poles of per-
oms (negatively or positively) are called ions. Ions
manent magnets and in the surroundings of cur-
typically move through liquids. Positively charged
rent carrying conductors [Lindner 93].
ions are called “cations”, while negatively charged
ions are called “anions”.

Whilst the transport of matter does not occur dur-

ing electron flow, it does occur during the flow of
ions – a phenomenon that can be seen in batteries.
N
Electric insulators

As a general rule, electric insulators are materials

that do not allow a significant amount of electric
S
current to flow. Electric insulators are air, oil, ce-
ramics, epoxy resin, glass, polymers, rubber or
wood. Since they are very important for the
equipment of high voltage cable systems, more de-
tails are given in a separate section (Chapter 5).

Magnetic field lines of a permanent magnet

Electric semiconductivity (as applied to cable
systems)
Although the application of semiconducting mate-
rials in electronic components, such as doped sili-
con, is not covered in this book, it is worth men-
tioning that the expression “semiconductive (or
semiconducting) material” frequently occurs in the
field of high voltage technology. This expression is
usually used for materials with a level of resistivity
that is between the high conductivity of common
metals and the low conductivity of insulators.
In most cases, these semiconducting materials
consist of carbon black filled polymers. The poly-
mers can be made of thermoplastic materials, such
as polyethylene, or elastomers, such as silicone
rubber or EPR (ethylene propylene rubber). Carbon
black filled polyethylene material is used for the in-
Magnetic field around a current carrying conductor
ner and outer semiconducting layer of polymer ca-
bles, while carbon black filled elastomers are used
Like electric field lines, magnetic field lines repre-
for the deflectors and middle electrodes of high
sent the magnetic field of a material. In contrast to
voltage accessories. Typical resistivities of these
electric field lines, magnetic field lines are always
materials are around 10 Ωcm.
“closed”, having neither a beginning nor an end. In
a permanent magnet, the magnetic field lines travel
outside the magnet from north- to south pole.
Since magnetic field lines are always closed, they
go inside the magnetic material from south- to
north pole. In a current carrying conductor, mag-
1. Fundamentals
netic field lines occur concentrically around the
conductor.
The strength and direction of the magnetic field is
given by the magnetic field strength “H”. Similar to
the electric field E, the magnetic field strength H is
a vectorial parameter and always rectangular to the
causing current I [Lindner 93]. For the sake of sim-
plicity, the vector is not used in the following. The
unit of the magnetic field strength is ampere per
metre (A/m):
𝐴 𝑁∙Φ
𝐻 =
𝑚 𝐼
Magnetic flux density
The magnetic flux density (sometimes referred to
as magnetic induction) “B” provides the link be-
tween the magnetic field strength H and material
properties. The magnetic flux density B is given as
[Lindner 93]:
𝐵 = 𝜇! ∙ 𝜇! ∙ 𝐻 (Eq. 1-18)
In which:
µ0 : Absolute permeability = 1.257⋅10-6 H/m
µr: Relative permeability
H: Magnetic field strength
For most conductors the relative permeability µr is
close to one, only for strong magnetic materials -
the so called ferrite materials - µr is much larger
than one. The unit of the magnetic flux density is
tesla (T), named after the Serbian engineer and in-
ventor Nikola Tesla.
𝑉∙𝑠
𝐵 =𝑇=
𝑚!
Magnetic flux
The magnetic flux “Φ” is the magnetic equivalent
of the electric current I. It is driven by a magnetic
field (comparable to the current I which is driven by
the voltage) and describes the magnetic flux
through a material. For a homogeneous field with
the magnetic flux density B and the area A, the
magnetic flux is given as [Lindner 93]:
9
Φ=𝐵∙𝐴 (Eq. 1-19)
The unit of the magnetic flux is volt multiplied by
second (Vs) or Weber (Wb), named after the Ger-
man physicist Wilhelm Eduard Weber.
Inductivity
The inductivity L of a coil is given as [Lindner 93]:
𝐿= (Eq. 1-20)
In which:
N: Number of turns in a coil
Φ: Magnetic flux
I: Current
The unit for the inductivity is Henry (H), named af-
ter the US-American physicist Joseph Henry, and
can be given as:
𝑉∙𝑠
𝐿 =𝐻=
𝐴
1.1.6 Electromagnetic induction
Electromagnetic induction is one of the fundamen-
tal findings within the field of electricity. All kinetic
energy generated by electric energy (and vice ver-
sa), such as that found in electric motors and gen-
erators, is based on this relation.
Faraday found that the electromotive force (EMF)
produced around a closed path is proportional to
the rate of change of the magnetic flux through any
surface bounded by that path.
The electromagnetic induction (or simply “induc-
tion”) is defined as the creation of an electric volt-
age in an electric conductor caused by the change
of the magnetic flux in the area of that conductor
[Lindner 93]. The induced voltage according to the
law of magnetic induction by Faraday can be ex-
pressed as:
10
𝑑Φ
𝑉"!# = −𝑁 (Eq. 1-21)
𝑑𝑡
In which:
Vind: Induced voltage
N: Number of turns of a coil
dΦ/dt: Rate of change of magnetic flux
The sign “–“ indicates that the induced voltage Vind
has the opposite direction to that of the change of
the flux that produces this voltage. The relation be-
comes clearer when applying equation 1-18 and 1-
19 to equation 1-21:
𝑑𝐻
𝑉"!# = −𝑁 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝜇! ∙ 𝜇! ∙ (Eq. 1-22)
𝑑𝑡
An electric voltage is induced in any conductor in a
changing magnetic field, whether the field itself
changes or the conductor is moved within the
magnetic field. When the conductor in a changing
magnetic field is a closed loop, a current can flow
in that loop. By applying Ohm’s law, the current
flow in that loop can be determined.
It is worth mentioning that only voltage can be in-
duced, not current. Current flow is always a result
of the induction of voltage together with the resis-
tivity of the material.
Electromagnetic induction is particularly relevant to
cables. The current flow through the (inner) con-
ductor of a cable induces voltage into the outer
ground wires of the cable. This induced voltage is
the reason why the outer ground wires of the cable
have to be earthed and/or cross-bonded. Since this
topic is highly relevant to cable design and acces-
sory application, it is described in detail in Chap-
ter 4.
1.2 Electric field
1.2.1 Electric field and field lines
Electric field lines
Section 1.1.1 showed that an electric force acts be-
tween two charges, resulting in the creation of an
electric field. This explanation is of a physical na-
ture in order to explain the basic relation between
the expressions.
In technical objects, such as cable insulations, a
very large number of electric charges occur, creat-
ing the electric field in the insulation materials. In
order to visualise the electric field, electric field
lines are applied.
Electric field lines describe the way positive charg-
es move in the insulating material. They only occur
in insulating materials, not in conductors. In con-
trast to magnetic field lines, electric field lines al-
ways have a start and an end point, which are al-
ways on the surface of a conductor. To prevent
confusion between the terms “conductor” and
“current carrying conductor” (such as the copper
conductor of a cable), conductors hosting an elec-
tric field are referred to as “electrodes”. Electric
field lines always enter and leave the electrodes
perpendicular to their surfaces.
If electrodes are metallic plates, lying parallel to
each other, the direction of all field lines between
the plates is the same and the absolute values are
equal. In this case the electric field is homogenous.
+Q -Q
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
d
Schematic drawing of the homogenous electric field
between two parallel plates, charged with positive and
negative charge Q
Electric field strength
When two parallel plates are charged with the volt-
age U, the correlation between the electric field and
the voltage is given by the following expressions
[Küchler 96]:
1. Fundamentals 11

𝑈
𝐸= (Eq. 1-23)
𝑑

In which:
E: Electric field
V: Voltage between the two plates
d: Distance between the two plates

The electric field between two plates is a simple ar-

rangement and can be expressed easily. More
complex arrangements, such as the electrical field
in joint bodies, are calculated with the help of com-
FEM calculation of the electric field in the stress cone
puter simulations. These calculations are done with
of a termination and in the basement of the insulator
finite element programs. (red = highest electric field; dark blue = no electric
field)

Electric field in cylindrical cable insulations

1.2.2 Electric field in technical
The electric field in a cable can be calculated with
objects an approximation of two coaxial cylinders. Thus,
Electric field in insulation bodies of joints the electric field E(x) at the position x in the cable
insulations is given as [Küchler 96]:
When designing electric equipment, knowledge of
the electric field in and around the equipment is es-
sential. The shape of technical equipment, such as 𝑈
𝐸 𝑥 = (Eq. 1-24)
electrodes in an insulation body of a polymer joint, 𝑅
𝑥 ∙ ln
are usually so complex that modern computer sim- 𝑟
ulation methods (so called Finite Element Method – In which:

or just FEM) are necessary to calculate the electrical E(x): Electric field at point x

field at each point of the arrangement. The different U: Applied voltage

colours represent different values of the electric R Radius of the outer conductive layer
field strength. r Radius of the inner conductive layer
x: Position

r
FEM calculation of the electric field in the insulation
body of a polymer joint (red = highest electric field;
dark blue = no electric field)

Electric field in terminations

Similar to the electric field in joint bodies, the elec-
tric field in stress cones for terminations as well as
in the whole arrangement of the terminations
themselves is also calculated with the help of nu-
merical FEM tools.
E(r)
x
Schematic drawing of the insulation between the inner
and outer semiconducting screen of a cable and the
radial electric field in the insulation
12

Equation 1-24 shows that the highest electrical field is considered. The smaller the ratio, the smaller the
in the insulation of a cable occurs at the inner sem- factor by which the electric field is increased.
iconducting layer.

The design of the cable and the manufacturing pro-

cess must guarantee that the maximum electric
field during the different tests remains below the
dielectric strength of the insulating polymer.

While the maximum electric field of medium volt-

Ellipsoidal shaped protrusion
age cables ranges from 2 to 4 kV/mm, those of high
voltage cables are much larger and range from 6 to
14 kV/mm.
Inclusions with different permittivity in the
insulating material
Electric field in cable insulations with inclu-
If two different materials A and B with a relative
sions at the semiconducting layer
permittivity of εA and εB are between two parallel
Equation 1-24 also shows that the shape of the
electrodes, the electric field EA and EB in the two
electrodes determines the distribution of the elec-
materials is given by the following expression
tric field. In order to use the insulation material as
[Küchler 96]:
effectively as possible, the electric field should re-
main uniform, otherwise considerable insulation
material is needed, making the cable expensive and 𝐸! 𝜀!
heavy.
= (Eq. 1-25)
𝐸! 𝜀!
To avoid unnecessary high electric fields, it is es-
sential that the electrodes are plane and rounded. Equation 1-25 shows that in the material with the
Sharp edges or peaks increase the electric field. For higher relative permittivity, the electric field is low-
this reason, it is very important that high voltage er.
cables and cable accessories are manufactured in
clean surroundings. Even very small conductive
particles of 50 to 100 µm on the electrode surface +Q -Q
will increase the electric field dramatically [Weis-
+ ε1=1 ε2=2 -
senberg 86], [Weissenberg 09].
+ -
+ -
Electric field lines
+ -
+ -
High Ground + -
voltage
+ -
+ Ε1=2 Ε2=1 -
d/2 d/2

Schematic drawing of electric fields in two different

Influence of a sharp edged particle on the electric field materials with different relative permittivity (the densi-
distribution ty in the field lines reflects the electrical field strength)

The factor by which the electric field is locally in- If an air or gas inclusion occurs in the insulating
creased depends on the exact shape of the conduc- polymeric material, the electric field in that bubble
tive particles or protrusions. Therefore, the ratio of can be calculated by using Equation 1-25 as fol-
height to width of an ellipsoidal shaped protrusion lows:
1. Fundamentals 13

be seen to cause electric discharges and, hence,

𝜀%#!'$&(%"# insulation failure.
𝐸#"! = ∙ 𝐸%#!'$&(%"# (Eq. 1-26)
𝜀#"! Although the above calculations were applied to
inclusions of air in the insulation material of XLPE,
Equation 1-26 shows that the electric field in air in- they are also applicable and relevant to all insula-
clusions is higher than in the surrounding polymer. tion materials.
Taking into account that the dielectric strength of
air is also much lower than that of the polymer, the
danger of air inclusions in polymeric materials be-
1.2.3 Capacity
comes obvious.
Every arrangement of a “conductor-insulator-
Polymer conductor” is able to store electrical charges. The
material
capability of such an object to store charges is giv-
en by the capacity “C”. The capacity of such an ob-
ject depends only on the insulating material and
the geometrical arrangement. The capacity of two
Gas parallel plates can be calculated as [Küchler 96]:

𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜀! ∙ 𝜀! ∙ (Eq. 1-27)
𝑑

Schematic drawing of the electric field in an air-filled

void within a polymeric insulation (the density in the In which:
field lines reflects the electric field strength) (idealised C: Capacity
situation)
ε0 : Absolute permittivity or electric field
constant; ε0= 8.854 ⋅ 10-12 F/m
εr : Relative permittivity
Example 1-3: A: Area of the plates
Æ The relative permittivity εr of XLPE = 2.3, the elec- d: Distance between the plates
tric field in the insulation of Einsulation = 10 kV/mm and
the dielectric strength of air is: Ebreakd. air = 2.5 kV/mm
The unit of the capacity is farad (F), named after the
 Electric field of air inclusion compared to dielec-
English physicist Michael Faraday. It is defined as:
tric strength of air
P Taking the relative permittivity of air as εair = 1
and calculating according to Equation 1-26, the 𝐴∙𝑠
electric field in the air bubble can be calculated as:
𝐶 =𝐹=
𝑉
!.! !" !"
𝐸#"! = ∙ 10 = 23 .
The relation between the stored charge Q and the
! !! !!
9 The electric field strength of the air bubble is capacity C is given by:
about 10 times higher than the dielectric strength of
air. If such an air bubble were in the insulation, a
local breakdown (partial discharges) in the bubble 𝑄
would occur, thus damaging the cable insulation. 𝐶= (Eq. 1-28)
𝑈

Example 1-3 illustrates why small air or gas filled
voids are so dangerous in insulating materials. In
these voids, the electric field is higher than in the
surrounding insulating material and the dielectric
strength of air is much lower than that of the solid
insulation. Thus, voids in an insulation material can
The relative permittivity εr of the material reflects
the polarity of the atoms or molecules in the mate-
rial and is expressed with a dimensionless number.
In other words, this material constant describes
how well electrical charges can be held in an insu-
lating material. The higher the relative permittivity,
14

the higher the polarity of the material. The higher 1.3 Insulating materials in
the polarity of the material, the more charges can
be stored in the insulation – hence the capacity of high voltage technology
the material is higher. Typical values of the relative
permittivity are given in the table below.
1.3.1 Solid materials

There are two general types of solid insulating ma-

terials in high voltage technology, ceramic materi-
Relative permittivity εr of different insulating materi-
als, used in high voltage technology (at 20°C and als and polymers. The most common type of ce-
50 Hz); [ABB 92], [Küchler 96] ramic material is porcelain, used for insulators and
the supporting bodies of high voltage terminations.
Material Relative permittivity
For polymers, a considerable number of different
Cross-linked polyeth- materials occur. In general, these fall into the fol-
2.3
ylene (XLPE)
lowing groups:
Polyvinylchloride (PVC) 3.3 – 7.0
- Thermoplastic polymers
Polyurethane (PUR) 3.0
- Thermoset materials
Silicone Rubber (SIR) 2.7
- Elastomer materials
Epoxy Resin 3.0 – 4.2

Air 1
The most common thermoplastic material is cross-
Silicone Oil 2.8
linked polyethylene (XLPE), which is used for cable
Transformer Oil 2.8 insulation. The cross linking of the polyethylene
Porcelain 2–6 prevents the polymer from becoming liquid when

SF6 1 temperatures exceed melting point. High density

polyethylene (HDPE) and polyvinylchloride (PVC) -
Water 80
two other thermoplastic materials - are used for the
cable sheaths of high voltage cables.
Thermoset materials are used as insulating bodies
Example 1-4: for high voltage cable terminations, particularly for
Æ Area of capacitor = 1 m2, thickness of the capaci- GIS and transformer terminations. The most com-
tor = 1 mm by considering the two materials εXLPE = mon thermoset material for such applications is
2.3 for XLPE and εWater = 80 for water epoxy resin.
 Capacity of the arrangement Elastomer materials, such as silicone rubber (SiR)
P Calculating the capacity according to equation 1- or ethylene propylene rubber (EPR), are widely
27; the results are:
used for stress cones and joint bodies. The main
!"!
𝐹 1 𝑚! advantage of elastomers is their flexibility and the
𝐶 = 8.85 ∙ 10 ∙ 2.3 ∙ = 0.02 𝜇𝐹
𝑚 0.001 𝑚 fact that they can be elongated considerably, espe-
cially the material of silicone rubber. Thus, these
𝐹 1 𝑚! properties enable certain sizes of stress cones to be
𝐶 = 8.85 ∙ 10!"! ∙ 80 ∙ = 0.71 𝜇𝐹
𝑚 0.001 𝑚 used with a wide range of different cable diame-
ters.
Silicone rubber compounds are also used as mate-
rial for outdoor terminations. Particularly in heavily
polluted environments, to which their hydrophobi-
city is excellently suited.
1. Fundamentals 15

1.3.2 Liquids 1.4 Power transmission

The majority of liquids used in high voltage tech-
1.4.1 Basics of electric power
nology are mineral and synthetic oils. These oils
are used in oil-filled cables and transformers.
transmission systems

Another insulating liquid is silicone oil, which is
used in terminations for polymer cables. For these
applications it is important that the silicone oils ful-
fil certain electric requirements. The most im-
portant ones are the dielectric strength and the loss
factor – both of which are influenced by the humidi-
ty of the oil.
1.3.3 Gases
The most important gas in high voltage technology
– aside from air – is sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). This
gas is used in gas insulated switchgears (GIS) and
has a good dielectric strength. In addition, SF6 is a
gas with electro negativity properties, which makes
it very suitable for use in switching chambers of
circuit breakers [ABB 92].
In general, the breakdown voltage of gases also
depends on the pressure and distances between
the electrodes. This relation is described by the
“Paschen law”, named after the German physicist
Friedrich Paschen. The following diagram shows
the “Paschen law” for air. The breakdown voltage
is a function of the air pressure times the distance
between the electrodes.
According to a general definition, electric power
transmission is the bulk transfer of electrical ener-
gy, a process involving the delivery of electricity to
consumers [Wikipedia 09-2].
A power transmission network typically connects
power plants to multiple substations near a popu-
lated or industrial area. The wiring from the power
plants to the substations is referred to as electrical
transmission. The wiring from substations to con-
sumers is referred to as electrical distribution.
The electric power transmission allows distant en-
ergy sources to be connected to consumers in
population centres. The energy sources can be tra-
ditional energy sources, such as coal or hydroelec-
tric power plants, or renewable energy sources,
such as wind farms or solar plants.
The power transmission network is referred to as
the “grid”. Multiple and redundant lines between
points of the network are made in order that the
power can be routed from any power plant in the
grid to any load centre through a variety of lines.
This is done to provide redundancy in order to en-
hance security of energy supplies. Recently, power
transmission has come to be greatly influenced by
the economics of the transmission path. Thus, the
cost of power has become just as important as the
redundancy of the system.

Relation between the breakdown voltage and the

product of the gas pressure and the distance between
the electrodes for air.
16

Coal plants Nuclear plants

Extra high voltage
275 kV – 1000 kV
(mostly AC, some HVDC) Large wind farms

High voltage 110 kV and higher

Transmission Grid Medium sized

power plants
Industrial Power plants
Distribution Grid

City
Medium voltage
power plants

Industrial customers
Private
solar farms Low voltage

Private consumers
Wind farms

Extra high
High Solar farms
Transformer
Medium
Low voltage

Structure of a power transmission and distribution system

Transmission lines usually use a three-phase alter- enables a maximum transmission capacity with a
nating current (ac). In order to reduce losses during minimum of losses.
transmission, electricity is transmitted at high volt- High voltage direct current (HVDC) is used for long
ages. In terms of transmission lines, “high voltage” distance transmission or in long oversea cables.
means voltage levels above or equal 110 kV. In
general, the higher the transmission distance, the
higher the transmission voltage should be. This
1. Fundamentals 17

1.4.2 Overhead lines

Overhead lines are metal-wired conductors with no

insulation cover. The conductor material is usually
aluminium alloy consisting of several strands, often
reinforced with steel strands. Copper in overhead
lines is only used for very specific applications,
such as railway lines.

Conductor sizes range from those of 10 mm2 to

those of 1000 mm2, with varying resistance and
current-carrying capacity. Thicker wires are more
expensive, leading only to a relatively small in-
Optical ground wire – OPGW
crease in current carrying capacity due to the skin
effect (for more information, see Chapter 4).

Overhead lines contain a tower and insulators to

separate the voltage-carrying conductors from the
ground. Most high voltage overhead lines have an
earth wire on top, which conducts earthing current
at an asymmetrical phase shift of the three phases
and protects the high voltage overhead line from
lightning strokes. Such earth wires are usually
made with integrated fibre optics, the “optical
ground wire” (OPGW). OPGW are used for addi-
tional data transmission.
Since overhead transmission lines are insulated by
air, their design requires a minimum of clearances
to the ground for maintaining the required safety.
Adverse weather conditions – such as heavy winds
1.4.3 Power cables
Power cables are metal-wired conductors covered
by a solid insulation. Their conductors consist of
either copper or aluminium. Their solid insulation
consists of either a polymer or of an oil-filled or
mass impregnated paper.
Advantages of underground power cables in
comparison to overhead lines are:
- Far less subject to damage from severe weath-
er conditions
- Less required space for transmission path

or storms, ice loads, or even extremely high tem-
peratures – can affect the performance and have to
be considered in their design and operation.
- Can be used to cross large lakes or seas
- Invisible to the public
- Less required material for insulators and tow-
ers

- Lower probability of external failures, such as

tree-falling or bird collision

- No danger to flying aircrafts

Disadvantages of cables in comparison to over-

head lines are:

- Higher costs

- Lower transmission capacity due to lower heat

dissipation

- More difficult to repair failures in the system

Tower of an overhead line with wires, insulators and
- High capacitive charging current for the opera-
OPGW on top of the tower
tion of the system
18
Example 1-5:
Depending on the voltage level, cables only require
approximately 1 – 10 metres for installation, where-
as overhead lines require a surrounding strip of ap-
proximately 20 – 200 metres, which must be kept
permanently clear for safety, maintenance and re-
pair.
Electric power cables have their ingredient part in
the electric power transmission. They are used for
the transmission of power in and through:
- Densely populated areas
- Areas where land is unavailable for overhead
lines because the consent for planning of over-
head lines may not be given
- Rivers and other natural obstacles
- Territory with natural or environmental herit-
age
- Areas of significant or prestigious infrastruc-
tural development
- Territory which needs to maintain its value for
future urban expansion or other developments
Before the 1970s, underground power cables were
insulated with oil-paper. The oil was held under
pressure in order to prevent formation of voids,
which would lead to partial discharges in the insu-
lation and finally cause a breakdown of the system.
Throughout the world, many of today’s power
grids still make use of oil-paper insulated cables.
However, since that technology is not state of the
art and several literatures are available on the mar-
ket covering that topic, high voltage oil-filled cables
and their associated accessories are not considered
in this book.
Nowadays most of the high voltage underground
cables are insulated by cross-linked polyethylene
(more information is given in Chapter 4).
To connect the cable to other electrical equipment,
such as substations, transformers or overhead
lines, terminations are used. To achieve greater
transmission length, joints are used to connect two
cable segments together. Terminations and joints
for high voltage cables are referred to as “high
voltage accessories”. Since high voltage accesso-
ries are vital for the functioning of the cable sys-
tem, detailed information on these components is
given in Chapter 5.
For an efficient cable system further accessories
are necessary; these are: cross-link boxes, earth-
linking boxes, surge voltage limiters or cable
clamps. More information about these additional
accessories is given in Chapter 6.
1.4.4 Transmission capability
The amount of power that can be transmitted over
transmission lines, be it overhead lines or cables, is
limited. The reasons for such limits are related to
the length of the line. In the case of short lines,
losses caused by current flow through the conduc-
tors produce a thermal limit. If too much current
flows through a cable, the insulation of the equip-
ment may be damaged irreversibly. The insulation
of cables makes the thermal limits lower than those
of overhead lines.
For lines of intermediate or long lengths, the volt-
age drop of the lines sets the limit. As a general
rule, the economic distance of an ac overhead line
in km is approx. equal to the voltage level in kV. For
example; when transmitting power over a distance
of 350 km, a voltage level of 380 kV is typically
used.
Despite urban areas, higher voltages are usually
transmitted through overhead lines, whilst cables
usually transmit lower voltages. The ratio of AC
overhead lines to cables in the German grid is
shown below [Kirchner 09], [Henningsen 09].
99.7
100 93.8
% of overhead lines and cables
Overhead lines
90
80
79.7 Cables
70 64.4
60
50
40 35.6
30
20.3
20
6.2
10
0.3
0
≤ 1 kV >1 - 60 kV 110 kV 220 kV
Voltage level
Rate of overhead lines to cables in the German grid
[Kirchner 09], [Henningsen 09]
1. Fundamentals 19

Until a few years ago, it was difficult to predict Typical electric fields for different situations
temperature distributions along a cable route. As a
result, the maximum applicable current load was Description Electric field

usually a compromise between an estimation of Natural electric field on earth

About 130 V/m =
todays and future operation conditions and also (without thunderstorm) [Wik-
0.13 kV/m
ipedia 10-1]
reflected the desire to reduce the risk of thermal
failures to a minimum. Today, with the availability Typical value in houses (due to
5 – 40 V/m =
electric home equipment and
of industrial distributed temperature sensing sys- 0.005 – 0.04
home power supply) [TU-Graz
tems, the monitoring of cables is easier. Together kV/m
10]
with intelligent software, it enables the operator to
50/60 Hz 220 kV overhead line
predict the thermal load of the system. For more [TU-Graz 10]
detailed information on the distributed temperature - directly under the line 2.5 – 6 kV/m
system of cables, see Chapter 8. - with 20 m distance of the line 1 – 2 kV/m

During use of an electric blan-

4.5 kV/m
ket (50/60 Hz) [TU-Graz 10]

1.4.5 Power transmission and

environment
Electric field
The topic of power transmission and environment,
especially the issue of the influence of the electro-
magnetic field on surrounding individuals, has be-
come increasingly prominent over the past years.
As this topic is also related to cable systems, the
The values of electric field limits are different in
certain countries or regions. A selection of limits
for the ac electric field is given in the table below.
Selected limits for electric ac fields at 50 Hz
Source Limits of the
electric field

most important issues are discussed here. Howev-
er, due to the complexity of this topic, additional
details from the relevant literature should be taken
into account.
When generating, transmitting or using electrical
power, electromagnetic fields (EMF) occur. In the
case of overhead lines, EMF passes in an unfiltered
manner out to the external environment. In con-
trast, EMF in cables is considerably lower due to
shielding by the outer metallic shield of the cable,
as well as the soil around the cables themselves.
Although there are no shields for the electromag-
netic field of overhead lines, this must not neces-
sarily be a cause for concern, as they are usually
located at a greater distance from the ground or
surroundings. The highest value for the electric
26th BImSchV (German regula-
5000 V/m =
tion for electromagnetic pollu-
5 kV/m
tion) [BImSchV 97]
International Commission on
Non-Ionizing Radiation Protec- 5000 V/m =
tion (ICNIRP) World Health Or- 5 kV/m
ganisation (WHO) [ICNIRP 10]
DIN/VDE 0848 (German Electro-
7000 V/m =
technical Standard) for average
7 kV/m
populated area [DIN/VDE 0848]
DIN/VDE 0848 (German Electro-
20000 V/m =
technical Standard) for working
20 kV/m
space area [DIN/VDE 0848]
The values in the above tables are for 50 Hz. How-
ever, they can also be assumed for 60 Hz. The val-
ues for 16 ⅔ Hz, typically occurring in railway

field of high voltage overhead lines occurs directly
under the line. The electric field in terms of envi-
ronmental influence is usually given in V/m or
kV/m. Typical electric field levels in overhead lines
located in various environments are shown in the
table below.
overhead lines, may slightly differ. In the 26th BIm-
SchV (German regulation for electromagnetic pol-
lution), the limit for a 16 ⅔ Hz electric field is
10 kV/m (instead of 5 kV/mm for 50 Hz fields) [BIm-
SchV 97]. A similar IEC standard to that of the
DIN/VDE 0848 is the IEC 62226 [IEC 62226].
20
Magnetic field
Overhead lines and cables not only emit electric
fields, but also magnetic fields. It is hardly possible
to give a number for the value for underground ca-
bles, as this is very much depends on the laying
conditions of the cable system and the current
flow. When laying cables close together in the
ground, the magnetic field on the ground surface is
almost degraded and is thus very low. When laying
cables somewhat apart (e.g. at a distance of 60 – 80
cm, and at a depth of 1 – 4 m), similar values to
those occurring in high voltage overhead lines can
be seen. Typical magnetic field levels of overhead
lines and cables in various environments are
shown in the table below.
Typical magnetic fields for low and intermediate
frequency (similar to 50/60 Hz) for different situations
Description Magnetic
field
Natural magnetic field [Wikipe-
about 50 µT*
dia 10-2]
Typical house values due to do-
mestic electric equipment and 0.05 – 0.1 µT
power supply) [TU-Graz 10]
High voltage overhead line with
a current flow of 1000 A [TU-
Graz 10]
8 – 16 µT
- directly under the line
1 – 3 µT
- with 50 m distance of the line
At certain working space areas
(close to transformer stations, up to few
switching stations or inductive 1000 µT
heating ovens) [TU-Graz 10]
Medium value in a German city
(due to electric equipment in the 0.06 µT
city) [BfS 10]
Medium value in a German fami-
ly home (due to electric home 0.06 µT
equipment) [BfS 10]
Medium value in a German high-
rise building (due to electric
0.076 µT
equipment in the building)
[BfS 10]
Medium value in a German of-
fice (due to electric office equip- 0.05 µT
ment) [BfS 10]
Hairdryer at a distance of 30 cm
0.01 – 7 µT
[BfS 10]
Vacuum cleaner at a distance of
2 – 20 µT
30 cm [BfS 10]
Drill machine at a distance of
2 – 3.5 µT
30 cm [BfS 10]
Electric cooking oven at a dis-
0.15 – 0.5 µT
tance of 30 cm [BfS 10]
Fluorescent lamp at a distance of
0.5 – 2 µT
30 cm [BfS 10]
* It should be mentioned that the natural magnetic field
on the surface of the earth is approximately 30 µT at the
equator, and 60 µT at the poles. While the earth’s magnet-
ic field is static, the magnetic field emitted by overhead
lines varies according to line frequency, and is thus
16 ⅔ Hz, 50 or 60 Hz.
While electric fields are relatively easy to shield,
e.g. by means of a faraday cage, it requires special
engineering techniques or designs to reduce their
magnetic fields.
The values for limits of the magnetic field differ be-
tween certain countries or regions. A selection of
limits for alternating magnetic fields of low to in-
termediate frequency - such as those caused by
electric power supply equipment is given in the ta-
ble below.
Selected limits for magnetic alternating fields at 50
Hz
Source Limits of the
magnetic field
26th BImSchV (German regula-
tion for electromagnetic pollu- 100 µT
tion) [BImSchV 97]
International Commission on
Non-Ionizing Radiation Protec-
100 µT
tion (ICNIRP) World Health Or-
ganisation (WHO) [ICNIRP 10]
DIN/VDE 0848 (German Electro-
technical Standard) exposition
area 2, areas, such as living 424 µT
areas, sport or leisure areas
[DIN/VDE 0848]
Depending on the country or region as well as on
certain areas where people can be exposed to
magnetic radiation, the limits may vary significant-
ly.
1. Fundamentals 21

The values given in the tables above are for 50 Hz. 1.5 Terms and definitions
However, they can also be assumed for 60 Hz.
1.5.1 Definition of voltage values for

The values for 16 ⅔ Hz, typically occurring in rail-

cable systems
way overhead lines, may slightly differ. In the 26th To understand and participate in discussions on
BImSchV (German regulation for electromagnetic technical issues, certain knowledge of the terms
pollution), the limit for a 16 ⅔ Hz electric field is used in the particular field is necessary. The follow-

300 µT instead of 100 µT for 50 Hz fields [BIm- ing section provides definitions of the main terms,
which occur in this book. To facilitate comprehen-
SchV 97].
sion, state-of-the-art and standard terms are used
as much as possible.
A comment on the effects of EMF on health
and the environment
The voltages for cable systems are given in differ-
The effects of EMF on the environment, particularly
ent values. The most common are U0, U, Um and
in terms of human health, have been the topic of a
Up. According to [IEC 60183], these values are de-
large number of studies. The studies can be classi-
fined as follows:
fied as laboratory studies, such as studies on cells
U0 The rated r.m.s. power-frequency voltage
and epidemiological investigations. Laboratory
between each conductor and screen or
studies focus on changes at the molecular or cellu-
sheath for which cables and accessories
lar level after exposure of material to different val-
are designed
ues of EMF. Epidemiological investigations focus
on the occurrence and distribution of diseases, U The rated r.m.s. power-frequency voltage
such as cancer in human populations. between any two conductors for which ca-
bles and accessories are designed
In general, the results of the studies and investiga-
tions showed that the effect of EMF on human Um The maximum r.m.s. power-frequency
health depends on the frequency of the EMF, on voltage between any two conductors for
the length of exposure to the EMF and on the which cables and accessories are de-
strength of the electric and magnetic fields. signed. It is the highest voltage that can be
sustained under normal operating condi-
Further results of these studies show considerable
tions at any time and at any point in a sys-
variation and are too complex to be taken up in the
tem. It excludes temporary voltage varia-
framework of this book.
tions due to fault conditions and the sud-
The World Health Organization (WHO), as well as
den disconnection of large loads
an independent scientific organisation, The Interna-
Up The peak value of the lightning impulse
tional Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Pro-
withstand voltage between each conductor
tection (ICNIRP), have both published guidelines for
and screen or sheath for which cables and
limiting exposure to EMF up to 300 GHz [IC-
accessories are designed
NIRP 10].

U0 U0 U0
U U

Definition of voltage values in a cable system accord-

ing to [IEC 60183]
22

Relation between U0, U and Um according to 1.5.2 Definition of terms for termi-
[IEC 60183]
nations and cable systems
Rated volt- Nominal sys- Highest volt-
age of ca- tem voltage age for the
The main terms used for terminations in cable sys-
bles and ac- equipment
cessories tems are defined in [IEC 62271].
U / kV Um / kV
U0 / kV

12 20 24 Cable-termination

18 30 33 36 Equipment fitted to the end of a cable to ensure

electric connection with other parts of the system
26 45 47 52
and to maintain the insulation up to the point of
36 60 66 69 72.5
connection. Two types are described in this stand-
64 110 115 123 ard [IEC 62271].
76 132 138 145

87 150 161 170 Fluid-filled cable-termination

127 220 230 245 Cable termination, comprised of a separating insu-

160 275 287 300

lating barrier between the cable insulation and the
gas insulation of switchgear. The cable-termination
190 330 345 362
includes an insulating fluid as part of the cable
220 380 400 420 connection assembly [IEC 62271].
290 500 525 550

430 700 750 765 Dry-type cable-termination

According to [IEC 62271] another type of voltage is
defined as:
Ur The rated voltage for the equipment of the
cable connection is equal to the lowest of
the values for the cable and the gas-
insulated metal-enclosed switchgear
Cable termination, comprised of an elastomeric
electric stress control component in intimate con-
tact with a separating insulating barrier (insulator)
between the cable insulation and the gas insulation
of the switchgear. The cable-termination does not
require any insulating fluid [IEC 62271].

Fluid and insulating fluid

The rated voltage Ur shall be selected from the fol- The term “fluid” means a liquid or a gas for insula-
lowing standard values: tion purposes [IEC 62271].
72.5 kV – 100 kV – 123 kV – 145 kV – 170 kV – 245 kV
– 300 kV – 362 kV – 420 kV – 550 kV Cable system
A cable system is defined as a “cable with installed
In the case of cables, the rated voltage Ur corre- accessories” [IEC 62271], [IEC 60840] and
sponds to the highest voltage for equipment Um [IEC 62067].
[IEC 62271].
According to [IEC 62271], “the equipment” is the
gas-insulated metal-enclosed switchgear. However,
when a cable is connected to other power equip-
ment, the terms related to the cable can considered
to be similar.
Ageing and Life Expectancy 23

Chapter 2

Ageing
and Life Expectancy
24
2. Ageing and Life Expectancy 25

2.1 Ageing in polymers quire polyethylene materials of maximum purity

and an extremely clean manufacturing process.
2.1.1 Theory of electric lifetime law Electric field ageing, ageing without the presence
of partial discharges, is described by the lifetime
Basics
law as follows:
When operational loads are applied, the electric
lifetime of polymers, such as cross-linked polyeth-
ylene (XLPE) or silicone rubber (SiR), is determined 𝐸 ! ∙ 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (Eq. 2-1)
by internal and external influences. With applied
voltage, two electric ageing processes tend to oc-
In which:
cur: partial discharge (PD) ageing and field ageing
E: Electric field
[Weissenberg 86], [Peschke 99], [Olshausen 01],
[Weissenberg 04-1], [Weissenberg 09]. n: Lifetime exponent
t: Time

PD ageing in polymers The lifetime law provides a mathematical relation

for the physical fact that material properties, the
PD ageing due to discharge processes in cavities of
electric field and the time to breakdown are related.
the polymeric material or at any interface of the in-
The lifetime law means that the lower the electrical
sulation system, such as the interface from the ca-
field, the longer the time to breakdown of a materi-
ble to the silicone slip-on element, leads to a rapid
al and vice versa.
breakdown of the insulation. It is therefore vital that
both the cable and accessories of high voltage ca-
ble systems are free of any internal partial dis-
Log. el. field strength E

charges.
Because of this, PD measurements are a standard Ebd1
n>40 (Silicone)
in routine testing as a post-production quality con- n=20 (EPR)
Ebd2
trol for cables and silicone parts of accessories
Emax
[Weissenberg 04-1], [Weissenberg 09], [IEC 60840],
[IEC 62067]. tbd1 tbd2 tbdmax

In addition, PD tests have become increasingly Log. time to breakdown tbd

popular for additional measurements during after Basic relation of lifetime law for polymeric materials
installation tests (for more information see Chap-
ter 8).
In principle, the electric lifetime law is valid for a
constant temperature level only. The materials
usually used for high voltage cable insulation –
Electric field ageing for polymers XLPE or ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) for cables
and SiR or EPR for slip-on bodies of accessories –
Even in the absence of PD, polymeric insulation is
are very stable in the temperature range of their
subjected to ageing once an electric field is present.
application. The influence of temperature on the
This process is called electric field ageing.
electric field ageing is therefore negligible. Pure
Microscopic spurs and occlusions in the polymeric
thermal ageing is, however, quite a different issue.
material cause the electric field ageing. At these ar-
This process is described in Section 2.1.3.
eas, the electric field is elevated and the electric
The lifetime law is used to determine the expected
ageing process takes place more intensively. These
lifetime of the insulation. For this purpose, break-
spurs and occlusions are normal for polymeric ma-
down tests with different levels of the electric field
terials and do not indicate a poor quality. However,
are carried out. The advantage of that is that the
the ageing process at these occlusions means that
lifetime law is well-known and the estimated values
high and extra high voltage cable insulations re-
are reliable. The disadvantage is that breakdown
26
values for real arrangements, such as polymeric 2.1.2 Practical experiences with
cables, require a considerable effort to be deter-
electric lifetime law and electric
mined. If reliable values of the lifetime law are to
ageing
be obtained, breakdown values with a low electric
field must be taken. This may take a long time and In detailed investigations on breakdown of XLPE
is very expensive to carry out. cables, it was found that XLPE has a lifetime expo-
nent of around 12. These investigations were made
on cable samples, representing the real arrange-
Short-term
tests ment of a high voltage cable [Weissenberg 86],
Log. el. field strength E

Long-term
Ebd1 tests [Peschke 99], [Olshausen 01], [Weissenberg 04-1],
Ebd2
Ebd3 Designed [Weissenberg 09].
lifetime

Ebd4
Emax
Max. electric field in insulation Breakdown

Minutes Hours Months 50 years

Log. time to breakdown
b = 21 - 49 mm
Different types of tests to determine expected lifetime d = 12 - 31 mm
of polymeric insulations

The design of the insulation is constructed in such b d

a way that the maximum electric field in the ob-

jects, such as cables or accessories, is lower than Cable dimensions used for ageing investigations

the residual dielectric strength after a period of

about 50 years. In detailed investigations on breakdown of SiR, it
Although not covered in this book, it should be was found that SiR has a lifetime exponent above
mentioned that the ageing of oil-filled cables (and that of 40. For SiR, investigations were made on
their accessories) can not be described with this material samples as well as on real arrangements
lifetime law. [Oesterheld 96].

100
n
E •t = constant
n ≥ 12...17
[kV/mm]
strenght [kV/mm]
strength

10 Withstood values
field

Breakdown values
field
Elektrical
Electric

Success-
fully in
Routine tests Type test PQ test service

1
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Time [h]
Breakdown values and electric ageing for XLPE cables according to [Weissenberg 86], [Peschke 99], [Olshausen 01],
[Weissenberg 04-1] and values of practical experiences of Brugg Cables
2. Ageing and Life Expectancy 27

Test values and values of practical experiences of silicone elastomer based cable accessories of Brugg Cables

2.1.3 Thermal ageing 2.2 Volume effect of real

Chemical reactions, such as oxidation or creation of polymeric arrangements
radicals, are influenced by temperature. They occur
faster at higher temperatures. In the case of insulat- The dielectric strength of a material also depends
ing materials, these reactions can lead to a change on the volume at which the electric field is applied.
in the dielectric properties of the materials and can This relation is called volume effect. The reason for
start after a relatively short time if the temperature the volume effect is that the breakdown is initiated
continues to increase. An example of this is the fact and propagates along small irregularities and weak
that the loss factor of an insulating material will in- points of the material. With increasing volume, the
crease with the creation of polar molecules. probability of having more weak points in the ma-
terial also increases. This is a simple statistical ef-
To reduce these kinds of reactions in polymers,
fect.
small amounts of stabilisers and anti-oxidants are
added. However, even with a package of different If the dielectric strength at a given volume VA is
stabilisers, it is not possible to stop these reactions measured and the corresponding Weibull distribu-
entirely. Consequently, it is essential to determine tion with the slope parameter b is known, the die-
the electric lifetime curve of the insulating materi- lectric strength of a sample with volume VB can be
als as used in high voltage cables and accessories. determined according to the following equation
[Küchler 96]:
Thermal ageing of materials is also used to deter-
mine the long-term performance of polymer prop-
erties. Polymer samples are stored in ovens at a !
higher temperature than that of the actual applica-
𝐸#%"$! 𝑉! 𝑉! !
(Eq. 2-2)
=
tion temperature and remain there for several 𝐸#%"$! 𝑉! 𝑉!
weeks or months. Material properties are then
measured on samples that were stored at different In which:
temperatures. From the results, the ultimate elon- Ebreak: electric field at breakdown
gation after several years at application tempera- V: Volume
ture can be extrapolated.
b: slope parameter in Weibull distribution
28
The relation of the volume effect is of considerable
practical relevance for cable systems. It is observed
that companies with new products in the market
tend to increase the thickness of the insulation in
order to be on “the safe side”. But although in-
creased insulation thickness for a given voltage
level brings a lower electric field, this is only half of
the issue. The volume effect causes a higher num-
ber of potential weak points in the material, caus-
ing in turn a higher probability of breakdown pro-
cesses and consequently a shorter lifetime.
Depending on the quality of the material, the ad-
vantage of a lower electric field with increased in-
sulation thickness may almost be compensated by
the volume effect in the material.
2.3 Life expectancy
2.3.1 Basic failure behaviour
Life expectancy of the cable system is difficult to
estimate. Electric and thermal ageing processes are
known and lifetime expectancy can be estimated to
a certain extent.
However, knowledge of electric and thermal ageing
is only one aspect in the process of making lifetime
predictions of high voltage power cables and their
accessories. In practice many other factors also
need to be considered. The sum of the factors in-
fluencing the lifetime of the cable system lead to a
failure curve that is high at the beginning, low in
the middle and increases at the end of the lifetime.
This behaviour is not only valid for cable systems,
it is also typical for most technical systems (includ-
ing cars, electronic items etc.). Due to its shape, the
curve is referred to as “bathtub curve”.
Factors influencing the lifetime of technical sys-
tems, such as a cable system, can be distinguished
in:
- Short-term failures
- Occasional failures and
- Failures due to long time ageing
Failure probability
Short-term Failures due
failures to ageing
Occasional
failures
Time
Bathtub curve representing failure occurrence in tech-
nical systems (such as cables and accessories)
2.3.2 Short-term failures
Short-term failures are often listed under a group
of failures called “teething problems”. In general,
they result from:
- Improper design
- Improper materials
- Production failures
- Installation failures
These types of failures usually occur during the
first few weeks of the application. To avoid short-
term failures, a great variety of tests are done be-
fore the product is delivered to the customer. A
number of different development tests as well as
type and prequalification (PQ) tests should prevent
(or at least limit) the occurrence of short-term fail-
ures caused by improper design or improper mate-
rials. Because of this, type and PQ tests have to be
repeated once a design or materials have changed
significantly.
The occurrence of production failures should be
prevented by routine tests. To exclude production
failures of accessories, pre-tested slip-on bodies
are recommended. Pre-testing gives the customer
the proof that the equipment on-site has not suf-
fered from production failures.
The occurrence of installation failures should be
limited by after installation tests. For additional se-
curity, additional partial discharge (PD) measure-
ments may be used during after installation tests.
2. Ageing and Life Expectancy 29

More information on tests for cable systems is giv- Possible occasional failures in a cable systems and
en in Chapter 3. More information on PD tests for suggested measures of prevention

cable systems is given in Chapter 8.

Type of occa- Suggested measure of pre-
sional failure vention

Laying the cable in a tunnel or

Digging into the concrete duct or covering the
cable cable system with concrete el-
ements

Terrorist attacks In general very difficult; “hid-

or other human ing” the cable in underground
induced vio- concrete ducts, inserting termi-
lence nations in strong housings

Using grey insulators that are

Shooting of in- less visible than brown insula-
sulators tors, inserting terminations in
strong housings

Using porcelain insulators in

Bird picking of areas with a large number of
Routine test of a cable drum after production composite insu- birds that are potentially known
lators for birds picking; using special
composites

Strengthening the fundament of

2.3.3 Occasional failures the terminations, appropriate
Earthquakes
fixing of the cable and accesso-
Once the cable system does not suffer from short- ries to the fundament
term failures, the basis for a long lifetime is laid.
Insulation coordination with
From then on, only occasional failures can impair Lightning surge voltage limiters for the
the performance of the cable system. Occasional strokes systems and use of deflectors of
failures mainly result from external influences. solid materials

They may be:

- Induced damage of the cable system by hu-

mans, such as digging into a cable

- Human induced violence to the system, such

as terrorist attacks or shooting on insulators

- Systematic naturally induced destruction of the

system, such as bird picking of composite insu-
lators

- Occasional types of naturally induced destruc-

tion, such as earthquakes or wind storms

In general, it is possible to prevent most occasional

Concrete ducts to protect the cable
failures. However, this requires a certain effort and
the owner of the system must consider whether
such an effort and expenditure is in their interest or
not. Possible measures to prevent or reduce the
occurrence of occasional failures are listed in the
table below.
30
than 40 years can be expected to be achieved, with
a potential of an even longer lifetime being possi-
ble.

To achieve a long lifetime of the cable system, the

following occurrences must be particularly avoided
or kept to a minimum:

- Unnecessary high number of transient over-

voltages, such as lightning switching impulses

- Very high short circuits

- Unnecessary high mechanical stress

- Constant high water pressure, especially in

Protected transformer terminations for the power
joints and terminations
supply of a football stadium; installed in a building for
protection (and other reasons) - Rodents and termites in the vicinity

Example 2-1:
Æ Cable system
 General rules of operation for organic materials,
such as XLPE
P An increase of the operating temperature by 8 to
10°C reduces the service life by half.
P An increase of the operating voltage by 8 to 10%
reduces the service life by half.

Terminations with grey porcelain insulators for less

visibility

2.3.4 Failures due to ageing

Since high voltage cable systems have been in op-

eration for decades, a wealth of experience already
exists on the subject of long-term behaviour and
ageing of cable systems.

Factors that influence the ageing are:

- Electric field

- Temperature

- Mechanical load

- Moisture

Once short-term and occasional failures have been

excluded, the above-mentioned factors run within
the specified limits and an unnecessary overload of
the cable system can be excluded, lifetime of more
Chapter 3: Tests and Standards 31

Chapter 3

Tests and Standards

32
3. Tests and Standards 33

3.1 Tests In general, all materials and designs must undergo

extensive development tests before considered for
3.1.1 Basic idea of testing use in commercial products. A typical development
test is to investigate the mechanical properties of
Testing reveals the technical limits of products and
polymeric materials.
systems. Other reasons for testing include quality
control of the material, checking the design, simu-
lating ageing processes or minimising production
and installation failures. As a result, tests for cable
systems can be typically categorised into different
types as listed in the table below.

Overview of typical tests for cable systems

Type of test Purpose of application

To reveal the technical limits of

Development the material and/or the system
test
To stimulate ageing processes

To examine material and de-

Determination of the mechanical strength of a poly-
sign of single elements, such
Type test meric material in the application laboratory at Brugg
as joints, terminations and ca-
Cables
bles

To examine material and de-

Prequalification sign of whole cable systems
(PQ) test To stimulate first ageing pro-
3.1.3 Type tests
cesses

Routine test To detect production failures Overview

After installa- After a product has been developed, a type test

To detect installation failures
tion test
3.1.2 Development tests
Development tests are carried out to investigate the
limits of the applied materials and the chosen de-
sign variants. Development tests are usually de-
structive tests. This means that the material or the
component, such as high voltage polymer cables or
high voltage accessories, are tested until break-
down occurs.
The results of such tests show the security margin
of the material and the component. Development
tests must consider all possible factors that may
influence the cable system throughout its lifetime.
These are electric, mechanic and thermal loads, the
influence of moisture and all combinations of the
above-mentioned factors. The results of develop-
ment tests are a matter of the company and are
subject to strict secrecy policy.
must be carried out. According to IEC 60840, type
tests are “tests made before supplying on a general
commercial basis a type of cable system or cable or
accessory covered by this standard, in order to
demonstrate satisfactory performance characteris-
tics to meet the intended application. Once suc-
cessfully completed, these tests need not be re-
peated, unless changes are made in the cable or
accessory materials, or design or manufacturing
process which might change the performance
characteristics” [IEC 60840].
Put more simply, the standard says that the type
test determines the right dimensioning of the mate-
rial and design of the components that were devel-
oped. A type test must be passed if the product is
to be sold.
IEC standard type tests for high voltage cables and
accessories are described in IEC 60840 and
IEC 62067.
34

IEC 60840 and IEC 62067 not only use different equipment being tested but also from laboratory
voltage levels, they also employ different proce- use and installation. To reduce the costs, as many
dures. IEC 60840 allows a separate testing of acces- devices as possible should be tested at the same
sories, while IEC 62067 considers the testing of the time.
whole “cable system”, that is, cables and accesso- The standard design of a type test for a cable sys-
ries in the same sequence. tem contains the following elements:
Relevant IEC type test standards for high voltage
- Cable with at least one segment of a minimum
cables and accessories
length of 10 m between the accessories (other
Standard Voltage range segments must have a minimum length of 5 m
between the accessories)
IEC 60502 1 kV ≤ Um ≤ 36 kV
- Outdoor termination with porcelain insulator
IEC 60840 36 kV < Um ≤ 170 kV
- Outdoor termination with composite insulator
IEC 62067 170 kV < Um ≤ 550 kV
- Joint

- Back-to-back joint (consisting of an SF6 termi-

nation and a transformer termination)
Layout of type test

The tested equipment is subject to very high stress,

Type tests are conducted in high voltage test labor-
making it unable for commercial use afterwards. In
atories, either at the cable or accessory manufac-
addition, type tests are time intensive and expen-
turer or at an independent test laboratory.
sive. Various costs accumulate, not only from the

Outdoor terminations
(1 composite & 1 porcelain insulator)

(Cross-bonding) Back-to-back joint

Joint (SF6 & transformer termination)

Cable Cable
(> 5m) (> 5m)
High voltage
test transformer

Cable (> 10m)

High current transformer

(for thermal heating)
Typical layout of a type test
3. Tests and Standards
Type test of a 550 kV cable system at an independent
test laboratory
Test sequence
According to IEC 60840, the type test on accesso-
ries for voltages 36 kV < Um ≤ 170 kV shall be
subjected to the following sequence:
a) Partial discharge (PD) test at ambient tem-
perature
b) Heating cycle voltage test with 20 cycles of
an 8 h heating period and a 16 h cooling
period at a voltage of 2U0
c) PD tests at ambient and high temperature
d) Lightning impulse voltage test with 10 pos-
itive and 10 negative impulses followed by
a power frequency voltage test
e) PD tests, if not previously carried out in c)
f) Tests of outer protection for buried joints,
thus containing a water immersion and
heat cycling test and a separate different
voltage test at the joint
g) Examination of the accessories after com-
pletion of the tests above.
According to IEC 62067, the type test on cable sys-
tems for voltages 170 kV < Um ≤ 550 kV shall
be subjected to the following sequence:
a) Bending test on the cable followed by in-
stallation of accessories and a partial dis-
charge test at ambient temperature
b) Measurement of tan δ
c) Heating cycle voltage test with 20 cycles of
an 8 h heating period and a 16 h cooling
period at a voltage of 2U0
35
d) PD tests at ambient and high temperature
e) Switching impulse voltage test (required
for cable systems with Um ≥ 300 kV)
f) Lightning impulse voltage test with 10 pos-
itive and 10 negative impulses followed by
a power frequency voltage test
g) PD tests, if not previously carried out in d)
above
h) Tests of outer protection for buried joints,
thus containing a water immersion and
heat cycling test and a separate different
voltage test at the joint
i) Examination of cable system with cable
and accessories after completion of the
tests
Besides these tests on the cable systems a type test
according to the standards IEC 60840 and IEC 62067
includes also tests on the material of the cable.
These material tests include the measurement of
the resistivity of the conductor and insulation
screen and the mechanical properties of the cable
insulation material.
Electric field in the equipment
In both standards, the type test must be carried out
on the part of the equipment in which the highest
electric field occurs. The electric field E(x) in the ca-
ble insulation is given by:
𝑉
𝐸 𝑥 = (Eq. 3-1)
𝑅
𝑥 ∙ 𝑙𝑛
𝑟
Eq. 3-1 shows four important facts for the electric
field distribution in cables and accessories. These
are:
1. The highest field in the cable occurs at the
inner diameter of the cable insulation.
2. The highest field in a slip-on element of ac-
cessories occurs at the outer diameter of the
cable insulation.
3. At a smaller conductor cross-section, the
highest value of the electric field is higher
than that which occurs at a larger conductor
36
cross-section (assuming that the insulation
thickness is the same).
4. At the outer semiconducting layer, the high-
est value of the electric field which occurs at
a larger conductor cross-section is higher
than that which occurs at a smaller conduc-
tor cross-section (assuming that the insula-
tion thickness is the same).
R1
r1
E
E(r2)
E(r1)
x
R2
r2
Schematic distribution of electric field in a cable with
small (orange) and large (grey) conductor cross-
section
Taking the different factors of the electric field dis-
tribution and demands of the standards into ac-
count, one could think that cables and accessories
need to undergo two different sorts of type test.
One test should be made “for the cable” with the
lowest possible conductor cross-section (as the
electric field is highest at the inner semiconducting
layer). Another test should be made “for the acces-
sories” with the highest possible conductor cross-
section (as the electric field is highest at the outer
semiconducting layer of the cable, which is the
same as the inner part of the joint body).
However in reality the assumption to have the
same thickness of the insulation independent of the
cross section of the conductor is not correct. Cable
manufacturer usually design the cable in such a
way, that for a certain voltage level, the electrical
field strength at the conductor is the same, inde-
pendent of the conductor cross section. This means
that for a cable with a large conductor cross-section
the thickness of the insulation is smaller than for a
cable with a smaller conductor cross-section.
Consequently, type tests for high voltage accesso-
ries and the cables are typically carried out at a
conductor cross-section of 2500 mm2. Usually with
such a cable the requirements for the type test of
the cable and that for the accessories are fulfilled.
Lower values of the cable cross-sections are cov-
ered by the standard, the electric field in the acces-
sories being lower.
Example 3-1:
Æ A type test with the following values:
- Cable of manufacturer A
- Accessories of manufacturer A
- U0 = 76 kV
- Conductor cross-section = 2500 mm2
- Diameter over inner conductor = 63 mm
- Insulation thickness = 12.3 mm
 Is the accessories type test valid for a cable with
the following details:
- Cable of manufacturer B
- Accessories of manufacturer A
- U0 = 76 kV
- Conductor cross-section = 630 mm2
- Diameter over inner conductor = 34 mm
- Insulation thickness = 17.3 mm
P According to Equation 3-1, the electric field at the
type tested cable and accessories is:
- at inner cond. of the cable = 7.3 kV/mm
- at outer cond. of the cable = 5.3 kV/mm
According to Equation 3-1, the electric field at the
cable, which shall be applied, and the accessories
is:
- at inner cond. of the cable = 6.4 kV/mm
- at outer cond. of the cable = 3.2 kV/mm
The calculated values show that for the accessories
of manufacturer A, which shall be applied with a
cable of manufacturer B, the electric field is lower at
the outer semiconducting layer than in the type
test. According to IEC 60840, the cable and accesso-
ries can be from different manufacturers.
9 Considering both facts, it can be concluded that
the type test (of the accessories) is valid and the
accessories of manufacturer A can be applied with
that type of cable of manufacturer B.
3. Tests and Standards 37

Duration of type test

The longest part of the test is the heating cycle

voltage test with a duration of 20 days. The test it-
self lasts approx. 30 days including all other electric
test sequences and the test of the outer protection
for the buried joint. The installation of the equip-
ment together with the time required for preparing
the laboratory means that the full duration of a type
test typically lasts about two months. To ensure
that the test parameters meet the standards, the
type tests are either carried out at an independent
type test laboratory or are witnessed by a repre-
sentative of an independent test institute.

Type test certificate

Once the type test is passed, a type test certificate
is given. This certificate lists all equipment tested,
the various test procedures and the result of the Example for cable (above) and accessory (bottom) da-
test. With a type test certificate, the commercial ta in a type test report
sale of the product can be made.

3.1.4 Prequalification tests

Layout of tests
A type test must be successfully completed before
a prequalification (PQ) test is started.

While a type test demonstrates satisfactory per-

formance characteristics of the cable or the acces-
sories (joints and terminations), the PQ tests exam-
ines the compatibility of the cable with the accesso-
ries. PQ tests are only required for cables systems
if the calculated nominal electrical stresses at the
conductor screen will be higher than 8 kV/mm or at
the insulation screen higher than 4 kV/mm.

According to IEC 62067, PQ tests are “tests made

before supplying on a general commercial basis a
type of cable system covered by this standard, in
order to demonstrate satisfactory long term per-
formance of the complete cable system. The
prequalification test needed only be carried out
once unless there is a substantial change in the ca-
ble system with respect to material, manufacturing
process, design and design levels” [IEC 62067].

PQ tests are time intensive and expensive, being

carried out for 365 days. Laboratory costs make the
tests particularly expensive. Consequently, as
38
many devices as possible should be tested at the
same time.
The layout of a PQ test is similar to that of a type
test, it typically contains:
- Full sized cable with a total length of approxi-
mately 100 metres
- Outdoor termination with porcelain insulator
- Outdoor termination with composite insulator
- Joint
- Back-to-back joint (consisting of an SF6 termi-
nation and a transformer termination)
PQ test of a 245 kV cable system at an independent
test institute
Test arrangement
According to IEC 62067, “the test arrangement shall
be representative of the installation design condi-
tions e.g. rigidly fixed, flexible and transition ar-
rangements, underground and in air.” [IEC 62067].
This means that the 100 m test cable length should
be typical of the application, which is usually bur-
ied directly, in air or in a (concrete) tunnel.
It is further stated in IEC 62067 that “Ambient con-
ditions may vary between installations and during
the test and are not considered to have any major
influence” [IEC 62067]. Taking into consideration
that the test conditions in Mexico City in summer
may be significantly different throughout the whole
year than in St. Petersburg in winter, the detailed
layout of the test should be discussed between the
cable manufacturer and the customer in detail.
Test sequence
According to [IEC 62067], the PQ test on the cable
system shall be subjected to the sequence as:
a) Heating cycle voltage test with a test peri-
od of 8760 h (1 year) at a voltage of 1.7U0.
Parallel to the voltage load, 180 heating
cycles have to be made. These heating cy-
cles must be at least 8 h, whereby the con-
ductor temperature shall be maintained
within the stated temperature limits for at
least 2 h of each heating point. The heating
cycle shall be followed by a cooling period
of at least 16 h*
b) Lightning impulse voltage test with 10 pos-
itive and 10 negative impulses
c) Examination of the cable system after
completion of the above tests
* According to the standard, the minimum time for the
heating cycles is (24 h x 180 = 180 days). Once the
heating cycles are finished, the heating of the cable
can be stopped. However, the voltage test of 1.7U0 for
one year must still be finished. The heating and cool-
ing cycles usually occur over a period of one year, e.g.
16 h heating and 32 h cooling.
PQ test certificate
Similar to the type test, the PQ test is carried out
either at an independent test institute or is wit-
nessed by a representative of an independent test
institute. Once passed, a PQ test certificate is given.
In general, the commercial sale of the cable system
is made with the PQ test certificate. Since the PQ
test takes a long time, it is not untypical of installa-
tions with cables and accessories to be made in the
field while the PQ test is still running. Such proce-
dure has to be agreed between the cable manufac-
turer and the final customer. The PQ test certificate
has to be delivered as soon as the test was passed.
3.1.5 Requalification tests
Layout of tests
“Tests for the extension of the prequalification of a
cable system”, often called “Requalification tests”
is a new test possibility in the latest version of
IEC 62067. This type of test has been introduced
into the standard to consider changes in the mate-
rial or production process without the necessity of
carrying out a complete (extensive and expensive)
PQ test. Such changes may be a new production
facility (e.g. extrusion line) on a proven cable de-
3. Tests and Standards
sign and cable material. The requalification test re-
quires a valid prequalification test.
Similar to the PQ test, the requalification test exam-
ines the compatibility of the cable with the accesso-
ries.
According to [IEC 62067], the standard design of a
requalification test is similar to that of a type or PQ
test. It usually contains:
- Full sized cable with a total length of approxi-
mately 20 metres
- Outdoor termination with porcelain insulator
- Outdoor termination with composite insulator
- Joint
- Back-to-back joint (consisting of an SF6 termi-
nation and a transformer termination)
Test arrangement
The test arrangement for a requalification test is
similar to that of a type test with the exception that
the minimum total cable length should be 20 m
[IEC 62067].
Test sequence
According to [IEC 62067], the requalification test on
the cable system shall be subjected to the following
sequence:
a) Bending test without final partial discharge
test followed by installation of the accesso-
ries that are part of the tests for the exten-
sion of the prequalification
b) A partial discharge test is applied after the
bending test to check the quality of the in-
stalled accessories
c) Heating cycle test without voltage*
d) Measurements of tan δ
e) Heating cycle voltage test**
f) PD tests at ambient temperature and high
temperature. This test shall be carried out
after the final cycle of item e) above or, al-
ternatively, after the lightning impulse
voltage test in item h) below
g) Switching impulse test (required for Um ≥
300 kV)
39
h) Lightning impulse voltage test followed by
a power frequency voltage test
i) PD tests, if not previously carried out in f)
above
j) Tests of outer protection for buried joints
k) Examination of the cable system with ca-
ble and accessories shall be carried out af-
ter completion of the tests above
l) The resistivity of semi-conducting screens
shall be measured on a separate sample
* According to the standard, the heating shall be ap-
plied for at least 8 hours with 2 hours of stated con-
ductor temperature. The cooling period shall be 16
hours. The cycle of heating and cooling shall be car-
ried out 60 times [IEC 62067].
** According to the standard, the minimum number of
heating cycles with voltage of 2.0 U0 shall be 20. The
heating cycles can be interrupted.
Requalification test certificate
Similar to the type and PQ test, the requalification
test is carried out either at an independent test in-
stitute or is witnessed by a representative of an in-
dependent test institute.
3.1.6 Routine tests
Since failures in the production never can be ex-
cluded, routine tests are carried out to detect pro-
duction failures before the product (e.g. such as a
cable drum) is delivered to the customer.
According to IEC 60840, routine tests are “tests
made by the manufacturer on each manufactured
component (length of cable or accessory) to check
that the component meets the specific require-
ments” [IEC 60840].
In a routine test, high voltage tests and partial dis-
charge (PD) measurements are carried out. In order
to avoid unnecessary electric ageing effects, the
test values for routine tests are less than those for
type tests. The outline of the routine test, the re-
quirements and the procedures for cables and ac-
cessories are dependent on the voltage level and
listed in the relevant standards.
After each test, a test certificate is given. It shows
the equipment that was tested, the voltage range,
the PD level, the date of test and the test person.
40

3.1.7 After installation tests

Tests according to IEC

After installation tests are made to detect failures
that have occurred during the installation process,
especially during the installation of accessories.

According to IEC 60840, electric tests after installa-

tion are “tests made to demonstrate the integrity of
the cable system as installed”. They are tests on
new installations and “are carried out when the in-
stallation of the cable and its accessories has been
completed” [IEC 60840].
Routine test of a slip-on element for high voltage
joints in the fully screened test laboratory of Brugg
Since cables and accessories are tested during the
Cables routine test in the factory, failures in the cable sys-
tem can only occur during the transport. Damage
of accessories, particularly the sealed slip-on ele-
!?.@<A?1?/> 6?+-A> ments, can usually be easily detected, making in-
8A)?A ;-& ):=#TER+#R!!C ' S37H4 9((( S&:

#37?/> :7237L ,N46GI26 82I4 =K%* "G5%

stallation failures the major possible cause of fail-
29+? >;U$ :/J4 P!!#AT#RDA
ure for the proper functioning of the cable system.
;-& DAE@!T@
#.,3? RR!#RED O9 T0R!!! MMR
2?@> 0-3>.=? PTA O9 P! M2L There exists always the danger that during laying
"?>.73$ '
of the cable the polymeric cable sheath may be
#-11?/>$ ' damaged. This is one of the reasons why DC volt-
".>?%47=/.><A?$ RC%P%R!!@ # QKM. age tests of the oversheath are carried out. More
detailed information is given in [IEC 60840] and
#"! T! [IEC 62067].
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According to the standards, after installation tests

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can be made with DC and AC. While DC tests for

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!!?DR !T?!! !T?!@ !T?TA !T?RC
oil-cable systems are often used, DC tests pose a
significant danger to polymeric insulations. Due to
Sample of a routine test protocol (the diagram in the
the character of the polymeric insulation, DC load
lower part shows the recorded PD level)
causes space charges within the insulation. Such
space charges can cause additional ageing or early
After the test, the slip-on elements of the accesso-
breakdown in the insulation of the polymeric cable
ries are cleaned. In order to be free of moisture, the
and accessories [Riechert 01].
slip-on elements are sealed in a plastic bag. To en-
In addition, DC tests do not detect all possible
sure the correctness of the test, a copy of the test
faults and can be dangerous for the accessories of
certificate is also sealed in the bag.
AC polymer cable systems, the so called faults in-
The procedure for cable drums is similar. After the
duced by DC testing [CIGRE-21.05 02]. This comes
routine test, the cable ends are cleaned and sealed,
as the electric field control in AC and DC is of a dif-
the cable drum is protected and the drum is deliv-
ferent nature.
ered to the customer.
Consequently, after installation tests are more fre-
The advantages of routine tests followed by the
quently applied to AC voltage. Although not for-
sealing of the devices are considerable. Once test-
bidden by the IEC standards, DC tests for polymer
ed and sealed in the routine test rooms, the devices
cables should not be applied.
leave the factory at an extremely high quality level.
3. Tests and Standards 41

High voltage tests with resonance systems

The main reason why DC tests are applied is the

effort needed for tests with ac equipment on site. In
the last few decades, resonant test systems have
been applied very successfully to electric after in-
stallation tests. A resonance system consists of the
capacity “C” of the cable and the inductivity “L” of
a transportable coil. Once energised, the circuit L
and C oscillates at a resonant frequency of ω. Due
to the capacity “C” of the cable, which is different
for each arrangement (it depends on the cable ge-
ometry, the cable length, temperature etc.), the
After installation test of a 420 kV cable system of long-
resonance frequency varies in each test. er length with a heavy mobile resonance system
The standards take this into consideration and it is (phase 2 under test)
stated that “The ac test voltage to be applied shall
be subjected to agreement between the purchaser Since resonance systems have been applied very
and the contractor. The waveform shall be substan- successfully over the last few decades, it is no
tially sinusoidal and the frequency shall be be- longer necessary, even dangerous, to carry out DC
tween 20 and 300 Hz” [IEC 60840], [IEC 62067]. tests for high voltage polymeric cable systems.
The equipment required for the test also depends
significantly on the capacity “C” of the cable and 24 hour soak test
therefore on the cable geometry and cable length.
For those applications to which a resonance test
For cables with a high capacity, such as cable
cannot be applied, such as with particularly long
lengths of several kilometres, much more powerful
cable length or with resonance systems that are not
equipment is required than for cables with a lower
available or too expensive, a test at nominal volt-
capacity, such as cable lengths of some metres.
age can be carried out. This kind of test is called
In general, the longer the cable length, the higher “soak test” and is made for 24 hours at U0
the power for the resonance system. For testing of [IEC 60840], [IEC 62067].
cables with high capacity (high currents), reso-
The above-mentioned after installation tests are
nance test systems can be put in parallel. For test-
certified as either “passed” (without breakdown) or
ing cables of high voltage, resonance systems can
“not passed” (breakdown in the main insulation).
be put in series.
It is worth mentioning that in case of a failure, soak
tests run a higher risk than tests with a resonance
system, as the whole energy capacity of the net can
discharge at the place of failure. This can cause
considerable damage at the place of failure. There-
fore, tests with a resonance system should be fa-
voured over 24h soak tests or if being done, the
24h soak test should be conducted out with no load
in the system.

After installation test of a 420 kV cable system of short
length with a light mobile resonance system (phase 2
under test)
PD measurements
Partial discharge (PD) measurements are an estab-
lished method to assess the majority of electrical
equipment in power systems. For many insulation
systems, PD measurements are a useful tool to
evaluate the quality of the insulation.
42
The correct design of cable systems is checked in
type and prequalification tests, whilst the produc-
tion quality of cables and accessories is checked in
routine tests according to the relevant standards.
However, on-site installation poses a potential risk
as far as defects are concerned. Although a final
high voltage test after installation is carried out, the
mentioned deteriorations cannot be fully excluded.
In response to such difficulties, additional PD
measurements can be helpful. PD measurements
are typically used as measurements during after
installation tests.
Experience shows that most defects caused during
installation occur in the accessories. As a result,
particular focus has been given to the technological
development of reliable systems for measuring PD
in joints and terminations.
A PD inside a joint or termination is usually an ex-
tremely low-value signal. The cable system itself
usually stands in industrial surroundings with a
harsh electric environment. A low measurement
signal combined with a harsh electric environment
makes it extremely challenging to carry out reliable
PD measurements. Once the PD signal has been
measured and identified as coming from the acces-
sories and the cable, the accessories and the cable
must be dismantled in order to find the PD source.
It is therefore strongly recommended when consid-
ering PD measurements that the right PD equip-
ment is used and professional personnel employed
to carry out the test.
PD measurements at after installation test at a 220 kV
outdoor termination
PD tests can be expensive. This is due to the costs
incurred by additional equipment and personnel, as
well as the time consuming processes of preparing,
carrying out and finalising the tests.
The application of a PD test must therefore be care-
fully considered. In most cases, it is the decision of
the customer as to whether such a test should be
carried out or not. Further information on the types
and structure of PD tests is given in Chapter 8.
Sheath test at the cable
The functioning of the outer sheath of the high
voltage cable is relevant for the long-term perfor-
mance of the cable system. Therefore, tests for the
cable sheath must also be carried out. These tests
are made after laying the cable and carried out with
DC. The applied voltage is typically 10 kV. In con-
trast to the main insulation, the application of DC
for the cable sheath does not pose a significant
danger for the cable sheath.
3.1.8 Alternative methods for after
installation tests
Search for alternative test methods
The costs and effort on site for high voltage test
systems have led to a search for alternative test se-
quences. Currently, two main methods are under
discussion. One is the test with damped AC voltage
(DAC), the other is tests with very low frequency
(VLF).
Tests with damped AC voltage (DAC)
The test circuit for DAC tests mainly consists of a
DC voltage source, the cable itself and an external
inductance. The inductance and the cable capaci-
tance form a resonance circuit. The cable capaci-
tance is charged to a certain voltage, resonates
with the inductance and oscillates with a frequency
ranging between 20 and 1000 Hz. The losses of the
(oscillating circuit) system cause a damping of the
voltage. At certain time intervals, the system is re-
charged with the DC source. This process is done
several times during the period of testing [Gulski
07], [CIGRE-D1.33.05 10].
The advantage of such tests is that smaller test
equipment is needed. The disadvantage is that only
the first few voltage cycles provide a high voltage
3. Tests and Standards 43

load to the cable. If one wants to have a similar test 3.2 Standards
load as that of a resonance system, the test with
DAC must be significantly longer. 3.2.1 Introduction

Standards are vital for use of technical systems in

international markets. With standards, the final end
user receives the promise that all parts will fit the
system in his application. The international Electro-
technical Commission (IEC) is a worldwide organi-
sation for standardisation, comprised of many na-
tional electrotechnical committees. The object of
IEC is to promote international cooperation on all
questions concerning standardisation in the electric
and electronic fields [IEC 62271].

It is mentioned that standards and regulations of-

ten differ between countries. Specific country-
Test of a cable system with damped ac voltage
standards are not mentioned here.

Today, DAC voltage tests are mainly applied as

high voltage tests used for on-site insulation diag-
nostics of high voltage cable systems. Since the
DAC test is not fully covered in IEC, few customers
carry out this test.
However, it has been successfully done on cable
systems testing [Gulski 07].
Tests with very low frequency (VLF)
3.2.2 Main differences between IEC
and IEEE standards
High voltage cables and accessories adhere to two
major international standards. These are set ac-
cording to IEC and IEEE (Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers). While IEEE mainly covers
the American region, IEC is a common standard
throughout most other countries.

Tests with very low frequency (VLF) are typically In the following tables, the main differences be-
carried out at a frequency of 0.1 Hz. In some cases, tween the two standards for high voltage cables
tests with frequencies down to 0.01 Hz are consid- and accessories are shown with particular focus on
ered as VLF [CIGRE-D1.33.05 10]. The advantage of routine, type and PQ tests [IEC 60840], [IEC 62067],
such tests is that a lower effort for the test equip- [IEEE 404], [IEEE 48].
ment is required. The disadvantages are the longer
test time and that this kind of waveform is not test-
ed sufficiently with high voltage accessories (for
polymer cables).
The field grading in high voltage accessories for
polymer cables is based on the principle of capaci-
tive field grading. The materials and design are de-
signed to work under ac conditions of 50/60 Hz (or
16 2/3 Hz). A test with VLF at 0.1 Hz, or even 0.01 Hz
is compared to 50 Hz at a 500 times (or 5000 times)
lower frequency. The field grading properties of the
deflectors and middle electrode is not sufficiently
known at these frequencies. From today’s point of
view, it is not clear whether high voltage accesso-
ries for polymer cables will work at these (very low)
frequencies appropriately.
44

Main differences between IEC and IEEE standards

Test
IEC standard IEEE standard
type

Considers cable, One standard for

joints and termi- cables, one for
Type test
nations in one terminations and
standard one for joints

For cables and

Does not consider
PQ test accessories in
a PQ test
one standard

Considers cable, One standard for

Routine joints and termi- cables, one for
test nations in one terminations and
standard one for joints

Difference between IEC and IEEE for type tests

IEC 60840 cable and ac- IEEE Std. 404-2000 for IEEE Std. 48-1996 for
Test on main in- cessories joints terminations
sulation Clause Requirements Clause Requirements Clause Requirements
(132 kV) (138 kV) (138 kV)

PD tests 12.3.4 5 pC at 1.5 U0 7.6.1 5 pC at 1.5 U0 8.4.1.5 5 pC at 1.5 U0

AC voltage test - - 7.7.1 240 kV, 15 min 8.4.1.1 310 kV, 1 min, dry

8.4.1.2 275 kV, 10 s, wet

DC voltage test - - 7.7.2 315 kV, 15 min 8.4.1.9 355 kV, 15 min

Heating cycle
12.3.6 20 cycles at 2 U0 7.9 30 cycles at 2 U0 8.4.2 30 cycles at 2 U0
voltage test

PD tests 12.3.4 5 pC at 1.5 U0 7.6.1 5 pC at 1.5 U0 8.4.1.5 5 pC at 1.5 U0

Impulse voltage At ambient temp.

test 12.3.7 and 95°C, 650 kV, 7.7.3 650 kV, 10+/10- 8.4.1.7 650 kV, 10+/10-
10+/10-

AC voltage test 12.3.7 2,5 U0, 15 min - - - -

PD tests - - 7.6.1 5 pC at 1.5 U0 8.4.1.5 5 pC at 1.5 U0

AC voltage test - - 7.10 200 kV, 6 h 8.4.1.3 210 kV, 6 h

Difference between IEC and IEEE for routine tests

IEC 60840 cable and IEEE Std. 404-2000 for IEEE Std. 48-1996 for
Test on main accessories joints terminations
insulation Clause Requirements Clause Requirements Clause Requirements
(132 kV) (138 kV) (138kV)

PD tests 9.2 5 pC at 1.5 U0 7.6.1 5 pC at 1.5 U0 - -

AC voltage test 310 kV, 1 min,

9.3 2.5 U0, 30 min 7.7.1 3 U0, 15 min or 8.5.1
dry

7.7.3 BIL 650 kV, 10+/10-

Pressure leak Pressure 2.5x the

- - - - 8.5.2
test normal rating, 1h
3. Tests and Standards 45

3.2.3 Relevant IEC standards IEC 62271-203:

High-voltage switchgear and controlgear – Part 203:

The following list gives an overview of the most
Gas-insulated metal-enclosed switchgear for rated
relevant IEC standards and their scope for high
voltages above 52 kV
voltage power cable systems.

IEC 60183:
IEC 60885-3
Guide to the selection of high-voltage cables
Electrical test methods for electric cables – Part 3:
Test methods for partial discharge measurements
on lengths of extruded power cable IEC 60228:
Conductors of insulated cables
IEC 60038 (2009-06):

IEC standard voltages IEC 60229:

Tests on extruded oversheaths with a special pro-

IEC 60141 (all parts): tective function

Tests on oil-filled and gas-pressure cables and their

accessories IEC 60287:
Electric cables – Calculation of current rating

IEC 60141-1:
Tests on oil-filled and gas-pressure cables and their IEC 60332:
accessories – Part 1: Oil-filled, paper-insulated, Tests on electric and optical fibre cables under fire
metal-sheathed cables and accessories for alternat- conditions
ing voltages up to and including 500 kV

IEC 60811:
IEC 60141-2:
Common test methods for insulating and sheathing
Tests on oil-filled and gas-pressure cables and their materials of electric cables and optical cables
accessories – Part 2: Internal gas-pressure cables
and accessories for alternating voltages up to
IEC 60853:
275 kV
Calculation of the cyclic and emergency current rat-
ing of cables
IEC 60694:
Common specifications for high-voltage switchgear
IEC 61443:
and controlgear standards
Short-circuit temperature limits of electric cables
with rated voltages above 30 kV (Um=36 kV)
IEC 60840 (2011):
Power cables with extruded insulation and their ac-
cessories for rated voltages above 30 kV (Um = 36
kV) up to 150 kV (Um = 170 kV) – Test methods and
requirements

IEC 62067 (2011):

Power cables with extruded insulation and their ac-

cessories for rated voltages above 150 kV (Um =
170 kV) up to 500 kV (Um = 550 kV) – Test methods
and requirements
46

3.2.4 Relevant IEEE, AEIC, ANSI and IEEE 400.3-2006 is a guide for partial discharge test-
ing of shielded power cable systems in a field envi-
ICEA standards
ronment
In North America, cable systems are often specified
according to:
AEIC CS7-93:
- IEEE
Specifications for crosslinked polyethylene insulat-
- AEIC (Association of Edison Illuminating Com- ed shielded power cables rated 69 to 138 kV.
panies)

- ANSI (American National Standards Institute)

ANSI / ICEA S-108-720-2004:
- ICEA (Insulated Cable Engineers Association)
Standard for extruded insulation power cables rat-
ed above 46 to 345 kV
The following list gives an overview of the most
relevant IEEE, AEIC, ANSI and ICEA standards and
their scope for high voltage cable systems.

IEEE standards and guides

IEEE Std. 404.2000 is the standard for extruded and
laminated dielectric shielded cable joints rated 2.5
kV to 500 kV (currently under revision – draft ver-
sion 404-2012 available)

IEEE Std. 48-1996 describes the standard test pro-

cedures and requirements for alternating-current
cable terminations 2.5 kV to 765 kV.

IEEE Std. 817-1993 describes standard test proce-

dure for flame-retardant coatings as applied to in-
sulated cables in cable trays.

IEEE 525-1987 is a guide for the design and installa-

tion of cable systems in substations.

IEEE 1299/C62.22.1-1996 is a guide for the connec-

tion of surge arresters to protect insulated, shielded
electric power cable systems

IEEE 1300-1996 is a guide for cable connections for

gas-insulated substations

IEEE 1406-1998 is a guide to the use of gas-in-fluid

analysis for electric power cable systems
 47

Chapter 4:

High Voltage
XLPE Cables
48
4. High Voltage XLPE Cables 49

4.1 Design and types of high Conductor

The conductor of high voltage cables consists of

voltage XLPE cables copper or aluminium. It is typically stranded and -
in order to reduce the current losses - the conduc-
4.1.1 Cable design
tor can be additionally segmented. The inner con-
Introduction ductor is covered with semiconducting layer to
The development of cables with cross-linked poly- achieve a uniform and smooth surface over the
ethylene (XLPE) insulation goes back to the 1970’s single conductor wires.
[Peschke 99]. Since then, production and material
technology have improved significantly. The main
advantages of XLPE cables are that they are
maintenance free and easy to install – vital factors
if a highly reliable energy supply is to be achieved.

At present, numerous high voltage XLPE cable sys-

tems with nominal voltages of up to 550 kV and Different types of conductors; from left to right, sever-
with circuit lengths up to 100 km (voltage levels up al round conductors, profile conductors and hollow
to 132 kV) are in operation worldwide [Avila 10], profile conductors. (Hollow profiles are typically used
[Vogelsang 09], [Swingler 07]. for oil filled cables.)

Structure of high voltage XLPE cables

XLPE cables consist of the:

- Conductor

- Inner semiconducting layer

- XLPE insulation Principle types of segmented conductors; left: seg-

mented full conductor and right: segmented hollow
- Outer semiconducting layer conductor for oil filled cables.
- Outer conductor screen

- Metallic sheath
Example 4-1:
- Outer polymeric sheath Æ The specific gravity of copper is 3.3 times high-
er than that of aluminium and the volume resistiv-
ity of copper is 1.56 times lower than that of alu-
Outer Wire screen & radial Polymeric (XLPE) minium.
sheath moisture barrier insulation

Æ For achieving the same conductivity as a cop-

per conductor an aluminium conductor must have
a conductor cross-section, which is 1.56 times
larger than that of the corresponding copper con-
ductor. The weight of such an aluminium conduc-
tor will be 2.2 times lower than the copper con-
ductor.

Outer semicon- Inner semicon- Conductor

ducting layer ducting layer

General design of a high voltage polymer cable

50

Depending on the customer’s specification, the
conductor can be equipped with a longitudinal wa-
ter barrier made of hygroscopic tapes or powder
between the individual strands.
Inner and outer semiconducting layer
The inner and outer semiconducting layers are ap-
plied to achieve a homogeneous field within the
insulation. Without the semiconducting layer, an
elevated electric field would occur at the conduc-
tors, putting an unnecessary high degree of electric
stress upon the insulation.
At higher voltage levels, the electric field in the ca-
ble is usually higher. Thus, cables with higher volt-
age levels typically make use of material with a
higher degree of cleanliness – a factor which does,
however, lead to increased costs.
The inner semiconducting layer, the XLPE insula-
tion and the outer semiconducting layer are ex-
truded in one step. This is done to avoid gas-filled
interfaces, voids, dust or any other unwanted parti-
cles between the different layers. This process pro-
duces a high quality cable and is called “triple ex-
trusion”. The cable insulation is usually extruded in
three different ways, with:
- Horizontal extrusion lines

- Vertical extrusion lines

- Catenary extrusion lines.

Electric field without (left) and with (right) inner semi-

conducting layer

Principle of triple extrusion

Polymeric (XLPE) insulation

The XLPE insulation of the cable insulates the high
Outer conductor screen and metallic sheath
voltage at the inner semiconductive layer from
The outer conductor screen should:
earth potential at the outer semiconductive layer.
Since the electric breakdown in the insulation is - Conduct the earth fault current in case of a
mainly caused by structural irregularities and mate- short circuit
rial pollution, the cleanliness of the raw material is - Return the capacitive charging current
essential for the functioning of the insulation.
- Provide ground potential

14
MV material As high voltage polymeric cables are sensitive to
Maximum el.field strength / kV/mm

12 HV material
moisture, the metallic sheath must provide a radial
EHV material
10 moisture barrier. In some applications, such as a

8
copper corrugated sheath, the outer conductor and
the metallic sheath is the same. As a standard pro-
6
cedure, the screen wires are embedded in hygro-
4
scopic tapes to provide a longitudinal water barrier.
2 The outer conductor can additionally be equipped
0 with optical fibres for temperature monitoring
110/132 kV 150 kV 220 kV 400 kV 550 kV
[Brugg 10].
Rated voltage

Maximum electrical field strength in cable insulations

and types of materials used for power cables
4. High Voltage XLPE Cables 51

The outer polymeric sheath consists of extruded

polyethylene (PE) or polyvinylchloride (PVC) and
serves as an anti-corrosion layer and mechanical
protection for the metallic sheath. For certain types
of installations, such as laying in tunnels or build-
ings, a flame retardant non-corrosive (FRNC) mate-
rial is additionally applied to provide fire protection
to the cable. On request, the outer sheath can be
covered with a semiconducting layer for a factory
test and after-laying test at the outer sheath.

High voltage XLPE cable with 800 mm2 round copper

4.1.2 Types of high voltage XLPE conductor and lead sheath with additional copper
cables wires

Typical conductor types

The inner conductor is usually selected by the nec-
essary current rating. Round conductors and seg-
mented conductors are the most typical conductor
shapes. For very high current ratings, conductors
with large conductor cross sections (e.g. 2500 mm2)
and enamelled wires are used.
Segmented conductors are typically used for:

- Aluminium conductors with cross section larg-

er than 1200 mm2

- Copper conductors with cross sections larger

than 1000 mm2
High voltage XLPE cable with 1600 mm2 segmented
aluminium conductor and laminated sheath with addi-
Metallic sheath tional copper wires

Apart from the conductor and insulation, the metal-

lic sheath is the main parameter of a high voltage
cable. The selection of the metallic sheath depends
on the application of the cable and the economic
factors involved. The Brugg Cables’ products below
are typical examples of sheath types for XLPE ca-
bles and their applications [Brugg10].

High voltage XLPE cable with 2500 mm2 segmented

copper conductor with enamelled wires and lead
sheath with additional copper wires
52

Aluminium laminated sheath with copper wire screen Copper laminated sheath with copper wire screen
(Brugg type: XDRCU-ALT) (Brugg type: XDRCU-CUT)

Features Typical application Features Typical application

- Moisture tight - In tunnels - Moisture tight - In tunnels
- Low weight - In trenches - Low weight - In trenches
- Low losses - In ducts - Low losses - In ducts
- Low costs - Low costs
- Single types of metal

Copper corrugated sheath (Brugg type: XDCUW-T) Aluminium corrugated sheath (Brugg type: XDRAL-T)

Features Typical application

Features Typical application
- Impervious to mois- - All installations in soil
- Impervious to mois- - All installations in soil ture and tunnels
ture and tunnels
- Highly flexible - Installations with shal-
- Highly flexible - Installations with shal- low ground water
low ground water - Res. to deformation,
- Resistant to defor- pressure & corrosion - Installations in vertical
mation, pressure, vi- - Installations in vertical shafts
bration & corrosion shafts - Welded
- Can be inst. vertically - Installations that may
- Welded - Installations that may suffer from vibrations
- Can be installed ver- suffer from vibrations - Lower costs (than (e.g. at bridges)
tically (e.g. at bridges) copper type)

Lead sheath with copper wire screen (Brugg type

Lead sheath without copper wire screen (Brugg type
XDRCU-PBT)
XDPB-T)

Features Typical application

Features Typical application
- Impervious to mois- - All installations in soil
ture and tunnels
- Seamlessly extruded - Installations with shal-
low ground water
- Impervious to mois- - All installations in soil
ture - Installations with shal-
- Seamlessly extruded low ground water
- Higher short circuit - Installations at higher
capacity (than with- short-circuit currents
out additional copper to be expected
wires)
4. High Voltage XLPE Cables 53

Metallic sheath with integrated optical

Cable data sheet
sensor
Cable type: XDAL-T 1x750 kcmil 120/76 kV
In general, additional optical fibre sensors can be
integrated in each sheath type. Such fibres are
Copper conductor, ROUND, stranded
used for temperature monitoring of the cable. More Diameter: 23.4 mm

details are given in Chapter 8. Conductor screen, extruded cond. layer

Thickness: 1.2 mm Diameter: 25.7 mm

XLPE insulation, extruded

Thickness: 16.0 mm Diameter: 57.7 mm

Insulation screen, extruded cond. layer

Thickness: 1.0 mm Diameter: 59.7 mm

Conductive swelling tape

Thickness: 0.9 mm Diameter: 61.5 mm

Laminated sheath:
Aluminium foil, Copolymer coated
Thickness: 0.25 mm Diameter: 62.0 mm

Polyethylene sheath, black, extruded

Thickness: 3.7 mm Diameter: 69.4 mm
Al laminated sheath and copper wire screen with fibre Semiconducting outer layer
Symbolic illustration

optic sensors (Brugg type: XDRCU-ALT)

Technical data:
Cable weight: 6.72 kg/m Capacitance per length: 0.165 uF/km
Copper weight: 3.49 kg/m Minimum bending radius: 1.4 m
Aluminium weight: 0.11 kg/m Maximum pulling force: 24.0 kN
Screen short circuit: 5kA/1s

Summary of metallic sheath types

Issued by: amr Section Drawing
Date: 07.12.11 High Voltage XLPE Cable
The cable data sheet gives a description of the Reference: 712-KM-279

characteristics of the different cable types. Custom-

Example of a cable data sheet
ers, be it end users, consulting companies or ac-
cessory manufacturers, can design their devices,
such as terminations, cable clamps or others, ac-
cordingly.

Overview of advantages and disadvantages of different metallic sheath types

Sheath type Moisture Mechanical Corrosion Diameter Weight Costs

protection protection protection
Lead sheath +++ ++ +++ + -- --
Lead sheath & copper
+++ ++ +++ + -- --
wires
Cu corrugated sheath ++ +++ ++ o o -
Al corrugated sheath ++ ++ ++ o + o
Cu wires & laminated
+ + ++ ++ o o
sheath
Al wires & laminated
+ + ++ ++ + +
sheath

4.2 Cable layout and system - Type of cable insulation

- Nominal and maximum operating voltage

design
- Short-circuit capacity (short-circuit current
4.2.1 General
with statement of the effect time)
The dimensioning of a high voltage cable system is
- Transmission capacity or nominal current
always based on the specifications and demands of
- Cable laying configuration
the particular project. The following details repre-
sent the minimum amount of information required - Soil properties
[Brugg 10]:
54

For a detailed design of the cable systems, the ca-

Example 4-2:
ble manufacturer must make all necessary calcula-
Æ A cable with the following values:
tions. These calculations take into account any pos-
- Radius of inner semicond. layer r = 24 mm
sible limitations due to manufacturing, transporta-
- Outer radius of insulation R = 45 mm
tion, laying and operation of the cable system.
 The operating capacity of the cable
P According to Equation 4-1 and by assuming εr for
the XLPE material of 2.3, the operating capacity can
4.2.2 Electric field, capacity and
be calculated as:
charging current

Electric field 0.0556 ∙ 2.3

𝐶= = 0.20 𝜇𝐹/𝑘𝑚
In general, the electric field of a cable can be re- 45
𝑙𝑛
24
garded as a homogeneous cylindrical arrangement.
As previously shown in Chapter 1, (Equation 1-24),
9 This is a typical value for the cable capacity of
the electric field E(x) at position x in the cable insu-
high voltage cables of between 0.1 … 0.3 µF/km).
lations is given by:

When voltage is applied to the cable, the cable ca-

𝑈 pacity must be charged. For an alternating voltage,
𝐸 𝑥 =
𝑅 the charging current Ic is therefore:
𝑥 ∙ 𝑙𝑛
𝑟

𝐴
The above equation shows that the highest electric 𝐼! = 𝑈! ∙ 𝜔 ∙ 𝐶 ∙ 10!! (Eq. 4-2)
𝑘𝑚
field occurs above the inner semiconducting layer
and the lowest below the outer semiconducting
layer. In which:

U0 : Phase-to-ground voltage in kV

Operating capacity and charging current ω: Angular frequency = 2⋅π⋅f in 1/s

As mentioned in Chapter 1, every arrangement of a
conductor-insulator-conductor is able to
charges and hence have a certain capacity. A typi-
cal arrangement is a cable with its construction of
conductor and inner semiconducting layer – insula-
tion – outer semiconducting layer and screen. Con-
sequently, the operating capacity of a cable de-
pends on the type of insulation and its geometry.
The following equation applies for all radial field
cables:
C: Operating capacity in µF/km
store
The charging current flows while the cable is set
under voltage. It should be mentioned that in an ac
system the charging current flows in accordance
with the frequency of the applied voltage.
As the current flows with a phase angle of approx-
imately 90°, the charging power is almost purely
reactive. The charging power SC can therefore be
calculated as:

2𝜋𝜀! 𝜀! 0.0556 ∙ 𝜀! 𝜇𝐹
𝐶= = (Eq. 4-1)
𝑅 𝑅 𝑘𝑚 𝑆! = 3 ∙ 𝑈! ∙ 𝐼! (Eq. 4-3)
ln ln
𝑟 𝑟

In which:
ε0 : absolute permittivity
εr : relative permittivity (for XLPE = 2.3)
R: Radius of outer semiconductive layer
r: Radius of inner semiconductive layer
4. High Voltage XLPE Cables 55

Example 4-3:
Æ A cable with:
- Rated voltage U0 = 76 kV
- Net frequency of f = 50 Hz
- Average charging capacity of C = 0.25
µF/km

 The charging current and charging power for the a

cable
Trefoil (or triangle) laying of a cable system
P According to Equation 4-2 and calculating the an-
gular frequency to ω = 314 1/s, the charging current
The mean inductance of a flat-laying arrangement
can be calculated as: can be calculated as:
- Ic = 76kV ⋅ 314 1/s ⋅ 0.25µF/km ⋅ 10-3 = 6 A/km
1.26 ∙ 𝑎 𝐻 (Eq. 4-4)*
𝐿#"$! = 2 ∙ 10!! ∙ 𝑙𝑛
P According to Equation 4-3 and by taking the 𝑟! 𝑘𝑚
charging current, the charging power can be calcu-
lated as:
* The above formula provides average values as the
- Sc = 1.73 ⋅ 76 kV ⋅ 6 A/km = 790 kVA/km inductance for the inner and outer phases are not
9 For a cable length of 5 km, this would mean con- equal.
siderable values of 30 A and 4 MVA for the charging
current and the charging power, respectively.
In which:
a: Distance of phase axis in mm

rC : Radius of conductor in mm
4.2.3 Inductive values of the cable

Inductance
The mean inductance of a trefoil arrangement can
In Chapter 1, it was shown that each current flow be calculated as:
causes a magnetic field. This means that with cur-
rent flow, the cables have a certain inductance and 𝑎 𝐻
𝐿'!&%"$# = 2 ∙ 10!! ∙ 𝑙𝑛 (Eq. 4-5)**
reactance. 𝑟! 𝑘𝑚
In general, the operating inductance depends on
** Due to the symmetrical arrangements, the induct-
the relation between the conductor axis spacing
ance is equal for all three phases.
and the external conductor diameter. For practical
arrangements, the two cases of flat and trefoil lay-
ing of the cables have to be considered [Brugg 10]. Reactance
In both cases, flat-laying and triangle arrange-
ments, the reactance (sometimes referred to as
“inductive reactance”) of the whole cable system
can be calculated as:

a Ω
𝑋 =𝜔∙𝐿 (Eq. 4-6)
𝑘𝑚
Flat laying of a cable system

In which:

ω: angular frequency = 2⋅π⋅f in 1/s

L: Inductance of either the triangle or flat laid

cable system in H/km
56
4.2.4 Cable losses
General
In a cable system, two basic types of losses are
present: losses that are caused by the high voltage,
the so-called voltage dependent losses, and losses
that are caused by the current, the so-called current
dependent losses.
Voltage dependent losses
Voltage dependent losses occur at any moment in
which the cable is connected to an AC voltage
source. They reveal a characteristic of the cable’s
property, namely that the cable can be considered
as a “capacity” or capacitor. An ideal capacitor
consumes purely capacitive power – or capacitive
current. A real capacitor, such as the cable, not only
has capacitive power but also has reactive power –
or reactive current. The angle between the capaci-
tive current and reactive current is considered as
tan δ (“tangens delta”). The reactive power thereby
represents dielectric losses in the cable insulation.
These losses can be considered as dielectric losses
and are therefore described as “dielectric loss
power” Pd. The voltage dependent losses Pd can be
calculated as:
𝑃! = 𝑈!! ∙ 𝜔 ∙ 𝐶 ∙ tan 𝛿 (Eq. 4-7)
In which:
U0 : Phase-to-ground voltage of the cable
ω: Angular frequency
C: Operating capacity
tan δ: Dielectric power loss factor (typical
values for XLPE between 1.5 … 3.5 ⋅ 10-4
and for EPR between 10 … 30 ⋅ 10-4)
Example 4-4:
Æ Two different cables with:
- Rated voltage U0 = 76 kV
- Rated voltage U0 = 220 kV
- Net frequency of f = 50 Hz
- Average charging capacity of C = 0.25
µF/km
- Average tan δ for XLPE of 2.5 ⋅ 10-4
 The voltage depending losses of the cable
P According to Equation 4-6 and calculating the
angular frequency to ω = 314 1/s, the voltage de-
pending losses can be calculated as:
- Pd1 = (76kV)2 ⋅ 314 1/s ⋅ 0.25µF/km ⋅ 2.5 ⋅ 10-4
= 113 W/km
- Pd2 = (220kV)2 ⋅ 314 1/s ⋅ 0.25µF/km ⋅ 2.5 ⋅ 10-4
= 950 W/km
9 For a cable length of 5 km, this would mean a
considerable value of 565 W / 4750 W for the volt-
age dependent losses.
Current dependent losses
Despite ohmic conductor losses, current dependent
losses only appear when an ac current flows
through the cable. They consist of the following
components:
- Ohmic conductor losses
- Losses due to the skin effect
- Losses due to the proximity effect
- Losses in the metallic sheath
Ohmic conductor losses
Ohmic conductor losses represent the losses
caused by the electron flow through the conductor.
As introduced in Chapter 1, they are determined by
the conductor material and the temperature. The
ohmic conductor losses can be calculated by apply-
ing Ohm’s law and the power law as:
𝑃 = 𝐼! ∙ 𝑅 (Eq. 4-8)
In which:
I: Current through the cable core
R: Resistance at a certain temperature
The standard conductor cross-sections and admis-
sible DC resistances at 20°C are defined in the
IEC 60228.
4. High Voltage XLPE Cables 57

Conductor cross-section and admissible DC re- - R90Cu = 17.6 mΩ/km ⋅ (1 + 3.9 ⋅ 10 1/K ⋅ 70 K) -3

sistances at 20°C according to IEC 60228 = 22.4 mΩ/km

Conductor Copper re- Aluminium re- P According to Equation 4-8 and taking the values of
cross- sistance sistance the resistance at 90°C, the losses at 90°C can be cal-
section culated as:
Ω /km]
[mΩ [mΩ
Ω /km]
[mm2]
- PlossAl = (560 A)2 ⋅ 37.2 mΩ/km = 11.7 kW/km
240 75.4 125
- PlossCu = (560 A)2 ⋅ 22.4 mΩ/km = 7.0 kW/km
300 60.1 100
9 For a cable length of 5 km, this would mean con-
400 47.0 77.8 siderable values of 60 kW / 35 kW for the conductor
500 36.6 60.5 losses in the aluminium and copper conductor, re-
630 28.3 46.9 spectively. This means that at the same conductor
cross-section and the same current flow, at 90 °C,
800 22.1 36.7
the losses in the aluminium conductor are almost
1000 17.6 29.1 twice as much as those of copper.
1200 15.1 24.7
1600 11.3 18.6 Losses due to the skin effect
2000 9.0 14.9
Losses due to the skin effect are caused by the dis-
2500 7.2 12.7
placement of the current towards the conductor
surface. In Chapter 1, it was shown that each cur-
Due to the power losses, the conductor tempera- rent has the ability to induce a voltage in a conduc-
ture usually rises above 20 °C, at which typically a tor. This voltage induction also takes place in the
maximum permanent temperature of 90 °C can be “own” conductor (the conductor in which the cur-
allowed. The elevated temperature causes the dc rent itself is flowing). With the resistance of the
resistance to rise accordingly. The effect was de- conductor, an additional current flows. The direc-
scribed in Chapter 1. According to equation 1-16 tion of this current causes a higher current to flow
the resistance at 90°C can be calculated: at the outer diameter area of the conductor and a
lower current to flow at the conductor centre. The
uneven current distribution leads to higher losses.
𝑅!" = 𝑅!" 1 + 𝛼 90°𝐶 − 20°𝐶 (Eq. 4-9)
The losses rise disproportionally with current as
shown in Equation 4-7.
In which:

R90 dc resistance at 90°C

R20 dc resistance at 20°C Conductor

α Temperature coefficient of the resistance of

the material;

(αAl = 4.0 ⋅ 10-3 1/K, αCu = 3.9 ⋅ 10-3 1/K)

Current density

Example 4-5: AC
DC
Æ Two different cables with:
- Aluminium conductor of 1000 mm2
- Copper conductor of 1000 mm2
0 Radius r
- Current of 560 A
 The conductor losses of both cable types at 90°C Principle of the skin effect in cable conductors
in 1 km Losses due to the skin effect are approximately
P According to Equation 4-9 and taking the dc re- quadratic with the power frequency and the con-
sistance values of IEC 60228, the resistance at 90°C
ductor diameter. They can be reduced by a suitable
can be calculated as:
design of the conductor cross-section, such as
- R90Al = 29.1 mΩ/km ⋅ (1 + 4.0 ⋅ 10-3 1/K ⋅ 70 K)
segmented conductors and/or enamelled wires.
= 37.2 mΩ/km
58

Rel. resistance increase 60 60.0

4.2.5 Dynamic forces
50 46.6
On high current spikes, especially in the early tran-
Ra.c./Rd.c. /%

40 36.9
sient phase of a short-circuit, the cables are sub-
30
jected to high dynamic forces. It is therefore of
20
15.0 great importance that the cables are properly fixed,
10 particularly when they are to be installed in a close
0 trefoil arrangement. The calculation of dynamic
Segments, insulated Segments, blanc Hollow d=22 Blank
Conductor type forces for cable systems is important for determin-

Related electric resistances for different conductors ing the fixing intervals and layout of the fixing de-
due to the skin effect vices. The relevant dynamic forces, their calculation
and the right selection of cable clamps are de-
scribed in Chapter 7.
It is worth mentioning that the skin effect is zero at
dc currents as there is no induction.

Losses due to the proximity effect

Losses due to the proximity effect are caused by 4.3 Laying of high voltage
the electromagnetic field of the neighbouring con-
cables
ductors. The closer the neighbouring conductors,
the higher the losses – hence the term “proximity 4.3.1 Laying arrangements
effect”.
Overview
In practice, these losses are less important for high
voltage cables with single conductors as these pro- Laying of high voltage cables very much depends
vide a sufficient axis space. In comparison to con- on the laying specifications of the cable system.
ductor losses, losses caused by the proximity effect Typical layings are:
in high voltage single-conductor cables are 10% or - Directly buried
lower [Brugg 10].
- In directly buried cable ducts

- In pre-fabricated concrete elements

Sheath losses
- In (concrete) tunnels
Sheath losses are generated by the magnetic in-
duction of the conductor currents in the metallic
Directly buried cables
screen and sheath of the cable. They are caused by:
The advantages of directly buried cables are the
- Circulating currents in the system
fact that they incur the lowest installation costs,
- Eddy currents in the cable sheath
that no additional construction measures are need-
- Resulting sheath currents caused by induced ed and that the cable can be laid with cable laying
sheath voltage (in unbalanced earthing sys- machines in a suitable terrain. The disadvantages
tems) include their lack of protection from digging work
(which can easily destroy the cable), the difficulty
of accessing the cable after laying, and the fact
Particularly during high circulating currents, sheath
that, depending on the temperature resistance of
losses may substantially reduce the current load
the cable-surrounding material, heat dissipation
capacity of the cable. Sheath losses can be lowered
can be poor, thus limiting the maximum current
significantly by means of special earthing methods.
carrying capability of the cable.
More information on such methods are described
in Chapter 7.
4. High Voltage XLPE Cables 59

Cable laying machines are particularly cost-

effective for the laying process. The procedure de-
pends on the properties of the soil and the mechan-
ical properties of the cable.

Principle of directly buried cables Direct cable burying with a machine

Laying in directly buried cable ducts

The advantages of laying cables in directly buried
ducts are the higher degree of protection and the
moderate costs. Another advantage is that building
of the cable duct and pulling of the cables into the
duct are separate tasks and can be organised at dif-
ferent times. A disadvantage is the heat dissipation
difficulty from the cable through the surrounding
air in the cable ducts to the surrounding soil. The
extent of this problem depends on the construction
of the cable ducts and the dimensions of the cable.
Directly buried cables
A further disadvantage is the reduced accessibility
to the cable after the laying process.

Laying principle of direct cable burying with a ma-

chine

Principle of cables in cable ducts

60

Laying in cable tunnels

The advantages of cable tunnels can be seen in the

fact that they offer the highest degree of cable pro-
tection, a high degree of cable cooling levels and
easy access to the cable itself. The disadvantage is
the higher costs generated by the tunnel work.

Cables at the end of a cable duct

Cables in prefabricated concrete elements

The advantages of cables in prefabricated concrete

elements are the considerable degree of cable pro-
tection and the moderate costs of the laying meth-
od. Further advantages are the improved heat dis-
Principle of a cable arrangement in a tunnel
sipation due to heat convection in the concrete el-
ements and the improved accessibility to the cable
after the laying process. A disadvantage of such
laying is the higher costs that arise due to the pre-
fabricated concrete elements.

Cable arrangement in a round tunnel

Principle of cables in prefabricated concrete elements

Cable arrangement in a rectangular tunnel

Example of cables in prefabricated concrete elements
4. High Voltage XLPE Cables
4.3.2 Current carrying capacity and
temperature calculation
To enable the cable system to achieve high power
transmission capability and to avoid damaging of
the cable, it is of great importance to know the
maximum current that can be transmitted via the
cable system. Therefore, the impedance limits of
the cable must be taken into account and the cur-
rent that is responsible for the major part of the
heat losses has to be calculated accordingly. For
continuous load conditions, the maximum temper-
ature at the conductor of an XLPE cable is given as
90°C. In order to achieve a certain current flow –
and therefore transmitted power –, the heat gener-
ated in the cable must be transferred to the sur-
rounding area.
Simulation of temperatures and heat distribution in a software tool for different cable arrangements
61
The heat generation in the cable and the heat trans-
fer to the surrounding area depend on the design
and laying conditions of the cable itself. Because of
this, the optimal design of the cable is best deter-
mined by the use of modern simulation tools. This
calculation is usually done by the cable manufac-
turer in close cooperation with the owner or con-
tractor of the cable system in which possible or
planned laying conditions are carefully considered.
The determination of the maximum current and
heat dissipation is a result of such calculations. In
the case of more complex or demanding situations,
the calculations are done with the help of finite el-
ement methods (FEM).
62

4.3.3 Reduction of magnetic field

In accordance with the inductive values calculated

in Section 4.2.3 above, there are several ways of
reducing the electromagnetic field, such as:

- Reducing the distance of the phases

- Laying in trefoil arrangement

- Increasing the laying depth of the cable

In addition, special shielding means can also be

applied to reduce the electromagnetic field strength Electromagnetic field of a cable arrangement in trefoil

around high voltage cables. Such systems are laying with special protection means (Picture: CFW)

available on the market and can be applied accord-

ingly.

4.4 Cable selection process

A broad range of products together with a system-
atic analysis of the technical requirements needed
enables the user to find the right solution, no mat-
ter what the application. Additional consultations
with engineers of cable producing companies are
also helpful when it comes to selecting the most
appropriate solution for the type and dimension of
high voltage cables [Brugg 10].

Electromagnetic field of a cable arrangement in nor-

mal trefoil laying (Picture: CFW)

Type of insulation, Laying conditions,

load, voltage level, Cable type & design mechanical cable
short-circuit current protection

Economic aspects, Conductor material

such as price or losses (Al/Cu)

Route length and Earthing method of Production, transpor-

layout sheath tation, installation &
section length

Economic aspects, Conductor cross-

safety margin, future Short-circuit and
section thermal rating
load expectations

Indoor or outdoor,
cable length & laying
Selection of cable Leakage path
conditions for joints accessories requirements

Losses, economic Determination of Local boundaries,

aspects laying conditions safety regulations

Cable selection process according to [Brugg 10]

5. High Voltage Accessories for Polymer Cables 63

Chapter 5

High Voltage
Accessories
for Polymer Cables
64
5. High Voltage Accessories for Polymer Cables 65

5.1 Introduction Basic design of terminations:

- Stress cone slip-on element for field grading

A brief history
- Insulator for mechanical and moisture protec-
At the beginning of the last century, the technology
tion
of high voltage cable systems was based on mass
- Insulating compound for high voltage insula-
impregnated insulations and oil-paper technology
tion
[Peschke 99]. These cable systems were so reliable
that they remained on the market until the late - Connection studs for the cable connection to
1960s. With the upcoming technology of polymer the external device
cable systems, the trend toward inexpensive and
simple polymer designs emerged. This was hardly
Basic design of joints:
surprising considering the main advantages of pol-
- Conductor connection to allow current flow
ymer cable technology, being almost free from
through the conductor
maintenance, easy and fast to install and environ-
mentally friendly. From these reasons, polymer - Insulation body element for field grading
technologies have successfully established them- - Cover for mechanical protection
selves for high voltage cable systems. Consequent-
- Cover for moisture protection
ly, this book focuses on the technology of high
- Earthing connections
voltage accessories for polymer cables.

Terminations and joints for high voltage

polymer cables
Joints and terminations for high voltage cables are
called “high voltage accessories”.
Terminations (or sometimes referred to as sealing
ends) are devices that realise the connection from
the cable to an outside device. The connection out-
side the cable can be an overhead line (outdoor
terminations), a transformer (transformer termina-
Principle layout of a high voltage cable system with
tions) or a gas insulated switchgear station (GIS) terminations and joints
(GIS terminations).

Cable joints (often simply called joint or sometimes

Additional accessories for high voltage cable
referred to as splice) are devices that connect two
systems
cable segments to each other.
Beside terminations and joints, there are several
In addition to their voltage grading and current car-
other devices required for a reliable functioning of
rying capability, high voltage accessories must
a high voltage cable system. These devices are
have the capability of withstanding all environmen-
called “additional accessories” and are comprised
tal influences, such as ultraviolet (UV) radiation,
of certain elements, such as cable clamps, sheath
moisture, dirt, dust, salt fog or mechanical load in
voltage limiters or earthing and cross-bonding
order to enable the whole cable system to achieve
boxes. Since these devices are extremely important
its long lifetime potential.
for a reliable functioning of a high voltage cable
Although the types of high voltage accessories dif- system, they are described separately in Chapter 6.
fer, their basic design remains the same and can be
described as follows:
66
5.2 Technologies for slip-on
elements
5.2.1 Control of the electric field
Dielectric breakdown without field control
The inner conductor of the cable is at high poten-
tial. The outer semiconducting layer carries ground
potential. The polymer insulation of the cable de-
grades the resulting electric field in between the
two layers. To connect a cable to a termination or
joint, the outer semiconducting layer must be re-
moved. Without any field grading mechanisms, a
very high electric field occurs at the edge of the
semiconducting layer. Simulations show that the
electric field strength of a standard cable without
field control can be in the range of 40 kV/mm and
above. The extremely high electric field at the end
of the semiconducting layer exceeds the dielectric
strength of the material at the point, thus leading to
electric discharges and finally to a breakdown.
Schematic drawing of equipotential lines of the elec-
trical field at the end of a cable without any electrical
field control
FEM simulation of high concentration of electric field
at the edge of the semiconducting layer at a cable
without field control
In order not to cause a breakdown in the material,
the electric field at the end of the semiconducting
layer must be controlled down to much lower val-
ues. Different types of technology are employed to
achieve this kind of field control.
Non-linear field control
Non-linear field control is achieved by a non-linear
material, which is applied from the grounded semi-
conducting outer layer of the cable over the insula-
tion of the cable. These materials consist of a pol-
ymer matrix as e.g. polyethylene or silicone with
fillers. Typical fillers are: carbon black or doped
ZnO particles – the so called microvaristors. These
composite materials possess non-linear electrical
properties, which means that the electrical proper-
ties, as e.g. the volume resistivity, change with
changing applied electrical field strength. These
filled polymers distribute the electric field over a
certain length of the cable termination or joint. This
technology is typically used in the medium-voltage
sector in conjunction with shrink-on accessories.
Schematic drawing of equipotential lines of the elec-
trical field at the end of a cable with a field grading
material (green layer) with non-linear electrical proper-
ties
Capacitive field control
Capacitive field control is mainly used for accesso-
ries of oil-filled cables or bushings. For capacitive
field control, a considerable number of individual
layers are wrapped around the area between the
high voltage (conductor) electrode and the ground-
ed semiconducting layer. The individual layers act
as electrodes, similar to capacitive voltage dividers,
which finally cause a uniform depletion of the elec-
tric field along the control element. This technology
puts considerable strain on the material and great
attention to accuracy during installation must be
given.
5. High Voltage Accessories for Polymer Cables
Schematic drawing of equipotential lines of the elec-
trical field at the end of a cable with cylindrical metal
foils as capacitive layers for electrical field control
Geometric-capacitive field control
The most frequently used field control method for
polymer cable accessories is based on geometrical
shaping of field guiding electrodes, so-called “de-
flectors”.
The deflectors are made of semiconducting materi-
al and are embedded in insulating material. The
combination of deflectors and insulating material is
called “stress cones”. Stress cones are connected
to the semiconducting layer of the high voltage ca-
ble. The shape of the deflectors is designed in such
a way that the field strength on the outer semicon-
ducting layer can be passed on seamlessly and is
continuously reduced. The insulating silicone mate-
rial in between has a dielectric strength similar to
that of the cable and with its snug fit, it provides a
cavity-free interface surface for the cable insulation.
Schematic drawing of equipotential lines of the elec-
trical field at a cable end with geometric-capacitive
field control
Since the electric field is controlled by the geomet-
rical shape of the semiconducting deflectors and
the electric field lines cause a capacitive current
flow through the insulation material, this method is
called “geometric capacitive field control”.
67
Uniform degradation of the electric field at a cable
with geometric-capacitive field control in a termination
A substantial part of the achievable cable termina-
tion or joint system strength lies in the skilful selec-
tion of uniform stressing without allowing the tan-
gential components of the field strength at the in-
terface surfaces of the cable to become too high.
Between the cable and the insulator the termina-
tion is filled with other insulating media such as SF6
gas or silicone oil.
The slip-on elements used for terminations are
called “stress cones”. The slip-on elements used
for joints are called “slip-on insulation bodies” or
just “insulation bodies”.
The insulation bodies consist of two semiconduct-
ing deflectors (one for each side at each side of the
insulation body), a semiconducting middle elec-
trode, the insulation material and a conducting lay-
er on the surface of the insulation body. The semi-
conducting deflectors are used to control the elec-
tric field from the ground potential at the outer
semiconducting layer towards the high potential of
the middle electrode. The middle electrode is used
to control the electric field from the conductor
clamp – which is at high potential – down to the
semiconducting deflectors and the outer conduct-
ing layer on the surface of the insulation body, both
of which are at ground potential.
68
5.2.2 Semiconducting parts

Semiconducting parts must be designed carefully.

A somewhat tricky factor in the designing of such
contours is their reaction to impulse voltage load.
Rapid voltage changes in the high-frequency com-
ponents of semiconducting parts cause the electric
field to penetrate into the semiconducting deflec-
tor, especially into those of outdoor terminations.
For a few microseconds, this deflector must have
the capability of accepting a power of up to 100 kW
without injury to the conductive layers.

Consequently, solid silicone material, rather than

paint-coated material, is strongly recommended.
This allows constant optimum performance of the
field grading, even at very fast impulse voltage
loads. Solid deflectors have a much larger cross-
section and therefore lower resistance than that of
painted stress cones. This facilitates the process of
degrading the power of fast BIL voltages, such as
very fast lightning strokes.

Cross-section (top) and field distribution (bottom) in a

stress cone for terminations

Cross-section of a middle electrode (left) and a deflec-

tor (right) consisting of solid semiconducting silicone

Cross-section (top) and field distribution (bottom) in rubber

an insulation body for joints

Although the principle of geometric-capacitive field 5.2.3 Comparison of main materials

control is very similar, stress cones and joint bod-
Different main materials
ies come in various designs and materials. The
main ones are: Two main insulating materials for slip-on elements
(stress cones and joint bodies) are currently in use:
- Cold shrink elements
- Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM) –
- Three-piece silicone slip-on elements (for joint
also referred to as Ethylene Propylene Rubber
insulation bodies only)
(EPR)
- One-piece EPR/EPDM slip-on elements

- One-piece silicone slip-on elements

5. High Voltage Accessories for Polymer Cables 69
- Silicone rubber which can be vulcanised at SiR and EPDM
room temperature (RTV silicones) or at higher The differences between EPDM and SiR are re-
temperatures (LSR) markable and listed in the table below.
The following section gives the advantages, disad-
vantages and application experiences made with
these materials [Vogelsang 11].
Properties of EPDM/EPR and silicone rubber

EPDM/EPR Silicone rubber

Ethylene-Propylene-Diene Rubber
Names (EPDM) Silicone rubber (SiR)
Ethylene-Propylene-Rubber (EPR)

Chemical structure C-chains as basic O-Si chains as basic

Binding energy 355 kJ/mol 445 kJ/mol

Range of temperature at which electric

- 40 - + 100 °C - 50 - + 180 °C
and mechanic properties remain stable

Corona and ozone stability None High

Elasticity Limited High

Flexibility Poor Very high

Hydrophobicity Poor Good

Mechanical strength High Medium

Lifetime factor n ≈ 20 > 40

Breakdown strength ≈ 20 kV/mm > 23 kV/mm

Costs Low Medium

The comparison of SiR and EPDM shows that SiR
material is particularly advantageous for the appli-
cation of high voltage accessories. This can be seen
in the prolonged lifetime of SiR material, its lower
ageing rate, higher electric breakdown strength and
the considerably higher temperature range at
which electrical and mechanical properties remain
stable.
In addition to this, SiR material is extremely elastic,
facilitating high quality and easy installation of the
stress cones and insulation bodies.
A disadvantage of the SiR is its low tear resistance.
In order not to damage slip on elements, mechani-
cal tools should not be used during the installation
process but should rather be performed by hand or
with the use of a gas cushion.
The increased mechanical stiffness of EPDM, in
comparison to that of SiR, can be seen as both an
advantage and disadvantage. The higher mechani-
cal strength of this material proves particularly use-
ful during the installation of the insulation body
when mechanical tools, such as chain blocks, are
being used. On the other hand, increased mechani-
cal stiffness results in a poorer fit of the material to
the surface of the polymer cable, thus introducing
the possibility of poor interfaces between the cable
and the slip-on element.
Although in terms of material costs, EPDM offers a
more economical alternative to that of SiR, if the
lengthy lifetime of the slip-on element is taken into
consideration (often several decades) as well as the
fact that the termination or joint is only one of sev-
eral parts (e.g. the copper tube or the filling com-
pound in a joint or the insulator in a termination is
more expensive), the slight increase of price
brought about by the use of SiR can be seen as jus-
tifiable.
To summarise, SiR provides an excellent material
for the application of slip-on bodies for high volt-
age accessories. This is due to its:
70
- Very high breakdown strength above 5.2.4 Cold shrink elements
23 kV/mm at 50/60 Hz
The use of cold shrink element technology for ter-
- Excellent temperature stability of between –50 minations and joints at medium voltage levels has
and +180°C
been standard for a number of years.
- Very high lifetime exponent of n larger than 40 This technology has also been recently upgraded to
- Excellent pressure of the slip-on element on high voltage accessories. Some companies claim to
the polymer cable surface at normal and ele- have applied this technology up to the level of
vated load conditions due to excellent elasticity 220 kV. However, to date, this technology has rare-
of the SiR ly been applied in conjunction with high voltage

- Easy installation due to excellent mechanical cable systems.

properties and elasticity, no high mechanical The cold shrink method is a slip-on technology in
forces needed which the elements to be slipped on are already

Because of its numerous advantages, SiR is the pre-expanded by the manufacturer. The pre-

most frequently applied material for insulation bod- expansion can either be performed by mechanical

ies of high voltage accessories in the range from 72 bracings outside the slip-on element or by a tube or

– 420 kV and the only material used for insulation plastic spring inside the slip-on element itself.

bodies above 420 kV.

RTV and LSR

In the last decade, a new type of SiR has estab-
lished itself on the market: liquid silicone rubber
(LSR) [Vogelsang 11]. The advantage of this new
material is the speed of cross-linking reaction in
comparison to the RTV silicone material.
Another advantage of LSR can be the transparency
of the material, which enables inclusions in the ma-
terial to be detected by optical means. In the case
of non-transparent material (and for the time being
also for transparent material), such inclusions are
usually detected in the final routine test. These Different principles for cold-shrink slip-on elements;
tests cost a considerable amount of time and effort. top: with outside mechanical bracing, middle: with in-
With the aid of visual pre-testing, the time and ef- side shells as mechanical bracing, bottom: with insert-
fort needed for the tests can be significantly re- ed plastic spiral for mechanic bracing
duced. When optical detection is allowed by the
standards, this could be a significant advantage.

Principle of installing a cold-shrink joint with inside

shells and mechanical tools

Transparency of an LSR stress cone

5. High Voltage Accessories for Polymer Cables
Principle a cold-shrink element with internal spiral
During installation, the pre-expanded slip-on ele-
ment is placed over the cable and the pre-
expansion is released to compress the slip-on ele-
ment onto the cable. Sufficient residual stresses
must be present in the material to produce the re-
quired pressure force on the cable surface.
Example of a cold-shrink element on a cable (in medi-
um voltage joints)
The main advantages of cold shrink technology are
the speed at which the slip-on body can be in-
stalled and the fact that no parking position is nec-
essary, making the whole joint smaller in length. In
addition, no special tools are required for installa-
tion.
A major disadvantage is the fact that the slip-on el-
ement must guarantee sufficient residual stresses
in the material to produce the required pressure
force on the cable surface. Any slight gap between
the slip-on element and the cable can lead to a
breakdown of the joint or termination. Another dis-
advantage can occur during installation, when the
inner spiral must be removed mechanically. Small
particles may remain at the interface of the cable to
the slip-on element, thus influencing field grading
and leading to possible partial discharges and, at
worst, an electric breakdown. Another disad-
vantage is that once the joint body is placed on the
cable, it is practically no longer possible to adjust it
to the right position. An incorrectly placed slip-on
element may lead to a final breakdown of the joint.
71
To summarise, cold shrink elements used at medi-
um voltage levels are undoubtedly advantageous.
Used with high voltage accessories, however, the
long-term stability of this technology remains to be
seen.
5.2.5 Three-piece silicone rubber
slip-on elements
The distinguishing feature of three-piece silicone
slip-on elements is the fact that the three main
parts are mounted on site.
Here, two prefabricated silicone cylinders with in-
tegrated field control are pushed from either side
onto the conductor connection and fastened in this
position. To insulate the voltage-carrying cylinder
of the conductor clamp, a third silicone element
with conductive field control layers is pushed over.
Principle of three-piece slip-on element design
The main advantage of the three-piece slip-on ele-
ment design is that it can be produced cost-
effectively in the factory and no joint parking posi-
tion is required. The three pieces need only to be
slipped onto each other on site in order to form the
full slip-on element of the joint. Another advantage
is the reduced number of special tools needed for
the installation and that the joint body is of a slight-
ly smaller size than that of a single-piece joint
body. Being made out of silicone rubber, the slip-
on bodies enjoy all the advantages of this material,
including a slow ageing rate, a high dielectric
strength and extreme temperature stability.
The disadvantages of these elements lie in their
construction. As the three pieces must be installed
on site, additional interfaces within the joint at the
area of higher electric field strength are created.
Unsuitable preparation conditions – such as during
high humidity or in cases where dust or finger-
72
prints are left on the surface of the elements – can
result in a higher risk of electrical breakdown of the
joint. Another significant disadvantage is that the
whole joint body cannot be pre-tested during pro-
duction in the factory. Any production failures are
therefore hard to determine before installation.
Similar to cold-shrink element technology, it can be
summarised that the three-piece technology is ad-
vantageous at medium voltage levels, but used
with high voltage accessories, the long-term stabil-
ity of this technology remains to be seen.
5.2.6 One-piece silicone rubber slip-
on elements
Use of one-piece slip-on element
One-piece (sometimes referred to as single-piece)
silicone rubber (SiR) slip-on elements are most
commonly used for high voltage accessories.
Proven and simple in design, the prefabricated one-
piece SiR element accommodates the entire electri-
cally stressed area in one piece.
Cross-section of a one-piece slip-on element
The advantages of one-piece slip-on elements lie in
their design. Being prefabricated, they can be pro-
duced in a clean surrounding in the factory, thus
resulting in high quality elements. In addition, the
one-piece elements can be pre-tested in the factory.
The pre-testing ensures that production failures can
already be detected in the factory, thus ensuring
that only high quality slip-on elements are deliv-
ered on site. A further advantage of one-piece slip-
on SiR elements is the material itself. As mentioned
in Section 5.2.3, SiR elements allow a void-free
contact to the cable surface and enable connecting
cables with different diameters, tolerances or ex-
centricity, to be attached to each other. In addition
to this, the SiR material has a slow ageing rate, a
high dielectric strength and extreme temperature
stability, a good basis for a long and reliable life-
time.
A disadvantage of one-piece slip-on elements is the
necessity of a parking position, which makes the
joint slightly longer. Another disadvantage of SiR
slip-on elements lies in the slightly higher material
costs of the silicone. However, compared to the
overall costs of the joint or termination, the slightly
higher costs for high-quality slip-on elements are
considered to be reasonable.
General information on assembling of one-
piece slip-on elements
The assembling of one-piece slip-on elements is
best illustrated on joints, this process being more
critical than the assembling of slip-on elements for
terminations.
More details of general installation processes for
terminations and joints are given in Chapter 7.
The assembling of one-piece slip-on elements can
be done in three basic different ways, with:
- Cold shrink technology
- Mechanical forces
- The gas cushioning method
Cold shrink technology
The cold shrink method is described in detail in
Section 5.2.4.
Assembling of one-piece slip-on elements by
means of mechanical tools
Another method of assembling is to push the slip-
on body to the parking and final position with the
aid of mechanical forces. This can be done by
hand, particularly for smaller sized bodies, or in the
case of larger sized bodies, with the help of addi-
tional mechanical tools, such as a pulley.
5. High Voltage Accessories for Polymer Cables
Principle for slipping on the insulation body with me-
chanical tools
The advantage of this method is the reduced
amount of additional equipment needed on site.
The disadvantages include the risk of injuring the
slip-on body whilst in motion due to the application
of high mechanical forces, as well as damage to the
cable surface during application of the mechanical
tools. In addition to this, slip-on elements of a larg-
er size require several people or more complex
mechanical equipment to complete the installation,
which again is more time consuming and costly.
Assembling of one-piece slip-on elements by
means of gas cushion method
A more recent method makes use of a gas cushion
system. This method was developed to achieve a
smooth, easy and stress-free installation of the slip-
on bodies.
With the aid of a pneumatically generated film un-
der the slip-on element, the slip-on body can be
pushed onto the cable to the parking and back into
the end position without the use of high mechani-
cal forces. In order to avoid the introduction of hu-
midity at the interface, dried air (from a compres-
sor) or nitrogen is used, depending on which is
most readily available on site.
Principle of sliding on an insulation body using com-
pressed gas
73
Example of introducing gas in the insulation body
The advantage of this method is that the slip-on
body can be mounted without the necessity of high
mechanical forces. Thus positioned, the joint has
no undesired mechanical shearing or tensile
stresses inside the silicone element and can be po-
sitioned conveniently. This ensures that neither the
joint body nor the cable will be damages during in-
stallation. Another advantage is, that fewer per-
sonnel are needed for the installation and that the
slip-on process is very fast, in the region of less
than one minute. Consequently, risk is minimised
and time and costs are saved.
The disadvantages of this method include the addi-
tional time needed for the attachment of the air-
cushion tools to the slip-on element as well as the
fact that more equipment, such as a compressor or
nitrogen, is needed on site. However, the time re-
quired for these steps is limited, in the region of
five to ten minutes, which is very reasonable.
5.2.7 One-piece EPDM/EPR slip-on
elements
As mentioned in Section 5.2.3, EPDM/EPR is also
used for slip-on elements.
The main advantage of EPDM slip-on elements is
the lower cost of the material.
A major disadvantage is the stiffness of the materi-
al that may not always ensure an adequate com-
pression of the slip-on element to the cable surface.
Other disadvantages include the lower breakdown
strength, the higher ageing rate, reduced tempera-
ture stability and less flexibility compared to SiR.
74

5.2.8 Lapped technology 5.2.9 Final comparisons and

Joints and terminations with lapped technology conclusions

field grading were used for many decades. Alt- Each technology can be seen to have its ad-
hough lapped technology is no longer in use, it is vantages. To conclude it can be said that:
nonetheless worth mentioning, as it is still relevant
- For those whose main concerns relate to costs,
for a few remaining projects as far as repairs or
cold-shrink, EPR or three-piece elements offer
special solutions are concerned.
an appropriate solution.
In lapped technology, tapes of certain conductivity
- For those looking for quality, reliability and
are used. They are wrapped around the area of the
easy installation and therefore for an overall
conductor clamp to the semiconducting layers of
economic solution, one-piece prefabricated
the cable. The tapes are pre-stressed during taping
slip-on elements of SiR are highly recom-
and settle on the cable to a solid polymer material.
mendable, preferably by means of the gas-
The challenge of lapping technology is to maintain
cushion method of installation.
constant stress during the wrapping of the tapes
and to avoid any air or dust inclusions during this
process.
The main advantage of lapped joints is their ability
to adapt cables with different diameters.

The disadvantage of lapped joints is their reduced

level of reliability due to the more complex installa-
tion procedure necessary for the lapping of the
tapes.

The higher effort and risk during installation, and

therefore increased risk in operation, are the rea-
sons why lapped joints are no longer in use for
terminations or joints of high voltage cable sys-
tems.

Example of the insulation of a lapped joint

5. High Voltage Accessories for Polymer Cables 75
Overview of advantages and disadvantages of different technologies for slip-on elements

1-piece SiR 3-piece SiR slip- 1-piece EPR/EPDM SiR cold-

slip-on bodies on bodies (joints) slip-on bodies shrink bodies

Originally used High voltage Medium voltage High voltage Medium voltage

Range of application in
++ + - +
diameter over cable insulation

Interface behavior ++ - - -

Temperature stability ++ ++ - ++

Electrical strength and life-

++ + + +
time potential

Factory routine test possible ++ - ++ +

Storability ++ ++ ++ -

Ease of assembly ++ ++ + ++

Additional tools required + ++ + ++

Costs of material - - + -

Customer acceptance for HV

++ - + --
applications

5.3 Terminations Terminations for polymer cables are comprised of

several elements. These are:
5.3.1 Basic design - A stress cone with deflector

Terminations are items that connect a cable with - An insulating compound

external devices, such as a transformer (transform- - An insulator
er terminations), a gas insulated switchgear (GIS
- A corona shield
terminations) or an overhead line (outdoor termina-
tions). - A terminal stud.

As explained in Section 5.2, stress cones are pre-

Terminal stud
moulded sleeves, which ensure field grading be-
Corona shield
tween the outer semiconducting layer and the insu-
lation.

Insulator: The insulating compound in terminations serves to

– porcelain
further degrade the electric stress. With the excep-
– polymer
– epoxy type tion of “dry-type” terminations, silicone oil or SF6
are the type of insulation compounds used, particu-
Insulating
compound larly silicone oil, which is by far the more popular
of the two.
SiR slip-on
stress cone Which type of insulating compound is employed
very much depends on the type of application.
Three different types of insulators are available:
porcelain or composite insulators for outdoor ter-
minations and epoxy insulators for transformer and
Polymer cable GIS terminations.

Principle design of a termination

76
The corona shield and terminal stud connect the
conductor end of the cable to the external device,
such as the transformer, the GIS or a high voltage
overhead line.
5.3.2 Outdoor terminations
Outdoor terminations with porcelain
insulators
Porcelain insulators have been on the market long-
er than all other insulator types. Their main ad-
vantages are:
- Excellent resistance against ultraviolet (UV) ra-
diation
- Resistant against bird-picking
- Very high cantilever forces
- Excellent track record in numerous countries
and climate zones
- In service for almost more than 80 years in
numerous companies
Cross-section of a termination with porcelain insulator
Outdoor termination with composite
insulators
Composite insulators have been in growing de-
mand over the past decades. The term “compo-
site” refers to the two different materials out of
which they are made. The inside of the composite
insulator consists of a fibre reinforced tube that en-
ables oil and gas tightness and the mechanical
strength of the termination. The outside is made of
silicone shields to realise the creepage distance.
The light but strong design of the fibre reinforced
tube, as well as the hydrophobicity of the silicone
shields has led to a breakthrough in the technology
of composite insulators for high voltage applica-
tions in the last few decades. The main advantages
of composite insulators are:
- Low weight and easy to handle
- Good resistance to UV radiation
- Excellent hydrophobic behaviour
- Shorter creepage distance possible due to the
hydrophobicity of the silicone material
- Less critical in the event of an explosion or an
earthquake
- Shorter lead time
- Excellent track record in numerous countries
and climate zones
- In service for more than 30 years in numerous
companies
Cross-section of a termination with composite insula-
tor
5. High Voltage Accessories for Polymer Cables
Insulation filling
Outdoor terminations are typically filled with sili-
cone oil. If required, the insulators can also be filled
with SF6 gas. It is worth mentioning that when the
insulator is filled with SF6, it requires additional
measures for gas-tightness at the termination and a
more costly gas pressure monitoring system.
Creepage distance
In addition to the issue of voltage level, conductor
cross-section and the choice of porcelain or com-
posite insulator, creepage distance is also one of
the most relevant parameters for an outdoor termi-
nation. The creepage distance is the distance along
the outer side of the termination insulator from
high voltage potential to earth potential. In con-
trast, the flashover distance is the shortest distance
from high voltage to earth potential.
Creepage distance (red) and flashover distance at a
termination
In order to determine the appropriate creepage dis-
tance for a termination, the pollution severity at the
installation site of the termination needs to be
known. The standard IEC 60815-1 defines five dif-
ferent pollution classes according to their degree of
severity. These are very light, light, medium, heavy
and very heavy [IEC 60815-1].
In order to determine the appropiate creepage dis-
tance of a termination, the reference unified specif-
ic creepage distance (RUSCD) must be multiplied
77
with the maximum phase to ground voltage for the
termination.
Overview of different pollution classes
according to [IEC 60815-1]
Site pollution se- Reference unified spe-
verity (SPS) class cific creepage distance
(RUSCD)
a Very light 22.0 mm/kV
b Light 27.8 mm/kV
c Medium 34.7 mm/kV
d Heavy 43.3 mm/kV
e Very heavy 53.7 mm/kV
Example 5-1:
Æ A cable termination for a 138 kV cable system
shall be installed in a very heavy polluted environ-
ment. The termination supplier offers following
creepage distance values for the termination: 3890
mm, 4790 mm and 5580 mm.
 Which value of creepage distance has to be se-
lected for the termination?
P According to the definitions of IEC 60815-1, the
RUSCD for a pollution severity class “very heavy”
is 53.7 mm/kV. The maximum phase to ground
voltage for a 138 kV grid is 145 kV / √3. The mini-
mum creepage distance can be calculated as fol-
lows:
Minimum creepage distance: 53.7 mm/kV ⋅ 145 kV /
√3 = 4483 mm
9 For the application the termination with a creep-
age distance of 4790 mm should be chosen.
Requirements of different creepage distances can
be fulfilled with the same basic geometry, that is,
by the simple use of additional intermediate sheds
or a longer insulator. Not only does the concept of
alternating sheds enable high specific creepage dis-
tance to be achieved, it also provides good wet per-
formance as well as an efficient and effective
means of self-cleaning. In case of higher creepage
distances with larger insulators, more silicone oil
for the termination is required. This makes the
whole arrangement more expensive and heavier.
Conductor connection
All terminations require a mechanical conductor
connection. The main function of such conductor
connections is to achieve the necessary current car-
rying capability and a sufficient mechanical
78
strength. In principle, three main methods are used
to create the conductor connection, as they can be
welded, pressed or screwed.
The high mechanical strength of pressed conductor
connections, together with the fact that they pro-
mote high current carrying capability, makes them
extremely popular especially for outdoor termina-
tions.
Screwed conductor connections also have a suffi-
cient mechanical strength. Their additional ad-
vantage is the ease with which they can be in-
stalled on site.
Although theoretically, welded conductor connec-
tions represent a third option, in reality they are
less frequently used, as they run the risk of damag-
ing the cable during the heat treatment that occurs
during the welding process.
Example of a pressed conductor connection at a ter-
mination
5.3.3 Explosion resistant
terminations
Although high voltage cable systems are extremely
reliable and safe, the risk of breakdowns can never
be totally excluded. Failures can be harmful to the
surrounding area. At worst, explosions or break-
downs in cable systems, such as those occurring at
a termination, can result in harm to life. Termina-
tion breakdowns may also result in the destruction
of equipment surrounding the termination, leading
to additional costs or outages of the system.
An explosion of a termination during worst case
failures cannot be totally avoided. These are
caused by maximum short-circuit currents which
are too high. However, the impact of such failures
can be reduced.
Explosion resistant terminations are designed to
prevent any major part of the termination from fly-
ing out into the surrounding area (few metres)
when an internal arc at the field grading stress
cone occurs. The design is constructed so that
overpressure occurring during the internal arc ex-
hausts at the overpressure devices at the top and
bottom of the termination. In addition, the design
and material of the base plate and the insulator
termination top is made to withstand any greater
forces occurring during a short-circuit current. This
ensures maximum protection of the surrounding
area.
Principle of explosion resistant terminations
5. High Voltage Accessories for Polymer Cables 79
strength in the transformer-side oil chamber and
the fact that the transformer termination some-
times requires a corona shield.

Explosion resistant termination with overpressure

devices (violet) and enforced mechanical parts
(turquoise)

In many cases, the explosion resistant termination

is not a standard model. To achieve a greater de-
gree of safety, parts of the termination, such as the
base plate, are thicker and of increased strength.
Consequently, the termination is heavier. This
weight, together with the higher forces occurring
during the short-circuit current, means that the
mounting of the termination and the steel structure
must be able to withstand considerable loads. Be-
cause of this, the steel structure and basement of
the termination need to be reinforced.
Installed explosion resistant terminations
Classic GIS termination (left) and transformer termina-
tion with corona shield (right)
The connection technology from the GIS to the
termination is standardised and is given in
IEC 62271-209 and EN 50299.
The insulator of both, the transformer and SF6 ter-
mination, is made of epoxy resin. Similar to out-
door terminations, the inside of the epoxy insula-
tors is normally filled with oil. In exceptional cases,
SF6 filling can be used.
During installation, the termination is fitted onto
the cable up to and including the epoxy insulator
and then installed in the GIS or transformer.
A main advantage of this classic design is that the
termination can easily be applied to a various
number of cable diameters and tolerances, making
it particularly suitable for applications on site
where tolerances of cables are sometimes different
than previously given.

5.3.4 Classic SF6 and transformer

terminations

The technology for connecting cables to SF6 filled

gas insulated switchgears (GIS) and transformers is
very similar. The distinguishing features of the
transformer terminations are the lower field
80
5.3.5 Dry-type plug-in terminations

Design and working principle

A big disadvantage of the classic GIS termination is
that the termination cannot be tested together with
the GIS bay. This means that after the testing of the
GIS, the gas compartment has to be opened again.
This may not be an issue for the cable termination,
but results in a higher effort for the GIS erection
process. To meet the needs of GIS manufacturers
who do not wish to open their installation after
testing, plug-in systems, or so-called “dry-type Principle design of a dry-type plug-in termination with
plug-in” terminations, have been developed. the XLPE cable (1), the cable screen connection (2), the

The principle of this application is simple. The ter- silicone rubber stress cone (3), the connection bolt in-
cluding pluggable current contact (4), the insulator of
mination is separated into two main parts, the insu-
epoxy resin (5) and the spring assembly (6)
lator (often called the “female part”) and the plug-
in connection (often called the “male part”). The
female part can then be delivered directly to the
GIS manufacturer, who can insert it into the GIS in
the factory or when erecting the GIS on site. All the
work for the GIS erection in terms of termination
insertion is then done.

The cable connection is usually performed later

than the erection of the GIS. When the cable is be-
ing connected to the GIS, the male part of the ter-
mination can be plugged into the GIS without the
necessity of re-opening the GIS, thus the name
“plug-in”.

However, the term “plug-in” should not lead to the

assumption that the cable can be snapped in and
out with a twist of the wrist. The work involved at Example of a dry-type plug-in termination

the installation is considerable, especially for larger

conductor cross-sections.
An epoxy insulator is also used in this system with
the appropriate field control elements embedded in
the insulator. A silicone stress cone performs the
field control on the cable side and when slipped on
in a cavity-free manner to the epoxy insulator.
Since there is no oil or SF6 used for the insulation
(only a larger silicone slip-on body and the epoxy
insulator) the termination is called “dry-type”.
To maintain the dielectric strength on the epoxy-
silicon interface, a certain contact pressure must be
The advantages of such terminations clearly lie on
the GIS side as well as that of project management,
as the gas system of the GIS must not be evacuat-
ed again after the GIS test. Consequently, any addi-
tional work or travel expenses of the GIS manufac-
turer can be avoided. An additional advantage is
the dry design of the termination. Although classic
(oil-filled) terminations are very reliable, there is a
strong trend towards dry terminations that do not
require the handling of oil or SF6. Another ad-
vantage of the dry-type plug-in termination is its

achieved. Since under thermal load the cable insu- smaller size. That makes it additionally attractive to
GIS manufacturers as they can design a smaller
lation and the silicone material of the termination
sized system and save material costs. In addition, a
experience substantial thermal expansion, the
reduction in size also requires less time for installa-
pressure is maintained constant by means of a
tion.
spring system.
5. High Voltage Accessories for Polymer Cables 81
internal life of the termination, such as the shape,
size and material of the insulator and stress cone,
remains in the hands of the accessory manufactur-
er. This has led to a variety of designs. It means
that although all dry-type plug-in terminations fit
into each GIS, they cannot be exchanged between
the different accessory manufacturers. Consequent-
ly, the male part of manufacturer A has to go with
the female part of manufacturer A and so on.

Installation of a dry-type plug-in termination

A disadvantage of this system is that the silicone

slip-on body must be made exactly in accordance
with the type of cable used. This is because the
body must fit exactly into the inside of the epoxy
insulator. Because of this, the termination manufac-
turer must supply a high number of silicone slip-on
bodies and the cable manufacturer must guarantee
the cable dimensions without a large variation in
tolerances. Another disadvantage of the dry-type
design is the higher space requirement for installa-
tion, as the cables, when being slipped on, have to GIS termination plus standardised elements (green)
be pushed back somewhat (approx. 1 m). and individually designed element of the accessory
manufacturer (red)

Example 5-2:
For the end user, the above described variety
Æ A significant difference can be seen in the num-
means that he has to identify the type of accessory
ber of classical slip on bodies needed in compari-
supplier when the GIS is tested in the factory or at
son to those with a dry-type design. Thus, for a
the latest when it is erected on site. This may be a
range of 60 – 100 mm of the diameter over cable
insulation, only two of the former may be required, substantial disadvantage especially when a consid-

whilst approximately 20 of the latter may be need- erable period of time lapses between the erection
ed. of the GIS and the cable system, in particularly
when the supplier of the cable system is unknown
at an earlier stage.

The normative issue

In order to ensure that the terminations of different
Dry-type terminations for transformers
cables and accessory manufacturers are compati-
ble with the GIS of various manufacturers, the de- In most cases, the dry-type plug-in terminations are
sign is standardised in IEC 62271-209. applied to connect high voltage cable systems to a
GIS. However, dry-type plug-in terminations can
However, this standardisation often leads to misin-
also be applied to connect cable systems to trans-
terpretation. The standard determines only the out-
formers. The design and working principle is very
er dimensions, such as the diameter, the length or
similar.
the head armature of the termination just enough
that the dry-type plug-in termination of each manu-
facturer fits into the GIS of each manufacturer. The
82
Further uses for dry-type terminations
Dry-type plug-in terminations are standard for the
voltage levels of up to 245 kV. Although this type of
termination is potentially more problematic for the
accessory manufacturer and the installation, the
advantages of this product, as far as project man-
agement is concerned, leads to a more frequent
use of dry-type plug-in terminations, especially for
GIS. Since they are available up to 550 kV, further
uses for dry-type terminations at higher voltage
levels are also expected in the future.
5.4 Joints
5.4.1 Basic design
Joints for polymer cables consist of a conductor
connection, an insulation body with semiconduc-
tive deflectors and middle electrode, a moisture
barrier, a mechanical protection and the grounding
connections.
Radial metallic Conductor Filling
moisture barrier clamp material
Polymer cable Deflector SiR Slip-on Middle
insulation body electrode
Principle design of a joint
As described in detail in Section 5.2, the insulation
body is an element which ensures field grading be-
tween the outer semiconducting layer, the conduc-
tor clamp and the insulation.
The insulation body consists of semiconductive de-
flectors, the semiconductive middle electrode, the
insulation compound and a conducting layer at the
outside of the slip-on body.
5.4.2 Conductor connections
Variety of conductor clamps
Conductor clamps connect both conductor ends of
the cables. They have to fulfil the following main
tasks [Peschke 99]:
- Carry the rated and maximum permissible
short-circuit current, where the joint must not
heat up to a greater extent than the conductor
in the non-disturbed area of the cable
- Provide sufficient mechanical strength to with-
stand stresses during assembly, stresses of
temperature fluctuations and short circuits that
occur during operation
- Meet the challenges of economic issues, in-
cluding cost aspects and ease of installation
In principle, three main methods are used to con-
nect the conductor of high voltage cables. These
are:
- Compression
- Soldering, welding or brazing
- Mechanical or screwed connection
Mechanical
prtotection
Pressing
In power cable connection technology, the pressing
of conductors is an established practice. This pro-
cess is applicable for both aluminium and copper
conductors. The conductor type spectrum ranges
from round to sector-shaped and from multi-wire
to solid. For a pressed conductor connection, both
conductor ends are connected with a pressing cas-
ing, which is pressed several times at both ends.
The advantages are a good conductor connection
with a low contact resistance, fast fitting and the
ability to connect conductors of different cross-
sections easily together.
The disadvantages are that the connection points
are somewhat long and that higher power pressure
equipment on site is required, such as pumps or
pressing dies.
5. High Voltage Accessories for Polymer Cables
Pressing of a copper conductor
Soldering
Soldering is a method of connecting metal materi-
als with the aid of a melted solder metal. The sol-
der melting temperature lies below that of the con-
ductor materials to be connected. With copper
conductors, the solder connection can only be used
if short-circuit temperatures of no higher than
160 °C are assumed.
The advantages of soldering are the good and low
resistance of the conductor connection.
The disadvantages arise from the heat that is re-
quired for soldering, which may destroy the poly-
meric insulation of the cable. In addition, a consid-
erable amount of soldering equipment is needed
on site and the soldered connection can only be
used up to a short circuit temperature of 160 °C,
which is usually below that of the cable and the ac-
cessories. Therefore, soldering is not very widely
used for the conductor connection of high voltage
cable systems.
Welding
Welding is an exothermic bonding process, where-
by the two cable conductors are joined together
with the help of alloy materials. The result is a
permanent connection of the two conductors. The
chemical reaction that produces the heat is usually
achieved with a mixture of aluminium and copper
oxides.
The advantages of welding are connections with a
low resistance and the fact that the diameter of the
connection is only slightly larger than that of the
conductor.
83
The disadvantages arise from the heat that is re-
quired for welding. An improper heat shielding
may destroy the polymeric insulation of the cable.
In addition, a considerable amount of welding
equipment is needed on site. A further disad-
vantage, especially for terminations, is the possibil-
ity of corrosion of the connection.
Screw-fastened connections
With the increased use of polymer-insulated power
cables, screw-fastened connection technology
(sometimes referred to as mechanical connections
or simply screwed connections) has taken on an
increasingly important role for high voltage cable
connections. Nowadays, the majority of conductor
connections are realised with screw-fastened tech-
nology.
The screwed connectors are pushed over the two
ends of the cable conductors. After the final ar-
rangement of the cable, the screws in the connect-
or are tightened piece by piece. The convex shape
of the screws causes the conductor to expand and
presses the single conductor strands onto the inner
surface of the connector. The inner surface of the
connector has a rippled structure. This ensures a
very low conductor resistance when the conductor
strands of the cable are pressed onto them.
The application of the required torque is achieved
with breakaway screws. Their head is designed in
such a way that it breaks off at a specified torque.
At the end of the process, only the holes left by the
broken screws need to be filled with a fast-curing
epoxy resin.
Two main principles of screwed connectors are
used, thus being one-piece and two-piece connect-
ors. While one-piece connectors are mainly used
for cables with smaller conductor cross-sections,
two-piece connectors are used for cables with larg-
er conductor cross-sections.
84
Overview of main connection methods

The main connection methods, their advantages,

disadvantages as well as their typical applications
for high voltage cable systems are given in the table
below.

Main advantages and disadvantages of different

conductor connection methods for high voltage ca-
bles

Connec- Main ad- Main disad-

tion type vantages vantages
Easy handling of a one-piece screwed conductor con- Pressed - Low contact re- - Greater amount
nector sistance of equipment
- Cables with dif- required on site
ferent cross- - Long connection
sections can easi-
ly be connected

Soldered, - Very low contact - A greater

welded, resistance amount of addi-
brazed tional equipment
needed on site
- Risk of damag-
ing the cable
- Difficult to install

Screwed - Low contact re- - Must be made

sistance separately for
- Same diameter as cable and con-
cable ductor size

- Very easy to in- - Higher lead time

stall
- No additional
equipment re-
quired on site
Top: Structure of a two-piece screwed connector; from
left to right: empty hole, hole with breakaway screw,
hole with broken screw, hole with finished epoxy cov- 5.4.3 Moisture and mechanical
ering; Bottom: Finished two-piece screwed conductor protection of joints
connector
Moisture protection with metal shield
In all high voltage cables, a metallic shield covers
The advantages of the screwed connectors are that
the polymeric insulation (see Chapter 4). This me-
they are easily and rapidly installed, they enable
tallic shield protects the insulation against radial
the connector to take on the same diameter as the
moisture and is achieved by a copper or aluminium
insulation and that no additional equipment is
corrugated sheath, lead sheath or copper and alu-
needed for installation on site.
minium-laminated sheath.
The disadvantages are the slight increase in price
Considering the importance of the reliability of the
and that for each different diameter of the cable
cable system, as well as the fact that joints are of-
and the conductor cross-section, a different
ten installed under the influence of moisture or
screwed connector must be made. Another disad-
even water, it is surprising that radial moisture bar-
vantage is that the connection of cables with differ-
riers have not become a standard in all joints for
ent conductor cross-section values is more difficult
high voltage cables.
and expensive.
5. High Voltage Accessories for Polymer Cables 85
Proper moisture protection of the joint can only be - Metal sheet with protection box and insulation
realised by a radial moisture barrier made of a compound
metal shield, leading to increased reliability and a
- Cu tube with coating of high density polyeth-
prolonged lifetime. The metallic shield can consist
ylene (HDPE coating)
of either a metal sheet (usually copper) or a metal
- Cu tube with protection box and insulation
tube of stainless steel or copper.
compound

- Steel housing

- Steel housing with protection box and insula-

tion compound

Joints with different designs of moisture protection;

top: metal sheet of copper and polyester protection
box filled with insulating compound, bottom: copper
tube with polymer coating

Joints with different designs of mechanical protection;

Variety of designs for mechanical protection top: heat shrink cover, bottom: stainless steel tube and

Greater reliability and a long lifetime are further polyester protection box filled with insulating com-

ensured by a first-rate mechanical protection of the pound

joint.
Suited to the diverse applications of the customer’s Finally, it should be mentioned that some
application, a wide variety of mechanical protection measures for mechanical and moisture protection
designs are available. Basic protection is provided fulfil the same effect, such as that of using copper
by a heat shrink cover. For a higher degree of pro- or stainless steel tubes.
tection, steel or copper (Cu) housing and/or a box
of polyester can be chosen. This polyester protec-
tion box is filled with an insulating compound, giv-
5.4.4 Application of joints with
ing excellent sealing and mechanical protection to
the joint. different protection degrees
The different designs of mechanical protection en- As mentioned above, different types of joint protec-
able the customer to select the best technical and tions are designed for different applications. The
cost-efficient solution. recommended application for each joint type
The main protection designs for polymer cable should be given by the accessory manufacturer. An
joints are: example of such an application table is given be-
low.
- Metal sheet with heat shrink cover

- Protection box with insulation compound

86

Applications of joints for polymer cables

Type Radial moisture Mechanical pro- Advantages Application
barrier tection

MPAH Metal sheet Heat shrink * Extremely compact * For limited dimensions, such as small
cover dimensions manholes
* Basic sealing against * In tunnels or concrete manholes without
moisture permanent water ingress
* Cost effective
MPAP Metal sheet Protection * Good mechanical protec- * In all types of laying, such as in tunnels,
box tion in different environ- concrete pits or directly buried installa-
ments tions
* Total sealing against * In buried installations with humid soil
moisture
MPCC Cu-tube Cu-tube with * Compact dimensions * In all types of laying, such as in tunnels,
HDPE coating * High degree of mechani- concrete pits or directly buried installa-
cal protection tions
* Total sealing against * In installations with permanent humidity
moisture or shallow water
MPCP Cu-tube Cu-tube and * Highest degree of * In all types of laying, such as in tunnels,
protection mechanical protection concrete pits or directly buried installa-
box * Total sealing against tions
moisture * In installations with permanent humidity
or shallow water

Example for an application table of different joint types

Depending on the type of laying, the different de-

signs of joints should then be applied accordingly.
The following pictures show different applications
of different joint types.

Joints with protection box and insulation filling in a

concrete tunnel

Joints with copper tube and HDPE coating in a cellar

5.4.5 Grounding connections

The grounding of joints is essential for the proper

working of the cable system. The need and detailed
solutions for different groundings of the cable sys-
tem are given in Chapter 4 and 7, respectively.
In this section, the grounding variations of the joint
as a product are described. In general, there are
three different variations for grounding of joints.

These are:

- Straight-through connections

Joints with protection box and insulation filling in a - Straight-through connections with a direct
concrete basement earthing link

- Cross-bonding of joints
5. High Voltage Accessories for Polymer Cables 87
is conducted to either end of the joint, the separa-
tion of the two sections is made at the joint itself.
Each side of the joint is then connected to a sepa-
rate outer cable. In most cases, coaxial cables are
used for this purpose. More information on this is
given in Chapter 7.

Joint with cross-bonding connections

Different grounding connections for joints; top:

straight-through connection, middle: straight-through
connection with grounding link, bottom: cross-
bonding connection

The straight through-connection can usually be

achieved very easily at the joint. The outer sheath
of both cable sides is connected to both ends of the
metallic protection sections of the joint, which are
further connected to each other.

The straight-through connection with an earthing

link is achieved in the same way as a straight-
through connection with an additional link to the
Joints in a joint bay with cross-bonding cables
outside of the joint and a grounding link.
The cross bonding version must be achieved dif-
ferently. Since the outer sheath of both cable sides
 89

Chapter 6

Additional Accessories
6. Additional Accessories 91

6.1 Cable clamps

6.1.1 Main requirements

Cable clamps are essential for the reliable function-

ing of a cable system. They protect against me-
chanical forces during service or in case of failure,
and ensure that the cable system continues to func- Force of
tion reliably during its entire lifetime in all loading gravity
conditions. Consequently, their purpose is to:

- Reduce mechanical tension on lead plumb of

terminations and joints

- Compensate expansions due to increasing Force of gravity FG caused by the weight of the cable
temperature with load current at a GIS termination

- Fix the cable when laid in non-horizontal condi-

tions or on ceilings
- Guide the cable in horizontal laying
- Prevent cable movements at short circuit
6.1.2 Forces in a cable system
General
During operation, different mechanical forces influ-
ence a cable system. These are:
Example 6-1:
Æ A cable system with a cable weight of 30 kg/m
and terminations mounted at a height of 5 m
 Forces caused by the weight of the cable
P According to Equation 6-1, the force that the cable
clamps have to cope with can be calculated as:
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝐹! = 30 ∙ 5 𝑚 ∙ 9.81 ! = 1.5 𝑘𝑁
𝑚 𝑠
9 Based on the weight of the cable, the cable
clamps have to be designed for at least 1.5 kN.

- Gravitational force FG
Shearing forces during thermal expansion
- Shearing forces FF
Thermal expansion of a cable is caused by a
- Short-circuit forces FS (may occur)
change of its temperature, which results from:

- Different ambient temperatures

Gravitational force due to cable weight
- Change of cable load
The gravitational force on the cable FG occurs at
terminations and at vertical cable laying in an axial - Short-circuit currents

direction, as well as horizontal cable laying on ceil-
ings or walls in a radial direction. Particularly at
terminations, all gravitational forces on the lead
plumb or on the termination itself must be avoided.
The gravitational force is given by the weight of the
cable and can be expressed as:
Although the cable consists of a combination of dif-
ferent materials, the elongation of the conductor is
the main cause of the forces of the cable. The elon-
gation of the conductor can therefore be calculated
as:

ΔL = L0 ⋅ α ⋅ Δϑ (Eq. 6-2)
𝐹! = 𝑚 ∙ 𝑔 (Eq. 6-1)
In which:

In which: ΔL: Elongation of the cable

m: Weight of the cable L0 : Length of the cable at installation

g: Acceleration of gravity (g=9.81 m/s2) α: Expansion coefficient; αCu = 16.8⋅10-6 1/K,

αAl = 23.9 ⋅ 10-6 1/K [Friedrich 93]
Δϑ: Temperature difference
92

The thermal expansion of the conductor generates flexible cable laying and requires the cable clamps
shearing forces FF in an axial direction. The shear- to be positioned at a minimum distance of 2.5 m
ing force can be calculated as: from one another. The holding forces of the cable
clamps have to be strong enough to fix the cable at
its position. As a general rule, it can be said that
FF = α ⋅ Δϑ ⋅ E ⋅ A (Eq. 6-3)
per 1 mm length of the cable clamp, a holding force
of 10 N is achieved in an axial direction.
In which:
In flexible cable laying, the cable deflects in either
FF : Shearing force of the cable direction with increasing temperature. Such deflex-
A: Conductor cross-section ion depends on the distance between two cable

E: Elasticity module*; ECu= 125 ⋅ 103 N/mm2 clamps, the expansion coefficient and the tempera-
ture difference. Hence, it can be calculated as:
EAl= 72 ⋅ 103 N/mm2 [Friedrich 93]

* Since the metallic conductor is the main influencing

2l
factor of these forces, the values for the elasticity h= ⋅ α ⋅ Δϑ (Eq. 6-4)
modules are taken from copper or aluminium π

In which:
h: Deflexion of the cable due to increasing
temperature

l: Length of cable between two clamps

Forces during short circuits

During short circuits the cable is loaded with both
thermal forces caused by the temperature increase
Shearing
of the short-circuit current flow and mechanical
force
forces caused by the force of the short-circuit cur-
rent. The force caused by the thermal expansion

Shearing force FF caused by the elongation of the con- can be calculated according to Equation 6-3.
ductor at increasing temperature

Example 6-2:
Æ Two cable systems with the following values:
- Cable 1 with copper conductor
- Cable 2 with aluminium conductor
- Total length of 300 m for both cables at
20°C
 Length of expansion of the cable system at max-
imum operating temperature of 90°C.
P According to Equation 6-2, the expansion can be
calculated as:
ΔLCu = 300 m ⋅ 16.8 ⋅ 10-6 1/K ⋅ 70 K = 0.35 m Forces during
short circuit
ΔLAl = 300 m ⋅ 23.9 ⋅ 10-6 1/K ⋅ 70 K = 0.50 m
9 A cable with copper conductors will expand Magnetic short-circuit force FS
0.35 m; a cable with aluminium conductors 0.5 m.
The mechanical forces during a short-circuit FS are
based on magnetic stress that is caused by the
short-circuit current inside the conductors.
Shearing forces can be compensated by the flexi-
bility of the cable in a radial direction. This is called
 6. Additional Accessories 93

Aside from the distance between the conductors of

𝜇! 𝐼!!
each phase, the maximum real short-circuit current 𝐹! = 𝛽 ∙ ∙ (Eq. 6-6)
2𝜋 𝑎
IS provides the basis for the calculation. Potentially,
the most damaging scenario is one in which a short
circuit occurs far away from the generator. The In which:

maximum real short-circuit current is given by a FS : Radial force on the cable per meter due to
coefficient depending on the impedance in the the short-circuit current in N/m
power grid and the initial symmetric short-circuit µ0 : Magnetic constant = 4 ⋅ π ⋅ 10-7 N/A2
current [ABB 92].
a: Distance of the cable axis in m

β: Geometrical factor representing the kind of

𝐼! = 𝜅 ∙ 2 ∙ 𝐼!" (Eq. 6-5) cable laying
In which:

IS : Real short-circuit current in kA For flat cable laying the factor β is about 0.4, for tre-
κ: Coefficient depending on the impedance in foil laying this factor is about 0.5.
the power grid at the moment of the short-
circuit (κmax = 1.8) [ABB 92]

IK’’: Initial symmetrical short-circuit current in

6.1.3 Types of cable clamps
kA
To handle all the above-mentioned forces, a com-
bination of several types of cable clamps is neces-
Based on Equation 6-5, the radial force per meter
sary. Typical cable clamps and their associated
on the cable during a short-circuit can be calculated
compensation forces are given in the table below.
as:

Different types of cable clamps and compensation forces

Type Brifix belt 3-core cable Holding clamp Holding Fixing clamp Fixing
clamp plastic clamp metal short clamp long

Example

Compensation
Yes, very
of forces in axi- No No No Yes, little Yes, strong
strong
al direction

Compensation
Yes, very
of forces in ra- Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes, strong
strong
dial direction
94

6.1.4 Cable clamps at joints 6.1.5 Cable clamps at terminations

To protect the joint from the above-described forc-
es, clamps have to be applied on each side of the
joint. Generally, this can be done in two different
ways, either by a long fixing clamp or by a short
fixing clamp together with a holding clamp on each
side of the joint. Long fixing clamps should be
placed as close to the joint as possible.
It is vital for the functioning of terminations that the
cable goes straight into the termination. Otherwise,
the cable becomes bent within the insulator, thus
influencing the electric field grading negatively as a
result of which breakdowns may occur.

Recommended application of long fixing clamps close

to joints in a directly buried installation

Not properly applied cable clamp at a termination (ca-

ble may become bent in the termination)

Recommended application of normal sized fixing and

holding clamps close to joints in a manhole

Properly applied cable clamps at a termination (cable

goes straight into the termination)

Cable clamps positioned next to terminations are

Fixing clamps at each side of a joint; in this case, the
used to hold the weight of the cable, guarantee a
fixing clamps hold the weight of the cable, prevent
straight insertion of the cable into the termination,
negative influence of forces caused by thermal expan-
protect the termination from expansion forces
sion and protect the joints from forces caused by a
short circuit caused by temperature increase during current
6. Additional Accessories
flow and protect the cable from damages during
short-circuit currents.
It is generally recommended to apply a fixing
clamp approximately 100 – 150 cm below the base
plate of the termination and to apply an additional
holding clamp approximately 100 cm below the fix-
ing clamp. If adequate space is not available below
the termination, a large fixing clamp can also be
applied.
Recommended use for fixing and holding clamps at a
termination
Properly applied fixing and holding clamps below a
termination
6.1.6 Cable clamps for cable laying
Cable clamps for cables with polymer or
metal outer sheath
The outer sheath of a cable is usually made of a
polymer material (PE or PVC). In rare cases, the
outer sheath is reinforced with a metal layer. When
applying cable clamps, the general rule “metal to
95
metal and polymer to polymer” applies. This
means that for cables with a metal sheath (alumin-
ium or steel), cable clamps without rubber inserts
should be applied, whereas for cables with a poly-
mer sheath (PVC, PE or similar) cable clamps with
rubber inserts must be applied.
Cable clamps next to conduits
A fixing cable clamp should be applied at both
sides of a conduit. This fixing clamp not only en-
sures that the deflexion of the cable remains inside
the pipe but also compensates the remaining
shearing forces. In addition, the fixing clamp guar-
antees that the cable is not damaged as a result of
forces at the edge of the conduit.
Recommended use for fixing clamps next to conduits
Example of fixing clamps as they should be applied
next to a conduit
Cable clamps along flat laying of the cable
Cable clamps positioned along the cable are need-
ed when the cable is not buried.
Flat laying is the most popular design for high volt-
age cable systems, the advantages being that the
axial spacing between the conductors reduces the
magnetic short-circuit forces, the proximity effect is
lower and the cooling of the cable is far better.
96

for this limitation are costs and short-circuit forces.

Consequently, as a general rule, the distance be-
tween two cable clamps for flexible laying should
be between 2.5 and 3.5 m. However, an exception
to that rule is the laying of cables in a trough.

Example of a cable in a flat laying arrangement Cable clamps of flexible cable installation in flat laying

For flat laying, two different ways of fixing are pos-

sible:

- Fixed installations

- Flexible installations

The advantages of fixed installations include the

fact that the cable is protected against undercutting
of the minimum bending radius and that the cable
remains in the laid position. The disadvantage of
fixed laying is that the shearing forces caused by
temperature differences must be completely com-
pensated by the holding force of the cable clamps, Cable clamps of flexible cable installation in flat laying
which requires a considerable number of such in a cable tunnel (with sneaking of the cables)
clamps.

Types of cable clamps for flat laying

Max. short-
Brugg Type Example
circuit force

BCT 14 kN
Cable clamps of fixed cable installation in flat laying

The advantage of flexible installations is the limited

number of required cable clamps needed, thus
BFB(T) 20 kN
making the laying cheaper. The shearing forces are
compensated by the deflection of the cable, which
is known as “sneaking”. A disadvantage is that dur-
ing sneaking, the minimum bending radius of the BAF(T) 76 kN
cable must be considered. Another disadvantage is
that the cable does not remain in a fixed position.
To profit from the advantages of flexible laying, the
distance between the clamps should not be less
than 2.5 m. However, the distance between the
clamps should also not exceed 3.5 m. The reasons
6. Additional Accessories 97

Cable clamps along trefoil laying of the cable Types of cable clamps for trefoil laying

The advantages of trefoil laying are the limited

Max. short-
amount of space required and the reduced magnet- Type Example circuit
ic field of the cables. The disadvantages are higher force
short-circuit forces, a higher influence of the prox-
9 kN, 1 s
imity effect and poor heat dissipation. Brifix belt small
6 kN, 3 s

10 kN, 1 s
Brifix belt large
8 kN, 3 s

KH clamp* 25 kN

Similarly, clamps in trefoil laying also require the

distance between two clamps to be at a minimum
of 2.5 m.
*If the magnetic short-circuit forces can’t be compensated
by the KH Clamps, forces that occur during short-circuit
must be compensated by additional Brifix belts between
Trefoil laying of two cable systems
two cable clamps. These belts must be fixed symmetrical-
ly between two KH Clamps.

Application table for cable clamps

The following table gives the application for cable
clamps with respect to the maximum operating
voltage and conductor cross-section:

Application table for cable clamps

Location of Max. operat- Conductor Type Type Type BAF(T) Type BA(T)
installation ing voltage cross-section BCT BFB(T)
[kV] [mm2]

Example

Both sides of a
60 – 550 120 – 2500 Yes
conduit

Both sides of a
60 – 550 120 – 2500 Yes Yes
joint

1 – 1.5 m below 60 – 170 120 – 2500 Yes Yes

a termination > 170 120 – 2500 Yes Yes

120 – 800 Yes

2 – 2.5 m below < 110
1000 – 2500 Yes
a termination
110 – 550 240 – 2500 Yes

120 – 800 Yes

Along the cable < 110
1000 – 2500 Yes
(distance of 3 m)
110 – 550 240 – 2500 Yes
98

6.2 Surge arresters Termination Termination

6.2.1 Fundamentals

In high voltage cable systems, the outer (polymer)

cable sheath must be protected from overvoltages SVL
as these may destroy the outer polymeric sheath.
Once destroyed, the outer metallic screen can suf-

Induced voltage
fer from corrosion and the grounding current will
flow incorrectly, causing additional losses and rep-
resenting a potential danger.
Overvoltages in the outer sheath can be caused by
induced voltages resulting from lightning strikes or Distance along the cable sheath
switching pulses. Surge arresters – in the case of
Typical application of a sheath voltage limiter at the
high voltage cable sheath protection, these are end of a short cable length
called “sheath voltage limiters (SVL)” – limit the
induced overvoltages to an acceptable level.
Modern zinc oxide (ZnO) surge arresters consist of
varistor discs enclosed in a polymeric housing. Var- Termination Termination

istors – a combination of the words variable and

resistor – have an extreme non-linear current volt- Joint
age characteristic. This means that the varistors
change within a small voltage range with increas- Groun- SVL
ing voltage from an insulating material to a con- ding box
ductive material. The high non-linearity is caused
Induced voltage

by the microscopic structure of the ZnO grains and

the grain boundaries.
Current

Distance along the cable sheath

Typical application of sheath voltage limiters at cross-

bonding boxes of a cable system
Ik

Uk
Voltage

Non-linear U-I characteristic of a ZnO varistor

6.2.2 Application of sheath voltage

limiters in cable systems

Sheath voltage limiters are installed either at the

Sheath voltage limiter at a termination
end of the cable at the termination or at cross-
bonding boxes.
6. Additional Accessories 99

rester. A safety margin of about 25% is

recommended.)

To choose the right SVL for cable sheath protec-

tion, it is necessary to calculate any induced volt-
ages that might occur at the point where the ar-
rester is installed. The induced voltage Uind is calcu-
lated as:

𝑈"!# = 𝐸 ∙ 𝐿 (Eq. 6-7)

Sheath voltage limiter in a cross-bonding box (grey

item on the top right of the cross-bonding box)
In which:

𝐸: Electric field

6.2.3 Dimensioning of sheath 𝐿: Length of earthing section

voltage limiters

When it comes to the classification of sheath volt- The electric field E can be calculated according to:
age limiters, the following voltage definitions are
important:
! !
Uc: Maximum continuous operating voltage 𝐸= 𝐸"!$# + 𝐸!#$" (Eq. 6-8)

Ur: Rated voltage

Ures: Residual voltage In which:

Eimag Imaginary component of the electric field

In this context, the rated voltage Ur is the highest
Ereal Real component of the electric field
permissible voltage at power frequencies of limited
duration and is given by the manufacturer of the
SVL (for example: Ur = 1.25 Uc) [Richter 99]. The re- The values of Eimag and Ereal depend on the cable
sidual voltage Ures defines the protection level of laying. For a flat laying with an equal distance S be-
the SVL. It is the maximum voltage at the arrester
tween the phases Eimag and Ereal can be calculated
during an 8/20 µs current impulse of the nominal
with the following equations:
discharge current (e.g. 10 kA).
When selecting a voltage limiter for cable sheath
𝑆
protection, the following criteria have to be consid- 𝐸"!$# = −𝜔 ∙ 𝐼 ∙ 10!! ∙ ln (Eq. 6-9)
𝐷
ered:

- The maximum continuous operating voltage

UC of the limiter must be higher than the calcu-
4𝑆
lated induced voltage (generally for cable 𝐸!#$" = 𝜔 ∙ 𝐼 ∙ 10!! ∙ 3 ∙ ln (Eq. 6-10)
𝐷
sheath protection, the minimum UC of the SVL
should be 3 kV, even if the calculated induced
In which:
voltage is much lower).
ω: Angular frequency = 2⋅π⋅f in 1/s
- The residual voltage of the SVL at the nominal
discharge current impulse should be lower I: Short-circuit current in A
than the protection level of the cable sheath.
(The residual voltages for different current im-
S: Phase distance in mm

pulses are listed in the data sheets of the ar- D: Diameter of cable screen in mm
100

Example 6-3: 6.3.2 IP and NEMA protection

Æ To determine a sheath voltage limiter (SVL)
placed at a joint, the following data are given:
- Calculated voltage at a cable end of 5.4 kV
- SVL from a supplier with the rated voltage
values of Ur = 3, 6, 10, 15 kV
 Which type of SVL should be used?
P The SVL should have a continuous operating volt-
age of Uc higher than the calculated voltage at the
cable end. Therefore, the SVL with Uc = 6 kV should
be chosen.
9 After selecting the SVL type with Uc = 6 kV, it must
additionally be checked whether the residual voltage
at the maximum current is below the protection lev-
el of the joint. In the data sheet of the arrester, the
residual voltage at 10 kA is listed as 21.8 kV, which
is below the insulation level of the given joints.
For more detailed information about the selection
of an SVL – as well as for other applications – see
the application guidelines for overvoltage protec-
classes
General
All earthing and cross-bonding boxes must have a
certain degree of protection. This is necessary for
two reasons. Firstly, to protect the outside from the
contacts inside the earthing boxes as these may
carry dangerous voltage potential. Secondly, to
protect the inside contacts of the earthing boxes
from outer influences, such as animals, humidity or
water, which could influence the performance of
the earthing and cable system.
Two main systems have been established as a
means of providing protection: the “International
Protection” (IP) system and the American “National
Electrical Manufacturers Association” (NEMA) sys-
tem.
It is worth mentioning that the degrees of protec-

tion [Richter 99]. tion are valid for all technical systems, not only for
earthing devices (IP numbers are therefore also
given on household devices, such as hair-dryers).

IP
6.3 Earthing devices for The protection according to IP is based on the

joints and terminations standard IEC 60529 [IEC 60529]. In addition to the
two letters “IP” the code also contains two num-
6.3.1 Fundamentals bers.

The first number defines the level of protection

High voltage cable systems must always be
against penetration of solid objects into the hous-
earthed. The earthing, sometimes referred to as
ing. The second number defines the level of protec-
grounding, very much depends on cable parame-
tion against penetration of liquids into the housing.
ters and on the application of the cable system.
This section describes the properties of the prod-
ucts themselves, such as those of cross-bonding
boxes for joints. All issues concerning application
of the earthing equipment, such as why and how to
apply a cross-bonding system, are described in de-
tail in Chapter 7.

The following types of devices for the earthing of

terminations and joints are available:

- Earthing boxes for terminations

- Cross-bonding boxes for joints

- Earthing clamps for terminations

6. Additional Accessories 101

1st in- Example Degree of protec- 2nd in- Example Degree of protection
dex tion dex
figure figure
“I” “P”

Protection against Protection against vertical and

contact with fingers diagonal water drops up to
2 or solid foreign bod- 2 15° angle
ies with ∅ > 12 mm

Protection against Protection against vertical and

tools, wires or similar diagonal water drops up to
3 objects and solid for- 3 60° angle
eign bodies with ∅ >
2.5 mm

Same protection as 3, Protection against splash-

but with ∅ > 1 mm water from all directions
4 4

Full protection Protection against water from

against contact and a nozzle from all directions
5 protection against 5
interior injurious dust
deposits

Total protection Protection against ingress of

against contact and water in case of temporary
6 6
protection against flooding
penetration of dust

Protection against ingress of

water in case of temporary
7
immersion

Protection against ingress of

water in case of continuous
8
immersion

NEMA

The NEMA code has a successive numbering from

NEMA 1 to NEMA 13 and distinguishes between
indoor and outdoor applications.
The transfer from IP to NEMA enclosure types can
only be roughly given. There is no direct compari-
son between IP and NEMA as the specifications
and way of testings are significantly different [Sie-
mon 11], [Moeller 09].
102

Analogy transfer of NEMA to IP classes

NEMA code Application IP analogy

1 Indoor IP 10 – IP 20

2 Indoor IP 11 – IP 22

3 Outdoor IP 54 – IP 55

3R Outdoor IP 14 – IP 24

3S Outdoor IP 54 – IP 55

4 Indoor / Outdoor IP 56 – IP 66

4X Indoor / Outdoor IP 56 – IP 66

5 Indoor IP 52 – IP 53

6 Indoor / Outdoor IP 67

6P Indoor / Outdoor IP 67

7 Indoor

8 Indoor / Outdoor Earthing box for single-phase earthing with SVL and
protection degree of IP 54
9 Indoor

10 Mining industry

12, 12K Indoor IP 52 – IP 54

13 Indoor IP 54

6.3.3 Earthing boxes

Earthing boxes are used to realise the earthing at

terminations or joints. Earthing boxes can be real-
ised for three-phase or for single-phase earthing.
Earthing boxes can also be equipped with SVL.

Earthing box for three-phase earthing without SVL and

protection degree of IP 54

Since earthing boxes are usually used for the earth-

ing of terminations and are not directly buried, they
have a typical protection degree of IP 54.

Earthing box for three-phase earthing with SVL and a

protection degree of IP 54
6. Additional Accessories 103

6.3.4 Cross-bonding boxes

Cross-bonding boxes are used to realise the inter-

connection of the outer cable screen of different
phases. Similar to earthing boxes, cross-bonding
boxes can also be equipped with SVL.

Since cross-bonding boxes are used for joints and

are usually directly buried, they have usually a pro-
tection degree of IP 68.

Disconnecting earthing knife at an outdoor termina-

tion

Flexible grounding connections with smaller cross-

Cross-bonding box without sheath voltage limiter and
a protection degree of IP 68 sections at GIS terminations

6.3.5 Earthing clamps for

terminations

In order to realise the earthing at terminations, sol-

id connections or connections that can be re-
opened are applied. Amongst the different manu-
facturers, various types of such connections are
available. The appropriate current rating must be
ensured (the short-circuit current must also be con-
sidered). In order to ensure high current ratings,
more than one connection or connections with
larger cross-sections are typically applied. Fixed grounding connections with larger cross-
sections at GIS terminations
7. Installation and Operation 105

Chapter 7

Installation
and Operation
106
7. Installation and Operation 107

7.1 Installation of cesses to ensure that minimum requirements are

accessories
7.1.1 Basics
General
For a reliably functioning of a high voltage cable
system, one of the most important factors is the
carrying out of a properly conducted and high-
quality installation process. Failures during installa-
tion, even tiny inclusions of dust or dirt, can deteri-
orate significantly the electric field and cause die-
lectric breakdown [Weissenberg 09-1], [Weissen-
berg 09-2].
Since a main cause of cable system failure is instal-
lation (failures caused by external factors, such as
digging into the cable, are not considered here),
particular attention must be given to the accesso-
ries installation process. For an optimum accessory
installation process, the following is essential:
met. If trained installers are not available, the com-
bination of supervisors and personnel with basic
qualifications is another option for the installation
process. However, this should be an exception and
it is repeated here that qualified and well-trained
installation personnel are a must in order to ensure
a high-quality reliable high voltage cable system.
Well-described installation instructions
As well-described instructions of the installation
steps reduce the risk of failures, installers should
be provided with a good description of these. Since
some installers may have difficulties with installa-
tion instructions, the language and supporting illus-
trations must be presented in a clear and compre-
hensible manner.

- Installation friendly accessories

- Qualified installers

- Well-described installation instructions

- Cleanliness on site

Installation friendly accessories

Installation friendly methods for different accesso-

ries were described in Chapter 5. There it was
shown that single-piece insulation bodies of sili-
cone rubber are the most convenient means for in-
stalling high voltage accessories.

Qualified installers Example of clearly described installation instructions

Qualified and well-trained installation personnel
are a must. Although due to financial constraints
insufficiently trained and certified installers are
sometimes employed, this is not to be recom-
mended for the installation of high voltage acces-
sories. Considering the costs of the cable system
and any failures that might occur, the costs of in-
staller training are negligible. As a means of deal-
ing with the issue of such costs, many cable and
accessory suppliers offer on-site supervision
teams. These teams, consisting of supervisors to-
gether with basically qualified installers, provide a
cost effective means of conducting installation pro-
with illustration and text (Operation 6 for termination
installation: Removing cable insulation end)
Cleanliness on site
As mentioned above, tiny particles may be very
harmful for the performance of the cable system.
Therefore, cleanliness during installation is essen-
tial. Consequently, the installation work should be
done under cover in order to protect personnel and
equipment from outside disturbances, such as
wind, dust, moisture, sun or rain. If the installation
is done outside, a container (frequently climatised)
108
or at least a tent should be used. If the installation
is done in a tunnel, protection is usually given.
Tent for installation of terminations in medium tem-
perature and low-dust environment
Climatised container for installation of joints in hot
and dusty environment
7.1.2 Installation of terminations
Introduction
Although there are several types of terminations,
the general steps for their installation are very simi-
lar. So despite the fact that some outdoor termina-
tions can be installed indoors, whilst certain indoor
terminations (GIS or transformer terminations) may
be installed externally, a similar method of installa-
tion can be applied.
General preparation before mounting
All parts of the termination and the necessary tools
should be on site. In addition, the installation loca-
tion should be clean and personnel safety must be
ensured. As different countries have different
standards of security, local laws must of course be
adhered to.
Before installation, a cable sheath insulation test
and a phase test has to be carried out. This ensures
that the cable has not been destroyed during ship-
ment or installation and that the different phases
are labelled correctly.
Preparation of the cable
In the first step, the cable must be cut. After cutting,
the cable has to be straightened and fixed into its
final position. In order to avoid any forces at the
stress cone, it is essential that the connection in-
side the termination is straight and, consequently,
also the cable end. The straightening of the cable is
done with the help of a metal (mostly aluminium)
angle.
Straightening the cable end in a metal angle
Removing cable jacket and sheath
After bringing the cable into position, the cable
jacket and metallic sheath has to be removed. How
this is actually done depends on the type of metal-
lic sheath present, which might be of lead, copper
or aluminium. The copper or aluminium sheath
might be corrugated or laminated.
The polymer outer cable jacket has to be removed
whilst taking care not to damage the metallic
sheath positioned below. Particular care must be
taken with laminated sheaths (aluminium or cop-
per), as these are much more sensitive than corru-
gated or lead sheaths.
7. Installation and Operation
Removing cable jacket with a hand-driven peeling tool
Removing cable jacket from laminated sheath; top:
heating of the polymer cable jacket, bottom: removal
of the cable jacket with the aid of a wire in order not to
damage the laminated aluminium sheath below
Metallic screen treatment
To make a proper electric connection of the metal-
lic sheath and cable screen to the termination
ground, the cable screen must be tinned and weld-
ed to the base plate of the termination. Welding
corrugated and lead sheaths is usually not an issue.
109
Due to the limited amount of material, welding of
laminated cable screens (especially laminated alu-
minium screens) is much more difficult and hence
requires more sophisticated installation skills.
Prior to welding, the metallic screen and the bed-
ding tapes have to be removed up to the tinned ar-
ea. If present, additional screen wires must be bent
back. However, aluminium screen wires should not
be bent back too intensively and need to be treated
very carefully to avoid breakage.
Insulation cutting
The insulation must be removed along the length
of the terminal stud. To avoid damage at the con-
ductor, the insulation must be cut up to the inner
semiconducting layer of the cable. The final cut
should be carefully done manually by a jointer.
Insulation cutting at a termination cable end
Heating of insulation
During the extrusion process of the cable, the mol-
ecules of the cross-linked polyethylene are pre-
orientated in one direction. Once the cable is heat-
ed, such as during current flow, the orientated
molecules relax and the insulation shrinks back. To
prevent the back-shrinking process of the insulation
from affecting the electrical insulation parts of the
termination, the shrinking process must be kept to
a minimum. This can be achieved by heating and
pushing back the polymeric cable insulation. While
the pushing-back is typically done to joints, it is not
needed for terminations, as the cut of the polyeth-
ylene insulation is far away from the stress cone as
well as from the critical electric regions.
110
By heating the insulation for 6 to 12 hours at 80 C,
the majority of the insulation shrink-back process
can be achieved. For the heating of the insulation,
heating tubes or heating mats are typically used. In
order not to waste too much time during the instal-
lation process, the heating is typically done over-
night. After heating, the warm cable should be laid
on a frame (or angle) to straighten it. The cable is
left in this position until ambient temperature has
been reached.
It should be mentioned here that for the prepara-
tion of the dry-type plug-in termination, the insula-
Pressing the terminal stud at a cable end
tion must be heated or pushed back as the cable
insulation length at the dry-type termination is ra-
ther short. Cable screen connection

The metallic screen of the cable is welded to the

Conductor connection to terminal stud base plate of the termination, thus providing a
moisture-tight and strong electric connection.
As the conductor connection to the terminal stud is
an electrical contact, it has a certain contact re-
sistance. In order to limit electric losses and avoid
unnecessary high temperatures at the terminal
stud, a good conductor connection with a low con-
ductor resistance must be made. If present, all
tapes between the conductor segments and each
single conductor layer inside the conductor must
be removed. If swelling powder is present inside a
conductor, it should be removed carefully by
knocking with a hammer. If present, any varnish on
enamelled wires must also be removed. Although
this is very time consuming and costly, the varnish
has to be removed over the whole length of the Welded cable screen connection
conductor connection on each single wire. This can
be done by single stranding or sand blasting.
For earthing purposes, the metallic screen of the
Three methods are applied for the conductor con-
cable must be connected outside the termination.
nections of terminations: pressing, screwing or
The different grounding mechanisms, such as di-
welding.
rect earthing or earthing via surge voltage limiters,
If pressing is carried out, the elongation of the con- are realised by equipment at the base plate. More
ductor must be considered. In addition to this, spe- information about the realisation of such earthing
cial crimping tools are needed. is given in Section 7.2.
In the case of a screwed connection with brake-
away screws, the conductor does not suffer from
Removing semiconducting layer and prepara-
elongation. Also, no additional tools are needed,
tion of insulation
only a screw wrench.
For preparing the termination, the outer semicon-
Welding is seldom used to connect the cable con-
ducting layer of the cable has to be removed. This
ductor to the terminal stud. The risk of damaging
process is done by hand-peeling or machine-
the cable with hot welding products as well as the
peeling, mostly depending on the number of ter-
amount of effort and tools needed makes it less
minations being installed.
suitable.
7. Installation and Operation 111

Removing semiconducting layer by hand-peeling Polishing the insulation surface

Mounting of the stress cone

After the cable surface has been prepared, the

stress cone must be slipped on the cable. In order
to reduce friction forces, the cable surface and the
stress cone must be greased before the stress cone
can be slipped on. It should be mentioned that only
special insulation grease which do not affect the
material of the stress cone or the semiconducting
layer should be used.
In general, the stress cone can be slipped on by
hand. If this is not possible, such as in the case of
very large cable diameters, special stress cone pull-
Removing semiconducting layer by machine-peeling
ing devices can be used. During the slip-on pro-
cess, damage at the stress cone and cable surface
Since the surface of the cable insulation needs to must absolutely be avoided.
be very clean and the area where the stress cone is
The stress cone must be placed so that the deflec-
applied extremely smooth, additional steps need to
tors cover the outer semiconducting layer of the
be taken after peeling. One of these is the process
cable. After the stress cone has been mounted, the
of sanding around the area of the stress cone. This
cable surface and stress cone must be cleaned
is done in several steps, first by machine and then
again. No dust particles are allowed into this area.
by hand. The sanding is done with sand paper of
different grading, moving from rough to fine. In or-
der not to get semiconducting parts into the insula-
tion, the direction of sanding should be towards the
semiconducting layer. It should be stressed that no
semiconducting parts or particles are allowed in
the region of the insulation. After sanding, the ca-
ble surface is cleaned using special cleaning
agents.

To achieve a very smooth insulation surface, the

insulation should undergo a final heating in the
sanded area. This is done with a hot air gun up to
600 °C. An open flame should on no account be
used next to the polyethylene insulation.
112

Mounting of stress cone by hand

Sealing and mounting of insulator

To avoid insulation fluid of the termination entering
the cable, the areas at the conductor connector and
between the insulation body and the metallic cable
screen must be sealed. This step is achieved with
Sealing of the termination at the terminal stud (top)
the aid of different tapes and heat shrinkable and at the stress cone (bottom)
sleeves, which are applied below the stress cone
and at the top of the terminal connection.
After sealing, the insulator must be mounted over
the cable. The time needed to complete this pro-
cess depends on the type of insulator. For small
and light insulators, such as a composite insulator
of 145 kV, the process is simple. The insulator only
needs to be put over the cable end. For big and
heavy insulators, such as porcelain insulators, lift-
ing equipment must be used. In both cases, the
surface of the cable and stress cone must not be
damaged whilst the insulator is being mounted.
Once the insulator is in place, it must be fixed onto
the base plate.

Installation of a composite insulator by hand

7. Installation and Operation
Fixing of the insulator at the base plate
After the insulator has been mounted onto the ca-
ble, the base plate and gland must be soldered on-
to the cable sheath. In order not to overheat the ca-
ble, the soldering should be divided into at least
two steps. For additional cable protection, a tinned
copper tube can be mounted in between the gland
and the metal cable sheath.
Insulation filling
One of the last steps involves the filling of the ter-
mination with an appropriate insulation. For gas
filled terminations, the SF6 gas has to be filled into
the termination at an appropriate pressure level.
Fluid filled terminations need to be filled with sili-
cone oil. Only special silicone insulation oil, com-
patible with the insulation body, should be used.
The oil must be clean and free of air bubbles.
Terminations without expansion tanks must be
filled with insulation oil only up to a specific level.
Enough space must be left for the thermal expan-
sion of the oil. Terminations with expansion tanks
will be filled with insulation oil until a certain pres-
sure inside the expansion tank has been reached.
The filling level and the filling pressure of termina-
tions have to be calculated for each arrangement.
The calculations depend on the oil volume, oil
temperature, ambient temperature, maximum and
minimum oil temperature on line and the height of
the expansion tank in comparison to the termina-
tion. All data are given in the installation instruc-
tions of the terminations.
113
Final installation steps and fixing of the
termination
The final steps of the installation involve the
mounting of all remaining additional accessories,
such as fixing cable clamps or earthing equipment.
To prevent any movements inside the termination
as well as forces on the lead plumb, the termina-
tion must be fixed with cable clamps. A detailed
guideline for the use of cable clamps is given in
Section 6.1.
To enable the cable system to function appropriate-
ly, the terminations must be earthed. More detailed
information on earthing principles and appropriate
devices are given in Section 7.2 and 6.3, respective-
ly.
Complete installed (GIS) terminations including cable
clamps and earthing equipment
Final installation step for dry-type plug-in
terminations
The installation steps for dry-type plug-in termina-
tions are very similar to those of standard termina-
tions. However, the final step (filling in the insula-
tion fluid) is not required.
For dry-type plug-in terminations, the insulator can
be installed inside the gas insulated switchgear or
transformer. The cable with the installed stress
cone (the “male part”) can now be plugged into the
insulator that is already installed in the GIS (the
“female part”). During the plug-in process, the
male part must be plugged in very carefully into
the female part to prevent scratches or damage at
the inside of the insulator and to prevent contact
grease from polluting the insulator surface.
114
Finished male part at a dry-type cable termination
7.1.3 Installation of joints
Introduction
In contrast to terminations, joints require a greater
variety of installation procedures. This is due to the
different technologies used for slip-on joint bodies
and the great variety of product types available.
When dealing with high voltage joints, the installa-
tion steps described here mainly involve the instal-
lation of single-piece slip-on elements.
General preparation before mounting
All parts of the joint and the necessary tools must
be on site. In addition, the installation location
should be clean and personnel safety ensured. As
different countries have different standards of
working security, local laws must be adhered to.
Before installation, a cable sheath insulation test
and a phase test has to be carried out. This ensures
that the cable has not been destroyed during ship-
ment or installation and that the right phases have
been installed.
Preparation of the cables
In a first step, the cables have to be placed, laid
down and cut. The cables need to be placed over-
lapping so that enough length is available for the
conductor connection. In general it is recommend-
ed to have a little extra overlapping length as this
facilitates the installation.
In a second step, the cables have to be straightened
and then fixed into its final position. To avoid any
forces at the insulation body, it is important that
the cable is straight inside the joint.
In order not to damage the cable surface after it has
been peeled off, all parts that are later required on
the joint, such as housings, should be positioned
on either side of the cable.
Cutting of a cable with a saw
Removing cable jacket and sheath
After bringing the cable into position, the cable
jacket and metallic sheath must be removed. The
manner in which this is done depends on the type
of metallic sheath present, which might be corru-
gated, laminated or made of lead.
For all types, the cable sheath must be removed on
both sides of the cable along the entire joint length.
A more detailed description of how cable jackets
and sheaths should be removed is given in the
terminations section in Section 7.1.2.
7. Installation and Operation
Cutting of a lead sheath
Overlapping cable length for installation of a joint and
starting to remove the cable jacket
Metallic screen treatment
To ensure that a proper electric connection be-
tween the metallic cable screen and the joint is
achieved, the cable screen should be tinned and
welded to each side of the cable joint. The welding
of corrugated and lead sheaths is usually not an
issue. Due to the limited amount of material, weld-
ing of laminated cable screens (especially laminat-
ed aluminium screens) is much more difficult and
hence requires more sophisticated installation
skills.
Prior to welding, the metallic screen and the bed-
ding tapes have to be removed right up to the
tinned area. If present, additional screen wires
must be bent back. However, aluminium screen
wires should not be bent back several times and
should be treated very carefully to avoid breakages.
115
Insulation cutting
The insulation should be removed with a straight
cut along the length of the conductor connection.
To avoid damage at the conductor, the insulation
should be cut until the inner semiconducting layer
of the cable has been reached. The final cut should
be carefully done manually by a jointer. As this
process is similar to that used for terminations,
more pictures are given in Section 7.1.2.
Cable end with properly cut insulation
Heating and insulation pushback
During the extrusion process of the cable, the mol-
ecules of the cross-linked polyethylene are pre-
orientated in one direction. Once the cable is heat-
ed, such as during current flow, the orientated
molecules relax and the insulation shrinks back.
Back shrinking of the insulation can be very harm-
ful to the joint. If the insulation shrinks back and no
longer covers the area of the middle electrode of
the insulation body, the joint will fail. Because of
this, the shrinking process must be kept to a mini-
mum. This can be achieved by heating the polyeth-
ylene insulation and – in contrast to standard ter-
minations – pushing back the polyethylene insula-
tion. The pushback tool needs to be installed before
mounting the heating system on both cable ends.
By heating the insulation for up to 6 to 12 hours at
80°C, the main shrink-back of the insulation can be
achieved. To heat the insulation, heating tubes or
heating mats are typically used. In order not to
waste too much time during the installation pro-
cess, the heating is typically done overnight.
After heating, the warm cable should be laid on a
frame (or angle) to straighten it. The cable is left in
116
this position until ambient temperature has been
reached. This process ensures that the cable re-
mains straight.
Heating tubes and pushback devices as used at instal-
lation of cable joints
Removing semiconducting layer and prepara-
tion of insulation
To enable insulation properties of the joint to come
into effect, the outer semiconducting layer on both
sides of the cable must be removed. Depending on
the number of joints being installed, this process
can be done by hand or by means of machine-
peeling. As this process is similar to that used for
terminations, more information are given in Sec-
tion 7.1.2.
In contrast to terminations, the insulation body co-
vers the whole length of the peeled cable surface.
Because of this, the whole surface of the cable in-
sulation must be extremely clean and smooth.
After the semiconducting layer has been peeled off,
sanding must be done. This is done in several
steps, first by machine and then by hand. The sand-
ing is done with sand paper of different grading,
moving from rough to fine. In order not to get sem-
iconducting parts into the insulation, the direction
of sanding should be towards the semiconducting
layer. It should be stressed that no semiconducting
parts or particles are allowed in the region of the
insulation. After sanding, the cable surface is
cleaned using a special cleaning agent.
For a very smooth insulation surface, the insulation
should undergo a final heating in the sanded area.
The heating is done with a hot air gun up to 600 °C.
An open flame should on no account be placed
next to the polyethylene insulation.
Heating insulation surface with a hot air gun and view
of the smooth region at the end of the semiconducting
layer
Positioning of insulation body at the parking
position
Before the conductor is connected, the insulation
body must be slipped onto the cable. In the case of
one-piece slip-on elements, whether silicone rub-
ber or EPDM, the insulation body is placed onto a
“parking position” on the cable. For cold-shrink in-
sulation bodies, the insulation bodies are placed on
the outer sheath at one side of the cable. Three-
piece slip-on elements need to be slipped onto
both cable sides.
To slip the insulation body onto the parking posi-
tion, both the cable surface and the inner side of
the insulation body need to be greased. Only spe-
cial insulation grease which do not affect the mate-
rial of the stress cone or the semiconducting cable
layer should be used.
The slip-on process using mechanical insulation
tools carries two possible risks: the surface of the
cable insulation may be damaged and, due to the
considerable amount of force needed, the inner
surface of the insulation body may get damaged by
friction during the slip-on process.
7. Installation and Operation
Preparing insulation body for installation with gas
cushion method
Sliding on insulation body for installation with gas
cushion method
Joint body and mechanical protection of the joint
(black coated copper tube in the background) in park-
ing position before finishing the conductor connection
The “gas cushion” installation method, in which
the insulation body is moved on a gas cushion be-
tween the insulation body and the cable insulation,
117
limits the risk of damaging the cable or insulation
body surfaces. This method requires a special
adapter for the insulation body. The gas used can
be nitrogen or dry air, whichever is most readily
available on site.
Conductor connection
The conductor connection between the two cables
is an electrical contact. Consequently it has a cer-
tain contact resistance. In order to limit electric
losses and avoid unnecessary high temperatures in
the joint, a good conductor connection with a low
conductor resistance has to be made.
If present, all tapes between the conductor seg-
ments and each single conductor layer inside the
conductor must be removed. If swelling powder is
inside the conductor, this should be carefully re-
moved by knocking with a hammer. If present, any
varnish on enamelled wires must also be removed.
Although time consuming and costly, the varnish
must be removed along the entire length of the
conductor connection at each single wire. This can
be done by single stranding or sand blasting.
Three methods are applied for the conductor con-
nection of joints: pressing, screwing or welding.
If pressing is applied, the elongation of the conduc-
tor should be considered after crimping. In addition
to this, special crimping tools are needed for instal-
lation. With specially designed compression con-
nectors, different conductor cross-sections can be
connected. The gap between the pressed connec-
tion and the surface of the insulation must be cov-
ered by supporting tubes.
For screwed connections with breakaway screws,
the connection does not suffer from an elongation
of the conductor. Only a screw wrench is needed
for this connection method.
Welding is seldom used for cable connections. The
risk of damaging the cable with hot welding prod-
ucts and the amount of effort and tools needed
makes it less suitable. More details on the different
connections are given in Chapter 5. All conductor
connections need a smooth and clean surface
without any scratches, edges or small pieces in or-
der not to damage the inner surface of the insula-
tion body when slipped over into its final position.
118
Screwed conductor connector (with insulation body in
parking position)
Clean surface of the shelves at a pressed conductor
connection after its installation
Final positioning of the insulation body
After connecting the conductor, the insulation body
is put into its final position. For the slip-on process,
the connector and insulator need to be greased
again. To ensure that a proper electric field control
is achieved, the middle electrode of the insulation
body must be placed exactly over the conductor
connection with its deflector ends at the end of the
semiconducting layer on each side of the cable.
In order not to allow the slip-on insulation body to
settle too much onto the cable surface, thus requir-
ing higher friction forces when to be moved, the
movement of the insulation body to its final posi-
tion should be done within 1 h after placing it in the
parking position.
Applying grease before moving the insulating body
into its final position
Final position of the insulation body
Cable screen connection and bonding
The outer metallic cable screens on each side of the
cable must be connected to the joint. This can be
done with:
- Straight-through connection
- Straight-through connection and an earthing
link
- Cross-bonding of the cable screens
How the cable screens are connected is determined
by the earthing scheme of the cable system. Fur-
ther information is given in Section 7.2.
For joints with straight-through connected cable
screens, the semiconducting layer and the cable
screens from both sides of the cable have to be
connected. The outer semiconductive layer of the
insulation body must be connected on both sides
with the cable screens.
7. Installation and Operation
For joints with direct earthing of the cable screen,
the method of connection is the same as that of
straight-through connections. In addition, the con-
nections are linked to the system earth, which is
normally done at an earth-linking box.
For joints with cross-bonded cable screens, only
the semiconducting layer and the screen on one
cable side need to be connected to the insulation
body. The cross-bonding link is realised with spe-
cial cross-bonding cables. In most cases, concentric
cables are used, whereby the inner conductor has
the same cross-section as that of the outer wires
and both are insulated to each other. The cross-
section of the cross-bonding cable must not be less
than the cross-section of the screen of the high
voltage cable. The inner diameter of the cross-
bonding cable is connected to one side of the ca-
ble, the outer wires are connected to the other side.
The cross-bonding itself is realised in special cross-
bonding boxes. More information on possible
types of cross-bonding and earthing boxes is given
in Section 6.3.
For cable sheath protection, the use of surge volt-
age limiters is sometimes necessary. Such limiters
can be used inside the cross-bonding box. More
information is given in Section 6.2.
Cross-bonding cables (green cables) at installed joints
Realising moisture and mechanical protection
of the joint
After having placed the insulation body into its final
position, the mechanical and moisture protection of
the joint needs to be made. Since many types of
mechanical and moisture protection are available
on the market, these final steps can differ consider-
119
ably. Different types of mechanical and moisture
protections are:
- Heat shrink cover with or without metal sheet
- Copper tube with polymer coating
- Steel tube with polymer coating
- Metal sheet, copper tube or steel tube with ad-
ditional polyester protection box
Common to all types of protection is the fact that if
present, the metal cover (metal sheets, copper or
steel tubes) must be fixed to the outer screen of the
cable. To ensure that the connection is moisture-
tight, soldering should be used.
In many types of joints, a polyester protection box
is used, which is additionally filled with an insulat-
ing compound. This compound usually consists of
two components. Depending on type and manufac-
turer, the two components must be mixed in a cer-
tain ratio within a certain time with special mixing
tools. The performance of the compound is deter-
mined by the mixing process and must be done
exactly as described in the mixing-procedure or in-
stallation instructions. When filling-in the com-
pound the area of the polyester protection box
around the joint must be tightly sealed, so that no
compound can flow out. In addition, it must be en-
sured that the insulation compound fills the whole
volume of the polyester protection box.
Fixing of the joint
For directly buried joints, a secure and sturdy un-
derlying base is required. Joints directly buried in
earth should be backfilled carefully with sand. To
avoid unnecessary mechanical loads, dumping of
sand directly onto the joint should be avoided. If
the joint is installed inside a manhole, tunnel or cel-
lar, the joint must be fixed on both sides with cable
clamps.
More information on the application of cable
clamps is given in Section 6.1.
120
sheath must be sufficiently connected to the earth-
ing system.

7.2.2 Induced voltages at cable

screen

When laying out a cable system and selecting

surge voltage limiters, knowledge of the range of
the induced voltage during normal conditions and
during failures is essential.

Installed and fixed cable joints with copper tube in a The induced voltage within a cable screen general-
concrete tunnel ly depends on:

- The mutual inductance between core and

sheath

- The conductor current

- The length of the cable

The mutual inductivity LM between core and sheath

depends on the:

- Mean sheath diameter

- Axial spacing between the different phases

- Type of laying of cables, these being trefoil or

flat laying

Installed and fixed cable joints with polyester protec- - Assumed conditions in the system (normal op-
tion box in a concrete base in soil erating, one-pole short-circuit, three-pole short-
circuit)

The induced voltage and the appropriate earthing

solution, including additional devices (such as
7.2 Earthing sheath voltage limiters or earthing connections) are
usually given by the cable manufacturer.
7.2.1 Background of earthing
Depending on the calculations of the induced volt-
As described in Chapter 4, high voltage cables have age, several different types of earthing or bonding
an outer conductor screen. This conducts the earth systems can be applied.
fault current in case of a short circuit, returning the
capacitive charging current, limiting the radial elec-
trostatic field and shielding the electromagnetic
field. 7.2.3 Principles of earthing systems
Due to electromagnetic induction, a voltage is in- Both-end bonding
duced in the outer conductor and metallic screen,
For both-end bonding, both ends of the cable
thus depending on the operating or short-circuit
screen are connected to the ground. The advantage
current. In order to handle all induced voltages and
of this method is that no standing voltages occur at
to guarantee a good earth connection during a
the cable ends, making it the most secure as far as
short circuit, the outer conductor and the metallic
safety is concerned.
7. Installation and Operation 121
The disadvantage is that circulating currents may
Termination Termination
flow inside the screen as the loop between the two
earthing points is closed through the ground. As
these circulating currents can be as high as the
conductor current itself, they can reduce the cable
ampacity significantly. SVL

The losses incurred by both-end bonding means

that it is the most disadvantageous earthing system

Induced voltage
method as far as economic issues are concerned. It
is therefore only applied in selected cases and for
very short distances and medium voltage systems.

Distance along the cable sheath

Single-end bonding

Joint bonding
Joint bonding is applied to cable systems with one
joint in the middle of the system. Here, the cable
screen is connected in the joint by means of a
straight through version with a grounding connec-
tion, which is directly connected to the earth.

Both-end bonding Termination Termination

Joint

Single-end bonding
Groun- SVL
For single-end bonding, only one end of the cable ding box
screen is connected to the earth while the other
end is left floating. The induced voltage increases
Induced voltage

linearly along the whole cable length and at the

“open end” a standing voltage occurs. The open
end should be protected with a sheath voltage lim-
iter (SVL). This diminishes the chance of overvolt-
Distance along the cable sheath
ages occurring inside the cable screen, protects the
cable system and ensures that relevant safety re- Joint bonding

quirements are upheld. More information on the

selection of the SVL is given in Section 6.2.
The advantage of single-end bonding is that losses
caused by circulating currents cannot occur. An-
other advantage is that one end is firmly grounded.
The disadvantage of single-end bonding is the
voltage which occurs at one end of the termination.
This method is typically used for high voltage sys-
tems with a length of up to 1 km.
The advantage of joint bonding is that losses
caused by circulating currents cannot occur. The
disadvantage of joint bonding is the voltage that
occurs at the terminations. The “open end” should
be protected with an SVL. This diminishes the
chance of overvoltages occurring inside the cable
screen, protects the cable system and ensures that
relevant safety requirements are upheld.
122
Joint bonding is used for cable systems with one long route lengths can consist of several cross-
joint up to a length of approximately 2 km. bonding systems in a row.

Cross-bonding Termination Termination

Cross-bonding is used for long cable segments Joint

with many joints. The cross-bonding system con-

Groun-
sists of three sections, each followed by a cyclic ding box Cross-
bonding

Induced voltage
box with
sheath crossing. At the terminations, the earthing SVL
must be solidly bonded to the ground. In an ideal
cross-bonding system, the three sections are of
equal length. Distance along the cable sheath

The advantage of cross-bonding is the absence of
residual voltages at the end of the three sections.
With no driving voltages, the sheath currents and
therefore the losses in the system are zero. In reali-
ty, some minor differences between each section
and a low current-flow in the sheath do actually
cause some losses. However, with a good cross-
bonding system, the sheath losses can be kept very
low. Another advantage of regular cross-bonding is
that at the grounded terminations the voltage is ze-
ro.
Termination Termination
Joint
Cross-
bonding
box with
Induced voltage
Cross-bonding system for longer distances
7.2.4 Earthing of terminations
As shown above, different layouts of cable systems
require different grounding layouts of the termina-
tions. Because of this, terminations are normally
insulated to ground. The different grounding
mechanisms, such as direct grounding, grounding
via SVL or insulated design, are realised at the ter-
mination itself when being installed.
The insulator of the termination is connected to the
base plate. The base plate is mounted on the me-
chanical support of the termination (that is normal-
ly on the ground) via small insulators. Between the
baseplate of the termination and the support, the
different earthing schemes can be realised by dif-
ferent devices, such as an SVL or earthing clamps.

SVL

Distance along the cable sheath

Cross-bonding system

The disadvantages of cross-bonding are the in-

creased amount of additional equipment needed
(cross-bonding boxes and cross-bonding cables)
and the fact that in reality three sections of equal Direct earthing of GIS terminations with earthing
length cannot always be realised. clamps
Cross-bonding is the most typical means of
grounding for high voltage cable systems. Very
7. Installation and Operation 123
At cross-bonding joints, the cable screens are sepa-
rated and connected to the cross-bonding box.
Since this is easy to realise and cost effective, coax-
ial cables are typically used for cross-bonding ca-
bles. The cross-bonding of the system is then real-
ised inside a cross-bonding box.
More information about the different protection
levels and further aspects of cross-bonding and
earth-link boxes is given in Section 6.3.

SVL between the termination base plate and the outer

sheath of the cable

Cross-bonding box with coaxial cable links and SVL

(red-blue-yellow partial discharge sensor in the centre
of the picture is not part of the earthing system)

Grounding box and grounding cables for direct earth-

ing at terminations (mounted in the central phase)

7.3 Operation
7.3.1 Terminations in non-vertical
7.2.5 Earthing of joints
position
To realise all the various bonding possibilities as
described above, three types of joints must be Terminations typically operate in a vertical direc-

available: tion. Terminations can however be mounted in

other positions. Particularly transformer or GIS
- Straight-through connected joints
terminations are often mounted in a variety of posi-
- Straight-through connected joints with direct tions, such as horizontally. If required, outdoor
earthing terminations can also be mounted in non-vertical
- Cross-bonding joints directions.
For non-vertical mounting, both insulation filling

At straight-through connected joints, both cable types, SF6 and silicone oil, can be used. If silicone

screens are connected inside the joint itself. oil is used, an additional expansion tank is required
for each termination at an installation degree of
For straight-through connected joints with a
equal or more than 45° (this is a general rule of
grounding link, both cable screens are connected to
Brugg Cables, different accessory suppliers may
each other and to an earthing cable. The earthing
adhere to other rules).
of the joint is then realised in an earth-link box.
124
However, no matter what the position of the termi-
nation, the stability of its location, such as a ceiling
for upside-down installation, must be guaranteed.
Expansion tanks in horizontally installed GIS termina-
tions
Termination in diagonal position
Termination in upside-down position
7.3.2 Terminations on high voltage
towers
All outdoor terminations can also be installed on
high voltage towers. This takes, however, a little
more effort for the installation and especially for
safety measures of the installation personnel. In
addition, the weight of the terminations must be
considered. Therefore, outdoor terminations with
composite insulators or terminations with insula-
tors without silicone oil (so called non self-carrying
or dry-type insulators) are most frequently applied
for this purpose.
Installation of terminations on a high voltage tower
Outdoor terminations with composite insulators on a
high voltage tower
7.3.3 Wind load for terminations
In some cases, the issue of wind load on termina-
tions may be of relevance for the cable system.
7. Installation and Operation
Any force caused by wind which affects a body is
influenced by the air density, wind speed, the
cross-sectional area (shaded area) of the object, as
well as the resistance coefficient of the body. In
general, this can be calculated as follows:
125
a cable system. This may be particularly relevant
for regions where the possibility of higher earth-
quake values occur.
Since terminations are exposed, the analysis of the
seismic resistivity mainly focuses on calculations of
the termination structure. The calculation of the

1 seismic resistance is achieved with the aid of mod-

𝐹= 𝜌 ∙ 𝑐 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝑣! (Eq. 7-1) ern Finite Element simulation tools. In the calcula-
2
tion, several cable system related factors are con-
sidered, such as the cable weight, the weight of the
In which:
terminations, the fixing of the cable and termina-
F: Force on the termination
tions, cantilever forces of the termination and
ρ: Air density more. In addition, external influencing forces are
taken into account, such as seismic accelerations.
c: Air drag coefficient
By considering all the influencing forces, the simu-
A: Cross-sectional area of the body exposed lation of seismic load gives the distribution of forc-
to the wind load es on the steel structure, which can then be com-

v: Wind speed pared to the steel structure resistance. The compar-

ison of these values determines the safety factor of
the structure.
Whereas the cross-sectional area and the air drag
coefficient are determined by the specific form of
the object (the termination), the anticipated wind
speed is naturally determined by the location of the
assembled system. Wind zone maps are particular-
ly useful for the calculation of the anticipated wind
speeds of specific locations. These provide tables
of various zones showing the strength of wind
speeds together with their corresponding velocity
pressure (force per area).
When calculating the exerted force on a specific ob-
ject, the form of the object must be considered. The
influence of the form upon the calculation is ex-
pressed by the air drag resistance coefficient c. If
the dimensionless value is low, then the force of
the wind upon the object of a given cross-section is
also low (and vice versa).
Simulation result of seismic load for a steel structure
As the exact calculation of the air drag coefficient
of cable terminations (Picture: AK Technology AG)
can only be determined by relatively complex
methods of measurements within a wind tunnel,
Once all the cable-related and external data has
the calculation for terminations can be done by as-
been put into the simulation tool, additional forces,
suming the air drag coefficient of cylinders (c = 0.8).
such as forces during normal operation or during
short-circuits, gravity forces or forces during ther-
mal expansion of the cable, can also be calculated
7.3.4 Seismic calculations easily.

In some cases, it can be of interest or even neces-

sary to consider the seismic withstanding ability of
8. Measurements, Monitoring and Diagnostics 127

Chapter 8

Measurements,
Monitoring
and Diagnostics
128
8. Measurements, Monitoring and Diagnostics
8.1 Introduction and basic
definitions
8.1.1 Introduction
Measurements of cable systems, together with
their associated diagnostics and monitoring, have
been in increasing demand over the last years.
Three factors were particularly influential in this
development: the increasing popularity of low-cost
products, the increasing quality of measurement,
monitoring and diagnostics equipment and the age
of the equipment still in service.
While the focus on quality and reliability of the
primary system was a key issue in the past, recent
years have seen a shift towards the wish for meas-
urements, diagnostics or monitoring of cable sys-
tems due to a variety of problems occurring around
low-cost cables or accessories. Since the meas-
urement and monitoring of equipment is, in itself,
costly and the personnel that operate those sys-
tems too, it is questioned by the authors whether
saving by means of low-quality primary equipment
and monitoring solutions of any kind is advisable.
However, monitoring equipment has become more
reliable in recent years and increased knowledge
concerning the use of the measured data is now
available. This makes the application of monitoring
and diagnostic equipment as part of an overall as-
set management particularly attractive, especially
for assets of strategic importance.
In addition, the use of monitoring and diagnostics
can help to survey the system in order to extend
lifetime and operate the system close to its limits –
solutions that undoubtedly make sense. In the case
of cable systems, this might be the diagnostic of oil
in a termination that has been in operation for dec-
ades or temperature monitoring of highly loaded
cables.
The decision to use measurements, monitoring and
diagnostic tools is not as clear as engineers would
like it to be. This chapter aims to lift some of the
fog on this topic with the intention of revealing the
possibilities and limitations of the various devices
and strategies that are currently available for HV
cable systems. It is intended to help the end-user to
make a decision on how best to apply these
measures for the benefit of his cable system.
129
8.1.2 Basic definitions
Discussions on cable systems often vary in their
use of key terms. This can be observed in the man-
ner in which “measurements”, “monitoring” and
“diagnostics” are used, as well as certain terms
within these fields, such as “offline” and “online”.
To prevent confusion, the following section clarifies
the meaning of these terms as applied here.
Measurements
Measurements determine the state of a (physical)
system at a certain moment of time under certain
conditions. They deliver snapshot information
about the system.
In the case of cable systems, an example might be
a partial discharge (PD) measurement during an
after installation test. The snapshot covers the pe-
riod in which the after installation test is being car-
ried out. The conditions represent the voltage and
temperature level during the test.
Monitoring
Monitoring is the continual determination of the
condition of a (physical) system. The main differ-
ence to measurements is that monitoring involves
constant surveyance over a prolonged period of
time and, thus, provides very different insights into
the condition of the system.
In the case of cable systems, an example is the dis-
tributed temperature sensing (DTS), in which the
temperature of the cable is surveyed (monitored)
continuously.
Diagnostics
Diagnostics determine the state of the (physical)
system with respect to its past. In addition, diag-
nostics may estimate future behaviour. The mini-
mum requirement for diagnostics is at least one
measurement. An estimation of the future behav-
iour of the system is made with the aid of certain
information sources, such as the results of different
measurements, knowledge gathered on the history
of the system, applications of existing evaluation
schemes and experiences of experts.
In the case of cable systems, this might be a diag-
nosis of silicone oil in a termination. The basis
130
measurement could be a gas-in-oil analysis and a
determination of the moisture content. Together
with the experiences of the experts, the behaviour
of the system could be identified as good or bad
and the indication could be given whether oil must
be replaced or not.
Offline
When measurements or monitoring actions are
done during a period in which the system is out of
service conditions, they are called “offline”. Out of
service does not necessarily mean that the system
is not under voltage. Offline measurements can be
PD measurements at an elevated voltage during a
service break of the system.
Most of the diagnostic measures are done offline.
Online
When measurements or monitoring actions are
done during a period in which the system is in ser-
vice conditions, they are called “online”. Most of
the monitoring systems work online. Examples of
this are online temperature measurements or mon-
itoring of the cable system.
Typical measurements, monitoring and
diagnostics for cable systems
For high voltage polymer cable systems, meas-
urements, monitoring and diagnostics are mainly
used for:
- Measurements (or monitoring) of PD for high
voltage cables and accessories
- Infrared temperature measurements (or moni-
toring) of terminations
- Temperature monitoring of cable systems,
mostly made as online monitoring
- Moisture monitoring of cables
- Leakage and pressure monitoring of oil or SF6
pressure for terminations
- Diagnostics of silicone oil in high voltage ter-
minations
8.2 Possible PD phenomena
in high voltage cables,
terminations or joints
A general look at PD phenomena
Partial discharges (PD) are “… localised electrical
discharges that only partially bridge the insulation
between conductors and which can or cannot occur
adjacent to a conductor.” [IEC 60270].
PD usually begins in voids, cracks, or inclusions
within a solid dielectric, at conductor-dielectric in-
terfaces, along the boundary between different in-
sulating materials or in bubbles within liquid die-
lectrics. Since discharges are limited breakdowns in
only a portion of the insulation, they are called par-
tial breakdowns or even partial discharges. In all
cases, PD only partially bridges the distance be-
tween electrodes.
External PD are discharges to the surrounding air,
the so-called “corona” discharges.
Internal PD are discharges in a closed (mostly) solid
or fluid insulation system.
The reason why PD in an insulating material usual-
ly occurs in gas-filled voids within the dielectric is
because the dielectric constant of the void is less
than the surrounding dielectric. Here, the electric
field appearing across the void is significantly
higher than across an equivalent distance of the
dielectric. If the voltage stress across the void is in-
creased above that of the inception voltage for the
gas within the void, then PD activity will start. A
calculation example of that effect is given in Exam-
ple 1-3. Once begun, PD causes progressive deteri-
oration of insulating materials, ultimately leading
to electric breakdown.
Possible PD occurrences in cables
In cables, only internal PD may occur. Since inter-
nal PD are related to gas-filled voids, PD in a cable
can occur when there are voids in the polymeric
insulation material itself or at the interfaces semi-
conducting layer – polymeric insulation material.
Additional PD may occur at inclusions of different
material in the XPLE insulation. At such inclusions,
elevated electric field strength values can occur,
thus causing electrical tree growth together with
PD in the tree channels (which are gas-filled voids).
8. Measurements, Monitoring and Diagnostics
Microvoids in
insulation
Voids at interface
outer semicon. layer
Voids at interface
inner semicon. layer
Inclusions of different
material in insulation
Possible PD sources in a cable
Possible PD occurrences in joints
In joints, only internal PD may occur. They may oc-
cur in void inclusions in the slip-on insulation body
or at the interface insulation body – cable surface.
Additionally, PD may occur at a gap between the
cable insulation and the conductor connection. This
can occur when the back shrinking of the cable
takes place and appropriate measures (during in-
stallation, such as pushing-back of the insulation)
have not been taken properly.
Voids at interface Voids in insu- Gaps at
insulation body - cable lation body cable insulation
Possible PD sources in a joint
Possible PD occurrences in terminations
At terminations, both internal and external PD may
occur in the following locations:
- In void inclusions in the stress cone (internal
PD)
- In gas-filled inclusions at the interface stress
cone – cable surface (internal PD)
- In gas bubbles in the silicone oil (internal PD)
- As creeping discharges due to loose contacts
at the conductor-screening electrode(s) (exter-
nal or internal PD)
- On the outside of the termination at the corona
shield or at the insulator itself (external PD)
131
Loose contact(s)
Scratched
corona shield
Bubbles in Si-oil
Voids at interface
stress cone - cable
Voids in
stress cone
Possible PD sources at a termination
Conventional and unconventional PD meas-
urements
In some of the publications around PD, the terms of
conventional and unconventional PD measure-
ments are used. Conventional PD detection mainly
refers to that according to IEC 60270. Any other
means of PD detection is mainly considered as an
unconventional PD measurement or detection.
More detailed information is given in [IEEE 444] or
[CIGRE D1.33.05]. This book focuses on what
measurements are best suited to cable systems, a
closer distinction between conventional and un-
conventional PD measurements is not made.
8.3 Measurements of PD
8.3.1 Introduction
PD measurements are an established method to
assess the majority of electric equipment in power
systems. For many insulation systems, PD meas-
urements are a useful tool for evaluating the quali-
ty of the insulation. Consequently, PD measure-
ments have become a mandatory part of routine
and type testing according to the relevant technical
standards for most high voltage assets [IEC 60840],
[IEC 62067].
The correct design of cable systems is checked in
type and prequalification tests and the production
132
quality of cables and accessories is checked in rou-
tine tests. However, on-site installation poses a po-
tential risk as far as defects are concerned. Small
particles, such as dust, humidity or other tiny traces
of substances, or minor damage to the insulation
surfaces may go undetected during the installation.
If occurring in critical locations of the high voltage
cable or accessories, they can cause defects, which
in turn can lead to severe insulation failures and a
reduction in lifetime of the cable system.
Despite final high voltage tests after installation,
the possibility of such deterioration occurring can-
not, although unlikely, be fully excluded. In re-
sponse to such difficulties, additional PD meas-
urements can be helpful. Although PD measure-
ments are typically used as additional measure-
ments during after installation tests, they can also
be conducted during operation.
PD measurements at terminations on site (HV source
and voltage divider is in the middle of the picture, PD
evaluation equipment is on the truck)
PD measurements at a joint cross-bonding box on site
during service of the system
8.3.2 Challenges of on-site PD
measurements
Experiences show that the highest numbers of all
defects caused during installation are related to ac-
cessories. As a result, particular focus has been
given to the technological development of reliable
and sensitive systems for measuring local PD activ-
ity in joints and terminations.
A PD inside a joint or termination is usually an ex-
tremely low-magnitude signal. Cable terminations
usually stand in an industrial environment, such as
power plants or substations with a harsh electrical
environment. A low measurement signal combined
with a harsh electrical environment with numerous
interfering signals and background noise results in
a poor signal to noise ratio and makes it extremely
challenging to carry out reliable PD measurements.
Any kind of measurement must be able to distin-
guish relevant (mostly internal) PD from external
interferences [Vogelsang 09], [Rethmeier 09-1],
[Weissenberg 07] [Weissenberg 04-2], [Lemke 06],
[IEEE 444], [CIGRE D1.33.05].
The manufacturers of PD equipment have respond-
ed to this by developing new and improved meas-
urement methods.
8.3.3 Measurement methods
PD pulse phenomena and relevant variables
A PD impulse has visual, acoustic and electromag-
netic manifestations. The detection of PD can there-
fore be detected by various visual, acoustic or elec-
tromagnetic measurements.
A PD pulse is a “… current or voltage pulse that re-
sults from a partial discharge occurring within the
object under test. The pulse is measured using
suitable detector circuits, which have been intro-
duced into the test circuit for the purpose of the
test” [IEC 60270].
≈ 10 µs
Voltage
Time
PD impulse according to IEC 60270
8. Measurements, Monitoring and Diagnostics 133
The “…apparent charge q of a PD pulse is that
charge which, if injected within a very short time
between the terminals of the test object in a speci-
fied test circuit, would give the same reading on
the measuring instrument as the PD current pulse
itself. The apparent charge is usually expressed as
Picocoulomb (pC)” [IEC 60270].
The pulse repetition rate n is the “… ratio be-
tween the total number of PD pulses recorded in a
selected time interval at the duration of this time
interval” [IEC 60270].
The pulse repetition frequency N is the “…
Optical discharges in air; top: at a sphere-plane ar-
number of partial discharge pulses per second, in
rangement; bottom: at an insulator under rain (Pic-
the case of equidistant pulses” [IEC 60270].
tures: TU Dresden – IEEH)

Optical PD detection
The PD is caused by collision of electrons. When
the electrons collide with atoms, light is emitted. A
low intensity of PD causes emission of light in the
ultraviolet (UV) range. As the PD increases, the
light turns into the visible range. Both can be de-
tected.
The visual detection of PD is mainly used as a UV
detection method in test laboratories to locate the
source of PD or as a means of conducting meas-
urements of connections at high voltage lines, coil
ends at high voltage rotating machines or other
equipment where external PD can occur. Example of PD at overhead lines measured with UV
method and graphical enhancement; red spots are the
graphic display of the physical PD (Picture: UViRCO
Technologies)

Recent improvements in the properties of optical

fibres and the according sensor electronics have
opened another possibility to detect PD by optical
means. Such detection requires transparent insula-
tion material that is applied in absolute darkness.
This might be the silicone oil and a transparent sili-
cone rubber of stress cones in terminations or
transparent silicone insulation bodies in joints. Alt-
hough the feasibility of such measurements has
been shown in principle, more research and devel-
opment work must be done to show the practicabil-
ity depending on the different materials available
on the market [Habel 11].
134
Acoustic detection
The colliding of electrons that causes a PD also
produces sound. This sound can also be detected.
The acoustic detection of PD is seldom used for
measurements in high voltage cable systems itself;
only in exceptional cases for the determination of
noises during different types of tests. Acoustic PD
detection is mainly used to locate corona with an
ultrasonic directional microphone [IEEE 444].
Standard PD measurements according to
IEC 60270 and IEC 60885-3
A measurement of PD with a coupling capacitor is
one of the longest standing traditions. In this
measurement, the capacitive current that flows by
recharging the PD source is measured with a cou-
pling capacitor. Since the amount of charge q is
measured, but not directly at the PD-source, it is
called “apparent charge” [IEC 60270].
This measurement method is often used in the la-
boratory or in applications with low noises.
Filter
Cable
capacitance Coupling
capacitor
Test
transformer
Coupling
quadrupole
PD
system
Shielded room
Principle of measurements according to IEC 60270
PD measurement on site with coupling capacitor (yel-
low part in the middle of the picture)
While IEC 60270 describes PD tests for high voltage
equipment in general, IEC 60885-3 specialises in PD
tests for cables. It contains similar information to
that described above [IEC 60885-3]. It is worth men-
tioning that IEC 60885-3 is currently under revision.
UHF measurements
One solution for measuring a low-value partial dis-
charge signal in an electrically noisy environment
is the measurement of PD at ultra high frequency
(UHF) [Rethmeier 09-1], [Weissenberg 07],
[IEEE 444].
PD measurements with UHF has been established
for decades. It originates from measurements of
gas insulated switchgears (GIS). A common defini-
tion of UHF is the measurements at a frequency
bandwidth of 300 MHz – 3 GHz. Measurements are
typically done at 0.2 – 1.5 GHz [Rethmeier 09-1],
[Rethmeier 09-2], [CGRE D1 33.05].
As mentioned before, each PD event is an electro-
magnetic signal. When travelling along the cable,
this signal is dampened and loses its high frequen-
cy parts. By measuring with ultra high frequency,
only the PD signals close to the place of measure-
ment are detected. Any other (unwanted) signals,
like background noise from the switchgear or the
overhead lines, are not registered during the
measurement.
Joint
Propagation of a PD signal on either side of a cable
Internal PD: Far PD:
Low attenuation Strong attenuation
Remote
Cable
PD signal
Internal PD
Area of PD signal
detection
Termination PD
Filter and measurement
UHF-Sensor converter system
Principle of UHF measurements at a termination
8. Measurements, Monitoring and Diagnostics 135
UHF PD measurements provide a good solution in
terms of costs and reliable results. They are there-
fore often applied for the measurements of PD in
cable systems, especially in terminations. However,
a highly skilled measurement personnel is neces-
sary for this kind of measurement as selecting the
appropriate frequency range for the PD signals is of
great importance.

Measurements with directional coupling

sensors
Application of a sensor for DCS measurements
The purpose of PD measurements with directional
coupling sensors (DCS) is (again) to realise a
measurement of low-magnitude PD in an electrical- The method of DCS measurements works very
ly noisy environment. DCS measurements take into well. However, as it requires a high number of sen-
account that PD mainly occurs in joints or termina- sors and expensive electronic equipment, it has
tions and that PD signals travel in each direction of rarely been realised on site. Today this method is
the cable and will be dampened along the distance mostly used in laboratories.
to the source [Vogelsang 09], [Lemke 06].

When placing sensors at either side of the joint and
measuring the intensity of the PD signal, the direc-
tion of travel of each PD event can be determined.
Signals that travel from only one direction are con-
sidered to come from the outside of the joint. Sig-
nals that can be determined to come from both di-
rections are considered as coming from inside the
joint. By applying suitable electronic means, the
direction of travel of the PD signals can be deter-
mined and, hence, it can be distinguished whether
the PD comes from inside the joint or from outside.
1 measurements. Since the measuring principle is
2 3
Joint
A B
Directional coupling
Inductive measurements
As each PD impulse is an electromagnetic signal
that propagates in all directions, it also travels
along either side of the high voltage cable and
along either side of the earthing connections.
The signal at the earthing connections can be
measured with an electromagnetic sensor. If the
sensor is sensitive enough, low-magnitude PD sig-
nals can also be detected [Rethmeier 05], [Weis-
senberg 04-2]. Therefore, the ground conductor,
which is used for cross-bonding of a joint and
earthing of a joint or termination, is used for such
based on inductive coupling in a current trans-
former, it is called “inductive” measurement.
C D
Directional coupling

1 2 3
Signal at coupling output A A A
A B C D B B B
PD joint - X X - C C C
D
Noise left cables X - X - D D
Noise right cables - X - X t t t

Principle of signal evaluation during DCS measure-

ments at a joint [Vogelsang 09], [Lemke 06]

Inductive measurements at a cross-bonding box of a

cable joint (sensor as blue-red-yellow coloured device)
136
8.3.4 Sensor types established for
on-site measurements
Recommended sensors for terminations

UHF PD measurements have established them-

selves as the standard for PD measurements for
terminations on site [Avila 10], [Rethmeier 09-1],
[Weissenberg 07], [Lemke 06].

This is a useful reliable method as measurements

with low interfering signal deterioration can be
made. Another advantage of measuring with UHF
sensors is that they can easily be applied after the
Inductive measurements at earthing connection at a cable system has been installed. This provides the
termination (sensor as blue-red-yellow device)
customer with considerable flexibility as far as ad-
ditional UHF PD measurements on the terminations
Since inductive sensors are relatively cost effective are concerned.
and the measurement of three joints in one cross-
bonding box is possible, this method has now be-
come increasingly popular for on-site PD meas-
urements of joints.

Capacitive-inductive measurements
PD events in a joint insulation cause capacitive re-
charging currents. As such currents can be detect-
ed with a small inductive sensor, this method of
measuring is called “capacitive-inductive” meas- UHF sensor at a termination
urement.
Particularly for joints, capacitive-inductive meas-
urements provide extremely reliable PD detection
results. However, since the joint must be addition-
ally equipped with sensors, resulting in an increase
in effort and costs, this method is rarely used.

PDM
System

Mounting of a UHF sensor at a termination

A disadvantage of UHF measurements is that they

Principle of capacitive-inductive PD measurements in
a joint
require somewhat more equipment than that need-
ed for standard HF/VHF (high frequency/very high
frequency) measurements. In addition, a direct
comparison of the measured data of UHF meas-
urements to those of HF/VHF measurements is
hardly possible. As an example, for most of the PD
measurements, such as for standardised PD meas-
urements according to IEC 60270 / IEC 60885-3, the
8. Measurements, Monitoring and Diagnostics
PD magnitude is given in pC. For UHF measure-
ments, the determination of PD in pC is not possi-
ble; UHF-PD values are mostly given in mV
[IEEE 444]. A second example is that for standard
PD measurements, a calibration of the devices is
necessary. For measurements with UHF sensors, a
calibration is not possible, only a so-called “check
of performance” can be carried out [IEEE 444].
For these reasons, additional HF/VHF measure-
ments in some applications are expected to remain
in use.
Since the trending of PD is of no great importance
for cables and terminations and the main ad-
vantage of the UHF measurements (the extremely
good signal to noise ratio) is highly relevant for
measurements at cable systems, the use of UHF PD
measurements is expected to become increasingly
popular, especially for terminations of high voltage
cable systems.
PD pattern of noise at a termination, measured with a
UHF sensor at 220 MHz (top), 520 MHz (middle) and
820 MHz (bottom)
137
Recommended sensors for joints
In the case of PD measurements for joints, two
main methods have been established. One method
focuses on achieving an exact measurement for
each joint; the other on finding an optimum eco-
nomic solution for the measurement process.
As mentioned before, PD measurements with an
integrated sensor provide a good and exact detec-
tion of potential PD. Hence, the capacitive-inductive
measurement principle is used. The sensor is di-
rectly integrated into the joint. Because of this, cus-
tomers requiring this type of measurement must
specify their choice before the joints are manufac-
tured.
PD measurements using sensors in the cross-
bonding box provide the customer with an eco-
nomic alternative to the method with integrated
sensors. This method offers several advantages.
The PD can be measured at a sufficiently high reso-
lution and only one sensor per joint-bay is re-
quired, thus making the system much less expen-
sive. In addition to this, the sensor can be applied
after the installation of the cable system.
The disadvantage of one sensor per joint bay is
that the PD signal, once present, cannot be related
to the phase of origin. This can be avoided by in-
stalling three sensors in the cross-bonding box.
Practical experiences show that inductive PD
measurements in the cross-bonding box are very
reliable [Weissenberg 04-2].
Inductive PD measurements at site with one sensor
138

PD pattern of internal discharges in a prefabricated

EPR joint (Picture: Power Diagnostix)

Inductive PD measurements at site with three sensors

(Picture: OMICRON)

Recommended sensors for cables

Since cables are tested in a final routine test and

damage during laying is assessed by a sheath test,
PD measurements for cables are rarely required. PD pattern of several flat cavities in silicone fat due to
However, if requested, the PD in a cable can be improper mounting (Picture: Power Diagnostix)
measured with inductive sensors applied at the
termination and/or joint.

8.3.5 PD pattern recognition

The display of the PD events (failures as well as

noise in high voltage systems) over the time inter-
val of the line frequency can be viewed as so-called
PD pattern of discharges in a wrapped XLPE joint
“PD patterns”.
(Picture: Power Diagnostix)
The physical underlying principle of such patterns
is the expansion of electrons during a PD event that
differs according to each different type of failure or
noise. For example, surface discharge will cause
the electrons to spread in a wide way, whilst the
occurrence of a round bubble in a polymer will
produce a different type of electron spreading. The
different types of electron discharging cause differ-
ent PD signals, hence different PD pattern.

Decades of experiences and measurements have

provided a good base of knowledge for relating dif- PD pattern of contact problems of the field control of a
ferent PD patterns to different failure types [Pdix wrapped mass impregnated termination (Picture:
08]. Power Diagnostix)
8. Measurements, Monitoring and Diagnostics 139
Terminations
UHF X-bonding box with
PD sensors Joints inductive PD sensors

1 x PDM 1 x PDM 1 x PDM

3 x PDM 3 x PDM

PD measurement device
PDM Measurement
Server / System PC

PD pattern of small voids in the insulation at the inter- PD measurement system with sensors in the joint
face of a semiconductive layer during a laboratory cross-bonding box
setup (Picture: Power Diagnostix)

Terminations
UHF Integrated
PD sensors PD sensors Joints

3 x PDM 3 x PDM 3 x PDM 3 x PDM 3 x PDM

PD measurement device
PD Measurement
Server / System PC

PD measurement system with sensors in the joint

As mentioned before, both types of PD measure-

PD pattern of delamination of the outer semi-
ments have their advantages. The former is particu-
conductive layer of a prefabricated EPR joint (Picture:
larly beneficial for those requiring a wide variety of
Power Diagnostix)
detailed results. The latter provides an economic
solution as it enables an appropriately detailed PD
detection to be achieved, whilst still limiting costs.
In both cases, measurements at terminations are
mostly done with UHF sensors.

Applications for PD monitoring systems

PD monitoring systems are usually applied for

long-term assessments of systems. This requires
PD pattern of a floating potential (Picture: HPS Berlin)
durable measuring equipment [Avila 10].

Terminations

8.3.6 PD measurement and UHF

PD sensors
Integrated
PD sensors Joints

monitoring system design

Applications for PD measurement systems

3 x PDM 3 x PDM 3 x PDM 3 x PDM 3 x PDM
PD measurements provide a snapshot assessment
PD measurement device
of the state of a system and are usually carried out PD Monitoring
Server / System PC Client control tool

parallel to the after installation test. Customers

choose between two recommended PD measure-
PD monitoring system with sensors in the joint
ment types. The first measures by placing a sensor
within each joint; whilst the second measures by
placing a sensor in each joint bay in the cross-
bonding box.
140
Variety of system solutions

For the customer, it is often difficult to decide

whether PD measurements are necessary or not,
especially because of the costs of PD systems,
which can be considerable. To provide the custom-
ers with an economic solution for measuring PD,
modern companies provide innovative solutions in
which PD systems, or parts of it, can be bought or
rented. Renting can be particularly practical, allow-
ing the customer to choose a part-time solution,
which makes the whole system more cost effective.
PD monitoring system at terminations
A practical recommendation for the application of
the different sensors and system solutions for PD
measurements and monitoring is given in the table
below.

Electronics of the PD monitoring system close to the

terminations

Recommended application of sensors for PD measurement and monitoring

Type and location of PD sensor Signal to Costs Construction Can be applied Recommended application
noise ratio effort after installation
PD measurements with UHF sensors For after installation tests, continuous
Very good Medium Low Yes
for terminations measurements and monitoring
PD measurements with UHF sensors Very good Medium Medium Yes For after installation tests, continuous
in cross-bonding box measurements and monitoring
PD measurements with integrated Very good Medium High No For continuous measurements and
PD sensors in joints monitoring
PD measurements with inductive Good Low Low Yes For after installation tests, continuous
sensors in cross-bonding box measurements and monitoring

Systems for PD measurement and monitoring solutions

PD measurements Costs Availability time of Effort to Recommended application by considering

measurements customer measurement accuracy and costs

PD measurements with PD equip- Low Short Low For after installation tests
ment and sensors rented
PD measurements with PD equip- For after installation tests and sporadic
Low Medium Low
ment rented and sensors purchased measurements (e.g. 0.5x/a)
PD measurements with PD equip- For after installation tests and sporadic
ment and sensors purchased Medium Long Medium measurements (e.g. 1x/a)
PD monitoring

PD monitoring with equipment For after installation tests and a limited time
rented Medium Short Medium after (e.g. 2 weeks)
PD monitoring with equipment High Long High For monitoring over a long period for cable
purchased systems of particular importance
8. Measurements, Monitoring and Diagnostics 141

8.4 Temperature measure- tered light one can determine the location of the
scattering, which means the location, where the
ments and monitoring of temperature has changed.

cables

Spectral position
8.4.1 Basics at
He
Solid structure
of quartz glass
Raman scattering Light wave

The temperature in high voltage cables is meas-

ured with special optical fibres. Such measure- Laser light

ments are based on the effect of Raman scattering. Stoke

The optical waveguides (fibres) are made of doped
Antistoke
quartz glass, a SiO2 molecule bond. The incoming
laser light (photons) interacts with electrons of the Wavelength

molecules. Besides the elastic scattering (no Principle of Raman scattering

change of the wavelength of the scattered light)
there exists also the inelastic scattering, the so-
Measurement setup
called “Raman scattering”. The energy of the ine-
lastic scattered light differs from the incoming laser The measurement setup consists of the fibre optic
light just by the energy of the first excitation level cable, a detection unit and a signal evaluation unit
of the molecules. One part of the scattered light has – typically a personal computer.
a wavelength larger than the laser wavelength. This
scattered light is called the “Stoke” line or the Sending and detection unit
Semi permeable
“Stoke” peak. The other part has a wavelength, mirror Optical fibre (forward)

which is smaller than the laser wavelength. This

Laser pulse
light is called “Anti-Stoke” line or “Anti-Stoke” generator Fibre
Optical fibre (backwards) splice
peak. The intensity of the “Anti-Stoke” peak de-
Signal
Emitted light
pendents on the temperature, whilst the “Stoke” receiver
Reflected light
peak is closely independent of temperature. The Signal evaluation
and storage unit
relationship between the intensity of the “Anti-
Principle of temperature measurements with fibre op-
Stoke” and the “Stoke” peak reflects the tempera-
tics
ture. By measuring this relation, the temperature
can be determined.
Usually the incoming laser light is not continuously
but pulsed. From measuring the time between
sending the pulse and the detection of the scat-
142
8.4.2 Applications
Sensor in the cable
The application of a temperature measurement or
monitoring system is very simple. The fibre optic
wire can be easily integrated into each type of high
voltage cable. In terms of accessibility it is prefera-
ble to install the fibre optic cable on the outer
sheath. However, other solutions can also be real-
ised.
Cable with integrated optical sensors at a lead sheath
Temperature profile along a cable length
Measurements at the cable
In the case of cables, temperature can be measured
along the cable very easily. The spatial resolution
of such temperature measurements is less than 1
m, which is an appropriate value for the tempera-
ture monitoring of cable systems [Avila 10]. The
result of the measurements is a temperature profile
along the cable.
The advantage of temperature monitoring is that
detections of unexpected hot spots in the cable can
be conducted as they may occur when the sur-
rounding undergoes change (e.g. a heating line
crosses the cable after the cable has been laid or
different back-fill material is used after additional
construction work close to the cable line). An addi-
tional advantage is the possible load management
of the cable (with additional calculation systems).
The disadvantages are that the lifetime of the fibre
optic cable can only be estimated from today’s per-
spective. Manufacturers of fibre optics claim that a
lifetime of about 15 – 30 years is to be expected.
Taking into account that the lifetime of a cable is
about 40 – 50 years, 15, even 30 years for the life-
time of the fibre optics is probably too short. An-
other disadvantage is that the electronics and soft-
ware for the monitoring or load evaluation system
must be updated at particular time intervals.
8. Measurements, Monitoring and Diagnostics 143
To conclude, it can be said that temperature moni-
toring for cable systems makes sense when the ca-
ble is expected to operate at the maximum load or
when the surrounding area of the laying place is
populated or occupied in some way. In such cases,
the higher costs can be seen as being justified, as
the system can help to prevent overheating and,
therefore, failure of the entire cable system.

IR temperature profile of a high voltage termination

with a hot spot
8.5 Other measurement and
monitoring methods
8.5.1 Infrared temperature measure- 8.5.2 Water monitoring for cables

ments for terminations The presence of moisture inside a cable inevitably

leads to a breakdown. Thus, it is vital to ensure that
Infrared temperature measurements have been in
no moisture or water reaches the semiconducting
increasing use over the last decades. Indeed, since
layer of the cable. This is achieved by the use of
the drop in price of measurement devices, they
metallic shields in the cable, such as lead sheaths,
have become standard within the field of power
corrugated sheaths or the application of laminated
engineering, enabling hotspots in the equipment to
sheaths. Should the outer sheath be damaged and
be detected from outside. For cable systems, such
water reaches the inside of the cable, the applica-
measurements can be used to determine hotspots
tion of a moisture or water sensor can help to warn
at terminations. Although rare, the possibility of the
of water ingress.
termination heating up cannot be entirely excluded.
The advantage of a cable with such an integrated
Too much moisture in the silicone oil or partial dis-
water sensor is that monitoring of moisture or wa-
charges in the oil may lead to unwanted heating of
ter ingress in the cable is possible with a prompt
the termination. This can be detected with a ther-
detection. The disadvantage of this simple and reli-
mal camera.
able system is the higher costs involved due to the
additional sensor.

Cable with integrated moisture sensor

IR temperature profile of a high voltage termination in
good condition
144

8.6 Other diagnostic
methods
8.6.1 Oil analysis for terminations
The method of gas-in-oil analysis has been in use
for many years, its main application being for
transformers and oil-filled cable systems. This type
of diagnostic method is based on the fact that elec-
trical discharges and the degradation of material
due to service load and time generates gases in the
oil. Typical gases that are generated by electrical
discharges are methane, ethane, ethylene and
acetylene. If the insulation consists of paper, as e.g.
in oil-filled cables, also the gases carbon dioxide
and carbon monoxide are generated in the oil.
From measuring the concentrations of these gases
in the insulating oil, one can determine whether
there were electrical discharges or whether the oil
had a too high load.
In the case of gas-in-oil analysis in terminations for
high voltage polymer cables, this method is rela-
tively young and until today there exists no interna-
tional standard or guide, which explains how to in-
Caused by the fact, that the dielectric strength of
silicone oil depends very sensitive on its humidity,
the measurement of the humidity of the oil is an-
other important diagnostic tool for high voltage
terminations.
Both, the gas-in-oil analysis and the measurement
of the humidity are important and very cost effec-
tive diagnostic tools for high voltage terminations.
They have also the advantage that sampling of the
silicone oil can be done quite fast, so that there is
only a short interruption time in the operation of
the cable system.
8.6.2 Diagnostics based on loss-
factor and polarisation-
depolarisation measurements
Diagnostics of insulation materials based on loss-
factor measurements or measurements of the po-
larisation-depolarisation current have been in use
for many decades.
The majority of the measurements are still used for

terpret the different gas concentrations. medium voltage cables and for certain types of flu-
id-filled cables. However, for high voltage polymer
However, after producing and applying oil-filled
cable systems, this diagnostic method has not
terminations for more than 30 years, the manufac-
proved itself as useful in finding answers for the
turers of the terminations got a good knowledge
reasons behind ageing effects of such a system.
about the interpretation of the different gas concen-
trations. Nevertheless, the possibility of future improve-
ments within this area cannot be excluded, as an
The most important points for the gas-in-oil diag-
application of this method for the diagnostics of
nostics for terminations filled with silicone oil are:
cable systems, or parts of them, may in time be re-
High concentrations of methane (in the range of
alised.
1000 µl/L) are not always a sign of electrical dis-
charges. The gas methane is a by-product of the
cross-linking process of the XLPE in the cable. Even
in a very good degased cable there is always me-
thane left in the XLPE. This methane may diffuse
with time slowly into the silicone oil of the termina-
tion.
Even very small concentrations (in the range of
1 µl/L) of the gas acetylene are a sign that electrical
discharges occurred in the termination. If acetylene
is detected in the silicone oil of a termination, one
has to investigate the reason for the discharges in
the termination, to prevent further damage.
9. Tendencies and Future Developments 145

Chapter 9

Tendencies and
Future Developments
146
9. Tendencies and Future Developments 147

General tion increases over the next decades, so will the

energy demand and, thus, the need for cables.
Some years ago, innovations in the business of ca-
ble systems were few. After triple extrusions for
Another trend is that more suppliers are enter-
polymeric cables had become standard and prefab-
ing the market. This can currently be seen in Asia
ricated slip-on elements had replaced taped joints,
– particularly in China or India – as well as in the
it looked as if there was nothing more to be invent-
Middle East, America and Africa. Many companies
ed. Those involved in developing cable systems
producing products in the field of cable systems
technology were busy concentrating on the devel-
share their knowledge and expertise, such as those
opment of high temperature super conducting ca-
producing extrusion machines, or (XLPE) raw ma-
bles as components for high-energy underground
terials, as well as the established cable manufac-
transport.
turers themselves. These activities will lead to an
The liberalisation of the energy market as well as
increase of cable manufacturers on the market. And
the opening of new large markets, such as Asia and
although the new cable manufacturers start with
the Middle East, lead to quite a different turn of
low and medium voltage cables, tendencies show
events so that cable systems become increasingly
that they will go on to extend their product portfo-
in demand with new applications being erected in
lio to include high voltage cables. This is good
numerous locations. As a technology, cable sys-
news for customers and producers of high voltage
tems have a bright future. Consequently, develop-
accessories as product variety increases and costs
ments and trends in cable systems are on the in-
decrease. However, end-users require greater
crease.
knowledge in order to evaluate the different cable
The most relevant trends and tendencies from the manufacturers and assess the different cables.
authors’ point of view are named below. They need to be aware of this and having once de-
The trend for cost savings is not mentioned here as cided to use low-cost cables, they must be able to
it has been, is, and will always be a constant ten- deal with the related issues technically.
dency amongst the producers of cable systems
(and technical systems).
The customer will increasingly require full con-
tractor solutions. This means turn-key solutions,
in which civil works are also included in projects.
This trend can lead into two basic directions. One
Tendencies towards a pre-
being that classic civil works companies become
ference for cable systems customers of cable system producers; the other
that cable system producers include civil works in
Due to the ongoing urbanisation and the fact that
their projects and civil work providers become cus-
during the past few decades the technology of high
tomers of cable producers. Which direction will ac-
voltage cables has proved itself to be of a solid and
tually be taken is, currently, difficult to predict. A
reliable nature, the trend towards cables (in-
solution in which providers, cable manufacturers
stead of high voltage overhead lines) is
and civil work providers set up consortia may also
bound to continue. This trend is characterised by
occur.
a greater number of cable manufacturers, which in
turn leads to lower prices, an increased variety of
types of cables and a greater availability of the ca- The general interest in a reduction of the elec-
bles themselves. In addition, the increase of tech- tromagnetic field is likely to increase in years to
nical possibilities, such as higher load-carrying ca- come. Although cable systems are, for the most
pability or higher reliability, will encourage cus- part, far from being a cause of problems for hu-
tomers to decide in favour of cables. Finally, in the mans, the sensitivity of the public will lead to a lim-
case of certain applications, such as in urban areas, itation of acceptable electromagnetic fields. Certain
the public will rarely accept overhead lines, leaving maximum permissible values for the electromag-
cables as the only remaining solution. As urbanisa- netic fields are under continuous discussion, the
148
issue being that these values vary from country to
country. Whether stringent or less stringent regula-
tions will be put in place has yet to be seen. At the
moment, the International Commission on Non-
Ionizing Radiation Protection recommends a max-
imum value of 100 µT for electromagnetic fields at
an AC system of 50 Hz for those areas that have
public access. However, clever cable laying will re-
duce the electromagnetic field values at the ground
surface.
Since cable systems require intensive investment
and the utility (or user of the cable system) only
earns money when current is flowing, the load for
cable systems will be increased in future cable
systems. The previous state of affairs in which ca-
bles were only loaded with about 20 – 50 % of their
maximum load capacity will mainly become a thing
of the past. As current load increases, so will the
thermal load of the cables. To prevent overloads of
the cable systems, the application of temperature
measurement or monitoring systems or load calcu-
lations may become increasingly popular. In addi-
tion, new designs of cable systems may be devel-
oped or used more frequently. These might be ca-
2
bles with 3000 mm conductor cross-sections, ca-
bles with enamelled wires, cables with cooled con-
ductors or cable systems with special concrete or
backfill material with better thermal conductivity.
Although the technology of transmitting electrical
power via high voltage direct current (HVDC)
connections has been available on the market for
many decades, it is recently undergoing a renais-
sance. In particular, the possibility of transmitting
power over considerable distances (of more than
100 km) with HVDC underground cable systems is a
huge advantage. Since polymer cables for HVDC
systems is becoming state of the art up to voltage
levels of 500 kV and more suppliers are entering
the market (thus making the technology more ac-
cepted and causing prices to fall), an increased
demand of HVDC cable systems is expected. Aided
by the plans for a restructured supply grid (at least
in the European market), the market share for
HVDC systems is expected to increase in years to
come.
Trends towards more
accessory suppliers
Similar to the trend toward a preference for cable
systems, accessories are in increasing demand.
Thus, more accessory suppliers are entering the
market. In Asia, particularly in China, more compa-
nies are starting to produce (high voltage) accesso-
ries. These new accessory manufacturers will start
with low and medium voltage accessories and go
on to extend their product portfolio to include high
voltage accessories. The future field of accessories
will see the development and production of a
greater variety of technologies as well as designs.
In general, this trend bodes well for the end-user,
but from the buyer’s perspective, it will be difficult
to anticipate whether the different products will ful-
fil their expected lifetimes (approximately 30 – 40
years) or not. This issue will require a considerable
degree of knowledge and experience on the part of
the end-user or final customer. Because of this,
consulting and training efforts, both from inde-
pendent technical consulting companies as well as
from manufacturers themselves, are expected to
increase also.
As far as accessories are concerned, the trend to-
wards dry-type plug-in terminations will contin-
ue. Despite this solution being somewhat more
complicated for accessory producers than previous
conventional solutions, the advantages for the
overall projects are unmistakable. This may well
lead to improved applications of this type, possibly
used far more frequently and with voltages up to
the highest levels.
Similar to the wish to reduced electromagnetic
fields when it comes to operating devices both the
public and customers desire a greater degree of
safety. Although highly reliable, a breakdown of a
termination cannot fully be excluded. To limit the
effects upon the surrounding people and assets, an
increased use of explosion resistant terminations is
to be expected. These terminations limit the effects
of an internal breakdown in the termination and
provide a higher degree of protection to the sur-
rounding area than do standard terminations. Alt-
hough more costly, when it comes to public and
9. Tendencies and Future Developments 149
critical applications, such explosion resistant ter- ular is questionable. The effort required for such a
minations are bound to be used more frequently. monitoring system is great and the reliability of ca-
ble systems from well-established suppliers is ex-
tremely good.
In the case of high voltage accessories, another
trend can be observed in which companies produc-
ing medium voltage accessories are pushing
their products (and technologies) towards the
Consulting trends
application in the high voltage range. This trend
has been underway for several years but at the Many of the above-mentioned trends, such as
moment it cannot be said how successful it will be. those demanding a greater variety of products and
However, considerable efforts have already been technologies in high voltage cables and accessories
made in this area, a fact that can be seen in the par- or an increase of monitoring and diagnostic tools,
tial implementation of cold shrink technology for will result in the need for information sources with
high voltage accessories. the function of explaining the pros and cons of all
these. Therefore, it is likely that an improvement in
the business of cable system consultancy will con-
The variety of applications for accessories is on the
tinue. Such consulting might occur as in-house fea-
increase. As customers become more sensitive to
tures available from the cable and accessory manu-
the costs, the variety of applications requiring dif-
facturer, or as free consulting businesses within in-
ferent designs will cause a larger variety of
dependent companies or engineering offices.
product designs. Joints will be particularly affect-
ed by these changes, as an increase in the cable
system length requires the application of more
products. It can be anticipated that joints with sim-
ple protection degrees will be used for areas with
solid basins (such as concrete tunnels); whilst
those with high protection will be merely used di-
rectly buried in soil.

Upcoming measurements,
monitoring and diagnostic
applications
High voltage cable systems are not the only field
affected by new developments. Measurement and
monitoring systems are also undergoing significant
developments. From blood pressure surveys with
the aid of simple watches to full-blown surveys of
the entire values of a power station, measure-
ments, monitoring and diagnostic tools and sys-
tems are everywhere. How this will affect cable sys-
tems is not, as yet, obvious. It can be estimated
that partial discharge measurements for after in-
stallation tests will become a standard, at least as
far as voltages equal to or higher than 245 kV are
concerned. Whether or not the continuous monitor-
ing of whole cable systems will become more pop-
150
10. References 151

Chapter 10

References
152
10. References
The references are given in alphabetical order irre-
spective of the order in which they appear in the
book.
[ABB 92] ABB, Taschenbuch Schaltanlagen,
9. Auflage, ISBN: 3-464-48233-2,
Mannheim, Germany, 1992
[Avila 10] A. Avila, R. Vogelsang, Experienc-
es in manufacturing, testing, in-
stalling and operating of 500 kV
cable systems including tempera-
ture sensing and PD monitoring,
CIGRE paper B1_103, CIGRE ses-
sion, Paris, France, 2010
[BfS 10] Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz
(German Federal office for radia-
tion protection), http://www.bfs.de
/de/elektro October 2014
[BIPM 06] BIPM, Bureau International des
Poids et Measures, The Interna-
tional System of Units, 8th Edition,
2006
[BImSchV 97] 26. Verordnung zum Bundes-
Immissionsschutzgesetz von 1997
(26th German regulation for elec-
tromagnetic pollution, 1997)
http://www.bfs.de/de/elektro/netza
us-
bau/information/Abstract_Keller.p
df October 2014
[Brugg 10] Brugg Cables, Technical User
Guide, Product Brochure, 2nd Edi-
tion, Brugg, Switzerland, 2010
[CIGRE D1.33.05] CIGRE, HV On-Site Testing with
Partial Discharge Measurements,
Brochure of the CIGRE Working
Group D 1.33.05, ISBN: 978-2-
85873-XXX-X
[CIGRE-21.05 02] B. Fainaru, Experiences with AC
tests after installation on the main
insulation of polymeric (E)HV ca-
ble system, CIGRE report of the
Task force 21.05, Electra No. 205,
2002
[DIN/VDE 0848] DIN EN 6226, VDE 0848-226,
Sicherheit in elektrischen oder
magnetischen Feldern im niedri-
gen und mittleren Fre-
quenzbereich, 2005
[Friedrich 93] W. Friedrich, Tabellenbuch El-
ektrotechnik Elektronik, Dümmler
Verlag, ISBN 3-427-53024-8, Bonn,
Germany, 1993
153
[Habel 11] M. Habel, K. Vaterrodt, G.
Heidmann, W. Habel, R. Vogel-
sang, W. Weissenberg, O. Sekula,
D. Pepper, H. Emanuel, R. Plath,
Optical PD detection in stress
cones of HV cable accessories, 8th
International Conference on Insu-
lated Power Cables, Jicable’11,
Versailles, France, 2011
[Henningsen 09] C.-G. Henningsen, Technische
Umsetzung der Verkabelung von
Hochspannungsleitungen, ETP-
Konferenz Kabelanlagen in Mittel-
und Hochspannungsnetzen, Düs-
seldorf, Germany, 2009
[ICNIRP] ICNIRP, Guidelines for limiting ex-
posure to time-varying electric,
magnetic, and electromagnetic
fields (up to 300 GHz), Health Phys-
ics 74 (4): 494-522, 1998
[ICNIRP 10] International Commission on Non-
Ionizing radiation Protection,
http://www.isnirp.org, October
2014
[IEC 60183] IEC 60183, Guide to the selection
of high-voltage cables, Interna-
tional Standard, 1984
[IEC 60228] IEC 60228, Conductors of insulated
cables, Third edition, 2004-11
[IEC 60270] IEC 60270, High-voltage test tech-
niques – Partial discharge meas-
urements, International Standard,
Third edition, 2000-12
[IEC 60502] IEC 60502, Power cables with ex-
truded insulation and their acces-
sories for rated voltages from 1 kV
(Um=1,2kV) up to 30 kV (Um=36 kV),
International standard, 1997
[IEC 60529] IEC 60529, Degrees of protection
provided by enclosures (IP code),
International standard, 2001
[IEC 60840] IEC 60840, Power cables with ex-
truded insulation and their acces-
sories for rated voltages above 30
kV (Um = 36 kV) up to 150 kV (Um =
170 kV) – Test methods and re-
quirements, International Stand-
ard, 2011
[IEC 60885-3] IEC 60885-3, Electrical test meth-
ods for electric cables – Part 3:
Test methods for partial discharge
measurements on lengths of ex-
truded power cable, First edition,
1988 (is currently under revision)
154
[IEC 62067] IEC 602067, Power cables with ex-
truded insulation and their acces-
sories for rated voltages above
150 kV (Um = 170 kV) up to 500 kV
(Um = 550 kV) – Test methods and
requirements, International
Standard, 2011
[IEC 62226] IEC 62226, Exposure to electric or
magnetic fields in the low and in-
termediate frequency range, 2004
[IEC 62271] IEC 62271-209, High-voltage
switchgear and controlgear – Part
209: Cable connections for gas-
insulated metal-enclosed switch-
gear for rated voltages above 52
kV – Fluid filled and extruded insu-
lation cables – Fluid filled and dry-
type cable-terminations, Interna-
tional standard, Edition 1.0, 2007-8
[IEEE 48] IEEE 48-1996, Standard Test Pro-
cedures and Requirements for Al-
ternating-Current Cable Termina-
tions 2.5 kV through 765 kV, IEEE,
1996
[IEEE 404] IEEE 204-2000, Standard for ex-
truded and laminated dielectric
shielded cable joints rated 2500 V
to 500 000 V, 2000
[IEEE 444] IEEE, Guidelines for Unconven-
tional Partial Discharge Measure-
ments, IEEE Working Group
D 1.33, 2010
[Kirchner 09] M. Kirchner, Aktuelle Trends und
Innovationen in der Kabelentwick-
lung, ETP-Konferenz Kabelanlagen
in Mittel- und Hochspannungsnet-
zen, Düsseldorf, Germany, 2009
[Küchler 96] A. Küchler, Hochspannungstech-
nik: Grundlagen – Technologie –
Anwendungen, VDI Verlag, ISBN:
3-18-401530-0, Düsseldorf, 1996
[Lemke 06] E. Lemke, T. Strehl, W. Weissen-
berg, J. Herron, “Practical experi-
ences in on-site PD diagnosis test
of HV power cable accessories in
service”, IEEE International Sym-
posium on Electrical Insulation,
Ontario, Canada, 2006
[Lide 03] D. R. Lide, Handbook of chemistry
and physics, CRC press LLC, ISBN:
0-8493-0484-9, 2003
[Lindner 93] H. Lindner, Taschenbuch der El-
ektrotechnik und Elektronik,
Fachbuchverlag Leipzig-Köln,
Springer 5. Neubearbeitete
Auflage, ISBN: 3-343-00847-8,
Leipzig, Germany, 1993
[Moeller 09] Moeller Schaltungsbuch,
http://www.schaltungsbuch.de/
norm036.html 2014
[Pdix 08] Information from the internet page
http://www.pdix.com 2014
[Peschke 99] E. Peschke, R. v. Olshausen, Cable
Systems for High and Extra-High
Voltage, Publicis-MCD-Verl., Erlan-
gen, Munich, Germany, ISBN: 3-
89578-118-5, 1999
[Oesterheld 96] J. Oesterheld, Dielektrisches
Verhalten von Silikonelastomer-
Isolierungen bei hohen el-
ektrischen Feldstärken, PhD thesis,
TU Dresden, Germany, VDI Verlag,
ISBN 3-18-319621-2, 1996
[Olshausen 01] R. v. Olshausen, W. Weissenberg,
The electrical long-term perfor-
mance of cross-linked polyeth-
ylene, 30th WIRE conference, 2001
[Reckenpferd 09] Information from the internet page
http://www.reckenpferd.de/tools/vo
lumenr.html, October 2014
[Rethmeier 05] K. Rethmeier, W. Kalkner, R. Plath,
On-site PD decoupling and locali-
zation at cross bonded HV cable
systems, 14th International Sympo-
sium on High Voltage Engineering,
ISH, Beijing, China, 2005
[Rethmeier 09-1]K. Rethmeier, W. Weissenberg, R.
Vogelsang, R. Plath, A. Kraetge, M.
Krüger, “Benefits of synchronous
UHF IEC-compliant PD measure-
ments for effective noise suppres-
sion”, 16th ISH, Cape Town, South
Africa, 2009
[Rethmeier 09-2]K. Rethmeier, S. Hoek, M. Krüger,
A. Kraetge, R. Plath, W. Weissen-
berg, R. Vogelsang, “IEC-konforme
Bewertung von Teilentladungen
im UHF-Bereich durch synchrone
Impulserfassung an mehreren TE-
Sensoren”, ETG Kongress 2009,
Diagnostik elektrischer Betrieb-
smittel, Düsseldorf, Germany, 2009
10. References
[Riechert 01] U. Riechert, R. Vogelsang, J.
Kindersberger, “Temperature ef-
fect on dc breakdown of PE ca-
bles”, 12th ISH, Bangalore, India,
2001
155
[Weissenberg 04-2] W. Weissenberg, F. Darid, R. Plath,
K. Rethmeier, W. Kalkner, “On-site
PD detection at cross-bonding
links of HV cables”, CIGRE Ses-
sion, B1-106, Paris, France, 2004

[Richter 99] B. Richter, Application guidelines [Weissenberg 07] W. Weissenberg, T. Wunderlin, O.

for overvoltage protection – Sekula, T. Strehl, H. Elze, S.
dimensioning, testing and applica- Markalous, UHF-PD-Monitoring
tion of metal oxide surge arresters and On-site-commissioning-test of
in medium voltage networks, ABB 400 kV XLPE-insulated cable cir-
High Voltage Technologies, Wet- cuits at Jebel Ali / Dubai, 7th Inter-
tingen, Switzerland, 1999 national Conference on Insulated
Power Cables, Jicable 07, Ver-
[Siemon 11] Siemon Network cabling solutions,
sailles, France, 2007
http://www.siemon.com/us/standar
ds/nema_comparison.asp, 2014 [Weissenberg 09-1] W. Weissenberg, H. Müller, R. Vo-
gelsang, Anforderungen an die
[Swingler 07] S. Swingler et. al., Statistics of AC
Silikonelastomere für HS-Kabel-
underground cable in power net-
Garnituren, 2tes Burghauser Iso-
works, CIGRE Technical Brochure
lierstoff Kolloquium, Burghausen,
338, SC-WG B1.07, Electra No. 235,
Germany, 2009
2007
[Weissenberg 09-2] W. Weissenberg, R. Vogelsang,
[TU-Graz 10] Institut für Heath Care Engineering
Langzeiterfahrungen mit
of Technical University Graz, Aus-
Hochspannungskabeln und Garni-
tria
turen, RCC Fachtagung Werkstof-
http://portal.tugraz.at/portal/page/p
fe, Berlin, Germany, 2009
ortal/TU_Graz/Einrichtungen/Institu
te/Homepages/i4470/Veroeffentlich [Wikipedia 09-1] Information from the internet page
ungen/Oeffentlichkeitsarbeit 2014 http://www.wikipedia.de to the top-
ic „Angloamerikanisches Mass-
[Vogelsang 09] R. Vogelsang, O. Sekula, H.
system“ („Angloamerican measur-
Nyffenegger, W. Weissenberg,
ing system“), October 2014
Long-term experiences with XLPE
cable systems up to 550 kV, 9th CI- [Wikipedia 09-2] Information from the internet page
GRE CIRED conference, CIGRE SC http://www.wikipedia.com to the
B1, Kranjska Gora, Slovenia, 2009 topic „Electric power transmis-
sion“), October 2014
[Vogelsang 11] R. Vogelsang, H.J. Winter, H.
Gramespacher, M. Grunwald, [Wikipedia 10-1] Information from the internet page
Weissenberg, Silicone technology http://www.wikipedia.de to the top-
for reliable performance of joints ic „Elektrostatisches Feld der
and terminations for high voltage Erde“, October 2014
polymer cables, International Con-
[Wikipedia 10-2] Information from the internet page
ference on Insulated Power Cables,
http://www.wikipedia.de to the top-
Jicable’11, Versailles, France, 2011
ic „Erdmagnetfeld“, October 2014
[Weissenberg 86] W. Weissenberg, Einfluss makros-
kopischer Fehlstellen auf die el-
ektrische Alterung von Polyeth-
ylenkabeln bei Wechselspan-
nungsbelastung, PhD Thesis at TU
Dresden, Germany, 1986

[Weissenberg 04-1] W. Weissenberg, U. Rengel, R.

Scherer, “EHV XLPE Cable Sys-
tems up to 400 kV – More than 10
Years Field Experience”, CIGRE
Session, B1-102, Paris, France,
2004
11. Symbols and Abbrevations 157

Chapter 11

Symbols
and Abbreviations
158
11. Symbols and Abbrevations 159

Symbols Symbol Description

Symbol Description ρ Resistivity, air density

ω Angular frequency
A Cross-section
a Axial phase distance
B Magnetic flux density
b Thickness (common); slope pa- Abbreviations
rameter in Weibull distribution
C Capacity Abbreviation Description
c Air drag coefficient a.c., ac, AC: Alternating current
cos ϕ Power factor BD Breakdown
D Diameter BIL Basic Impulse Level
d Distance / insulation thickness BImSch “Bundesimmissionsschutzgesetz”
E Electric field, electric field strength, (German regulation for electro-
elasticity module magnetic pollution)
F Force DAC Damped ac voltage
f Frequency d.c., dc, DC: Direct current
H Magnetic field strength DIN “Deutsches Institut für Normung”
(German standards organisation)
h Deflexion of the cable
DTS Distributed temperature sensing
I Current
EHV Extra high voltage (> 220 kV)
l length
EMF Electromagnetic force
L Inductivity, length
EPDM Ethylene propylene diene monomer
N Number of turns in a coil, pulse
repetition frequency EPR Ethylene propylene rubber
n Lifetime coefficient / exponent, FEM Finite element method
pulse repetition rate GIS Gas insulated switchgear
P0, 1 Reference point(s) for the electric HDPE High density polyethylene
charge HF High frequency
P Power, effective power HV High voltage (≤ 220 kV)
Q Electric charge, reactive power IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electron-
q Electric charge ics Engineers
R Resistance, radius of outer semi- IEC International Electrotechnical
conducting layer Commission
r Common for radius, radius of in- IP International degree of protection
ner semiconducting layer IR Infrared
S Apparent power IPH German testing institute
s Distance LSR Liquid silicone rubber
T Temperature MV Medium voltage (< 72.5 kV)
t Time NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers
tan δ Power loss factor Association
U Voltage OPGW Optical ground wire
V Voltage, volume PD Partial discharge(s)
v Wind speed PE Polyethylene
W Energy PQ Prequalification (test)
X Reactance PUR Polyurethane
x Position PVC Polyvinylchloride
α Temperature coefficient, expan- RTV Room temperature vulcanisation
sion coefficient SF6 Sulphur hexafluoride
β Geometrical factor representing SI System international
the type of cable laying SiR Silicone rubber
ε Permittivity SVL Sheath voltage limiters
Φ Magnetic flux, UHF Ultra high frequency
κ Conductivity, coefficient depend- UV Ultraviolet
ing on the impedance in the power VHF Very high frequency
grid VLF Very low frequency
µ Permeability WHO World health organisation
XLPE Cross-linked polyethylene
12. Appendix 161

Chapter 12

Appendix
162
12. Appendix 163

12.1 SI units and SI prefixes Most relevant SI coherent derived units with names
and symbols according to [BIPM 06]
SI units
Name Symbol Unit
All measures in this book are based on SI units. SI
Frequency f Hz (1/s)
units are derived from the French “le Système in-
Force F N (m⋅kg/s2)
ternational d'unités”, a system for units based on
metric numbers [BIPM 06]. Pressure, stress p Pa (N/m2)
Energy, work, amount
Today, it is the world’s most widely used system of E J (Nm)
of heat
measurement, both in everyday commerce and in Power P W
science and technology. An overview of the seven Electric charge q, Q C (As)
basic SI units is given in the table below.
Electric potential dif-
V (U) V
ference (voltage)
(Electric) capacitance C F (As/V)
The seven basic SI units according to [BIPM 06]
Electric resistance R Ω (V/A)
Name Symbol Unit Electric conductance S (A/V)
Length l m Magnetic flux Φ Wb (Vs)
Mass m kg Magnetic flux density B T (Vs/m2)
Time t s Inductance L H (Vs/A)
Electric current i, I A Celsius temperature ϑ °C
Temperature Τ K Illuminance lx lx (lm/m2)
Amount of substance n mol
Luminous intensity Iv cd SI prefixes
In order to address smaller and larger amounts of
Numerous other units are derived from these seven the given SI units, prefixes are defined. Based on
basic SI units, many of which are used in our daily [BIPM 06], the most relevant SI prefixes are given
technical life. According to [BIPM 06], the most im- in the table below.
portant coherent derived units are given in the ta-
ble below.
Most relevant SI prefixes according to [BIPM 06]

Most relevant SI coherent derived units according to Name Symbol Unit

[BIPM 06] Ato a 10-18
Femto f 10-15
Name Symbol Unit
Pico p 10-12
Area A m2
Nano n 10-9
Volume V m3
Micro µ 10-6
Speed, velocity v m/s
Milli m 10-3
Mass density ρ kg/m3
Centi c 10-2
Current density j A/m2
Deci d 10-1
Magnetic field H A/m
strength Deca da 10
Hecto h 102

Some coherent derived SI units have special names Kilo k 103

and symbols. The main expressions are given in Mega M 106

the table below. Giga G 109

Tera T 1012
Peta P 1015
Exa E 1018
164

12.2 Conversion table to the

metric system
In this document, technical data are given in metric
values. However, certain different units are used
internationally. The most relevant of these have
been converted to metric SI units. The focus is
therefore to give a relation to the main values as
used in this book.

Weight values Length values:

The weight in a metric system is typically given in Length values in the metric system are typically
kg, g or t (tons). In other countries, such as Anglo- given in mm, cm, m or km. In other countries, such
American countries, the weight is also given in “lb” as Anglo-American countries, length values are

or “lbs” (pound or pounds). The conversion of g, given in “ft” (feet) or “in” (inch). Often the short

kg or t to lbs is defined by [Wikipedia 09-1]:
1 kg = 1000 g = 0.001 t = 2.2 lbs
1 lbs = 454 g = 0.454 kg
sign (‘) for feet and (’’) for inch is used. The conver-
sion of mm, cm and m to ft and in is defined by
[Wikipedia 09-1]:
1 foot (‘) = 30.48 cm = 304.8 mm = 0.305 m = 12 zoll

1 inch (‘‘) = 1 zoll = 2.54 cm = 25.4 mm

10 mm = 1 cm = 0.394 inch (’’) = 0.033 feet

8 0.8

inch
7 0.7
feet
6 0.6

5 0.5
inch

feet

4 0.4

3 0.3

2 0.2

1 0.1

0 0 Conversion
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
between mm,
mm
inch and feet
12. Appendix 165
2
Cross-section values The conversion of mm to kcmil or sqin is defined

For cross-section values, the SI unit is square mm, by [Wikipedia 09-1]:

often written “mm2“, “sqmm”. This unit is most 1 kcmil = 0.507 mm2
frequently used throughout the world. In the US, 1 sqin = 645 mm2
the term kcmil is given, whereas in British coun-
1000 mm2 = 1974 kcmil = 1.55 sqin
tries, the term sqin is used.

5500 4.5

5000
kcmil 4
4500 sqin
3.5
4000
3
3500

3000 2.5
kcmil

sqin
2500 2

2000
1.5
1500
1
1000
0.5 Conversion
500
between
0 0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 sqmm, sqin
sqmm and kcmil

Temperature values: 5
𝑇! = 𝑇! − 32 ∙
The temperature in most countries is typically giv- 9
en in °C (degree Celsius). In the US, the tempera- or:
ture is given in °F (degree Fahrenheit). The conver-
9
sion of temperature TC in °C to TF in °F is defined by 𝑇! = 𝑇! ∙ + 32
5
[Wikipedia 09-1]:

400

360

320

280

240
Temperature / °F

200

160

120

80

40

-40

-80

-120
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Conversion be-
Temperature / °C tween °C and °F
166
Pressure values: The conversion of Pa, bar and psi is defined by

The pressure in a metric system is given in Pa (Pas- [Wikipedia 09-1]:

cal) or bar. In other countries, such as Anglo- 1 Pa = 10-5 bar = 0.01 mbar = 0.147 ⋅ 10-3 psi
American countries, the pressure is given in “psi”
10 psi = 68948 Pa = 0.6895 bar
(pound per square inch).
1 psi = 6.895 kPa

10000 100

1000 Pa-psi 10
100
Pa-bar
1
10

1 0.1
psi

bar
0.1 0.01

0.01
0.001
0.001
0.0001
0.0001

0.00001 0.00001 Conversion

1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000
between Pa,
Pa bar and psi

Fluid volume values This conversion takes the US values of fl oz and

The fluid volume in the metric system is given in gallons. The conversion of l, fl oz and gallons is de-
litre. In some other countries the fluid volume is fined by [Reckenpferd 09]:
given in fl oz (fluid ounces) and gal (liquid gallons). 1 l = 0.264 US gal = 33.86 US fl oz
In addition to this, fl oz and gal differ between the
1 US gal = 128 US fl oz = 3.78 l
British and the US systems [Reckenpferd 09].
1 US fl oz = 1/128 US gal

3500 30

3000 fl oz 25
gal
2500
20

2000
fl oz

gal

15
1500

10
1000

5
500

Conversion
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 between litre,
litre fl oz and gal
Brugg Cables
Brugg Group
In 1896, Gottlieb Suhner founded a cable factory in Brugg, Switzerland, which was the origin for a group of indus-
trial companies belonging today to the Brugg Group. The Brugg Group consists of 5 divisions with 60 companies
in 20 countries. Brugg is represented in all the important industrial countries. Approximately 2000 employees are
responsible that the following products are manufactured conforming to the best technical know-how and quality
standards:

• Power- and telecommunication cables and accessories

• Special cables for industry and security
• Process control systems for water treatment and energy management
• Pipe sytems for the efficient and safe transport and distribution of liquids
• Ropes for aerial ropeways, elevators and cranes
• Rope protection systems against natural hazards

Brugg Cables (Brugg Kabel AG)

After its founding in 1896, Brugg Kabel AG, which operates under the
name Brugg Cables, developed into the largest company within the
Brugg Group and is one of the leading cable manufacturers in Switzer-
land. Brugg Cables has an international presence. With a product line
that ranges from high-voltage cables rated up to 500 kV and all the
associated connection technology to medium and low-voltage cables
and fiber optic systems. In doing so, Brugg Cables is one of the few
cable manufacturers in the world that is successful in manufacturing
cables and accessories up to the highest voltage level of 500 kV. Its
internal R&D department is continuously working on new and innova-
tive products. In close collaboration with its customers, Brugg Cables also develops custom-tailored system
solutions. Brugg Cables develops, manufacturers, tests and installs its products according the highest standards
of quality and using state of the art production methods.

Brugg Cables Industry AG is a subsidiary of Brugg Kabel AG. The company specializes in the manufacturing of
customer-specific cable systems for industrial applications. From the initial concept through to the finished solu-
tion, specialists from Brugg Cables Industry AG work hand in hand with customers.
Switzerland
Head office
Brugg Kabel AG
Klosterzelgstrasse 28
CH-5201 Brugg
Tel. +41 56 460 33 33
info@brugg.com

Brugg Cables Academy

Klosterzelgstrasse 28
CH-5201 Brugg
Tel. +41 56 460 33 33
info.academy@brugg.com

Please find more details on the courses currently offered in the online documentation www.bruggcables.com/academy.

Subject to change 04.2015

Other sales partners in your region can be found under www.bruggcables.com. A member of the Brugg group.