Republic of the Philippines

Region XI
Southern Philippines Agri-business and Marine and Aquatic
School of Technology

Solved Problems in Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

By

Lord Christian B. Canones

Submitted to

Engr. Eric del Rosario

December 2019

1|P a g e
 SYSTEM OF UNITS AND CONVERTION

Systems of Units
Newton’s law states that “the acceleration of a particular body is directly proportional to the resultant
force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass.”

𝑘𝐹 𝑚𝑎 𝑚𝑎
a= F= k= ; where k is a proportionality constant and is dimensionless.
𝑚 𝑘 𝐹

Sample Problems:

Problem1.Calculate the weight of an object which mass is 37 kgm at any position.

Solution:
𝑚𝑔
F= 𝑘
37 𝑘𝑔𝑚×9.8/𝑚
F= 9.81 𝑘𝑔𝑚×𝑚 2
[ ]𝑠
𝑘𝑔𝑓×𝑆2

F= 37 kgf

Problem2.What is the mass of an object at standard condition that weighs 74lb?

Given:
Fg= 74 lbf
g = 32.2 ft/s2
Solution:
𝐹𝑔 𝑘
m= 𝑔
𝑙𝑏.𝑓𝑡
74 𝑙𝑏𝑓 (32.2 )
𝑙𝑏 𝑠2
m= 𝑓𝑡
(32.2) 2
𝑠

m= 74 lbm

2|P a g e
GAS LAWS
The gas laws were developed at the end of the 18th century. It deals with how gases behave with respect
to pressure, volume, temperature, and amount. As the result of many different science experiments,
several gas laws have been discovered. These laws relate the various state variables of a gas. These gas
laws can be used to compare two different gases, or determine the properties of a gas after one of its
state variables have changed.

Boyle’s Laws
Boyle's law gives relationship between pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature. It states
that, at constant temperature, the volume is inversely proportional to its pressure. It can be expressed as:
P₁V₁= P₂V₂

Sample Problems:
Problem1.
To what pressure that the gas must be compressed in order to get into a 10.00 cubic foot tank. The
entire weight of a gas occupies 570.0 cu. ft. at standard pressure?
Given:
V₁= 570.0 cu. ft
P₁= 1.00 atm
V₂= 10.0 cu. Ft

Required:
P₂ = pressure must a gas be compressed

Solution:
P₁V₁=P₂V₂
P₁V₁
P₂= V₂

(570.0 cu.ft) (1.00 atm)

P₂= (10.00 cu. ft)

P₂= 57 atm

3|P a g e
Problem2.
Determine the volume of the gas that occupies 25.0 liters at a pressure of 120.0 mmHg if the pressure is
increased to 170.0 mmHg.
Given:
V₁= 25 L
P₁= 120.0 mmHg
P₂ = 170.0mmH

Required:
V₂= volume when the pressure is increased

Solution:
P₁V₁=P₂V₂
P₁V₁
V₂= P₂
(120.0 mmHg) (25 L)
V₂= (170.0 mmHg)

V₂= 17.65 L

Charles's Law
Charles's law describes the relationship between volume and temperature of gas. At constant pressure,
volume of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature (in Kelvin units). It can be expressed as:
𝑉₁ 𝑉₂
=
𝑇₁ 𝑇₂

Sample Problems:
Problem1.
Determine the volume of a gas that has a volume of 9.00 L. At 450.00 °K when the temperature
increases to 546.0 °K?
Given:
V₁= 9.00 L
T₁=450.0K

4|P a g e
T₂= 546.0 K

Required:
V₂= volume at 546.0 °K

Solution:
𝑉₁ 𝑉₂
=
𝑇₁ 𝑇₂
𝑇₂𝑉₁
𝑉₂ =
𝑇₁
(9.00 L) (546.0 K)
𝑉₂ =
(450.0 K)

𝑉₂= 10.92 L

Problem2.
A gas occupies 600.0 mL at a temperature of 17.0 °C. What is the volume at 112.0 °C?
Given:
V₁= 600.0 mL
T₁= 17.0 °C = 290.0 K
T₂= 112.0 °C = 385.0 K

Required:
V₂= volume at 112.0 °C

Solution:
𝑉₁ 𝑉₂
=
𝑇₁ 𝑇₂
𝑇₂𝑉₁
𝑉₂ =
𝑇₁
(385.0 K)(600.0 mL)
𝑉₂ =
(290.0 K)
V₂= 796.55 mL

5|P a g e
Gay Lussac’s Law
Gay–Lussac law gives the relationship between pressure and temperature at constant volume. For a
given gas, at constant volume, the pressure of gas is directly proportional to the temperature of gas. The
mathematical expression for this law is:
𝑃₁ 𝑃₂
=
𝑇₁ 𝑇₂

Sample Problems:
Problem1.
A gas has a pressure of 0.560 atm at 63 °C. What is the pressure at standard temperature?
Given:
P₁= 0.560 atm
T₁=63.0°C=336 K
T₂= standard temperature= 273 K

Required:
P₂= final pressure
Solution:
𝑃₁ 𝑃₂
=
𝑇₁ 𝑇₂
𝑃₁𝑇₂
𝑃₂ =
𝑇₁
(0.560 atm)(273 K)
𝑃₂ =
336 K
𝑃2 = 0.455atm

6|P a g e
Problem2.
Find the pressure change when a constant volume of gas at 1.00 atm is heated from 30.0 °C to 50.0 °C?
Given:
P₁= 1.00 atm
T₁= 30.0°C=303K
T₂= 50.0°C = 323 K
Required:
P₂= final pressure
Solution:
𝑃₁ 𝑃₂
=
𝑇₁ 𝑇₂
𝑃₁𝑇₂
𝑃₂ =
𝑇₁
(1.00 atm)(323 K)
𝑃₂ =
303 K
𝑃₂ = 1.066 atm

7|P a g e
Ideal Gas Law
The ideal gas law was created to show the relationship between pressure, volume, number of moles of
gas and temperature. It is a combination of Boyle's Law and Charles' Law. It shows the equation of a
hypothetical ideal gas. Pressure and volume have an inverse relationship with each other but have a
direct relationship with temperature.
PV = mRT
Sample Problems:
Problem1.
Find the mass of the 20-cu.ft air at 350 R and 0.5700 psi. R= 53.34 lb·ft/lb·R
Given:
T₁= 350 R
V₁= 20-cu.ft
P₁= 0.570 psi
R = 53.34 lb·ft/lb·R
Required:
m= mass
Solution:
PV = mRT
𝑃𝑉
m=𝑅𝑇
(𝑂.570 𝑝𝑠𝑖) (20 𝑐𝑢.𝑓𝑡.)(144 𝑠𝑞.𝑓𝑡)
m= lb·ft
53.34· (350R)
lb·R

m=0.088 lb

8|P a g e
Problem2.
Find the volume of 0.1026 lb air at 350 R and 0.570 psi. R= 53.34 lb·ft/lb·R
Given:
T₁= 350 R
m= 0.088 lb
P₁= 0.570 psi
R = 53.34 lb·ft/lb·R
Required:
V= volume
Solution:
PV = mRT
𝑚𝑅𝑇
V= 𝑃
lb·ft
0.088 lb(53.34· ) (350 R)
lb·R
V= 0.570 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 (144)

V=20.02 ft3

9|P a g e
PROCESS OF IDEAL GAS
There are five types of thermodynamics processes. What this basically means is that in a system, one or
more variable is held constant.

Isothermal Process
An isothermal process is an internally reversible constant temperature process of a substance.
Sample Problems:
Problem1. During an isothermal process at 638°R, the pressure on 13lb of air drops from 120 psia to 15
psia. For an internally reversible process, determine (a) the work of a nonflow process, (b) Q, (c) ∆U and
∆H, and (d) ∆S.
Given:
T= 638°R
m= 13lb
P1= 120 psia
P2= 15 psia
Required:
W, Q, ∆U, ∆H and ∆S.
Solution:
𝑃
W=mRT ln 𝑃1
2

(13)(53.34)(638) 120
W= ln
778 15

W= 1182.5 Btu

Q = ∆U + W
Q = 0 + 1182.5 Btu
Q = 1182.5 Btu

∆U = 0
∆H = 0
𝑄
∆S = 𝑇
1182.5
∆S = 638

∆S = 1.85 Btu/°R

10|P a g e
Problem2.
During a reversible process there are abstracted 457 kJ/s from 1.5 kg/s of a certain gas while the
temperature remains constant at 356°K. For this gas, Cp = 2.232 and Cv= 1.713 kJ/kg.K. The initial
pressure is 656 kPa. For both nonflow and steady flow (∆P=0, ∆K=0) process, determine (a) V₁ and V₂
and P₂, (b) the work and Q, (c) ∆S and ∆H.
Given:
Q = -457 kJ/s
m = 1.5 kg/s
P1 = 656 kPa
T = 356 K
Cp = 2.232
Cv = 1.713 kJ/k

Required:
(a) V₁ and V₂ and P₂
(b) the work and Q
(c) ∆S and ∆H.
Solution:
R = Cp – Cv
R= 2.232 – 1.713
R = 0.519 kJ/kg.K
𝑚𝑅𝑇1
V1 = 𝑃1

(1.5)(0.519)(356)
V1 = 656

V1 = 0.422 m3/s

𝑉
Q = p1V1 ln 𝑉2
1

𝑄
[ ]
(𝑃1)( 𝑉1)
V₂= V₁ 𝑒
− 457
[(656)(0.422)]
V₂= 0.422 m3/s 𝑒
V₂= 0.422 m3/s 𝑒 −0.19
V₂= 0.35 m3/s
𝑃1𝑉1
P2 = 𝑉2

11|P a g e
 (656)(0.422)
P2= 0.35

P2 = 790.95 kPa
W= Q = -457 kJ/s

𝑄
∆S = 𝑇
−457
∆S = 356

∆S = -0.16 kJ/K.s

12|P a g e
Isobaric Process

An isobaric process is an internally reversible process of a substance during which the pressure remains
constant.

Sample Problems:

Problem1.
A perfect gas has a value of R = 319.2 J/kg.K and k = 1.26. If 120 kJ are added to 5 kg of this gas at
constant pressure when the initial temperature is 47.5°C, find (a) T2, (b) ∆H, (c) ∆U, and (d) work for a
nonflow process.
Given:
k = 1.26
m = 5 kg
R = 319.2 J/kg.K
Q = 120 kW
T1 = 47.5 + 273 = 320.5°K
Required:
(a) T2
(b) ∆H
(c) ∆U
(d) work for a nonflow process
Solution:
𝑘𝑅
Cp = 𝑘−1
(1.26)(0.3192)
Cp= 1.26−1

=1.5469 KJ/Kg.K

Q = mCp (T2-T1)
120 = (5) (1.5469) (T2-305.)
T2 = 331.05 K
CP = 1.5469 kJ/kg.K

∆H = mCp (T2-T1)

∆H = (3) (1.5469) (339.4-305.2)

∆H = 158.988 kJ

13|P a g e
 𝑅
Cv = 𝑘−1

0.3192
Cv = 1.26−1

Cv = 1.2277 kJ/kg.K

∆U = mCv (T2 – T1)

∆U = (3) (1.2277) (339.4-305.2)

∆U = 125.96 kJ

14|P a g e
 𝑚𝑅𝑇2 𝑚𝑅𝑇1
W = p(V2-V1) = p[ − ]
𝑃2 𝑃1

W = m R (T2-T1)

W = (3) (0.3192) (339.4-305.2)

W = 32.75 kJ
Problem2. A certain gas, with Cp = 0.529 Btu/lb.°R and R = 96.2 ft.lb/lb.°R, expands from 7 cu ft and
120°F to 18 cu ft while the pressure remains constant at 17.3 psia. Compute (a) T₂, (b) ∆H, (c) ∆U and
(d) ∆S. (e) For an internally reversible nonflow process, what is work?
Given:
p = 17.3 psia
V₁ = 7 cu ft
V₂ = 18 cu ft
T₁ = 120 + 460 = 580°R
Required:
(a) T₂
(b) ∆H
(c) ∆U
(d) ∆S
Solution:
𝑇1𝑉2
T2 = 𝑉1

(840)(18)
= 7

T2 = 2160°R

𝑃1𝑉1
m= 𝑅𝑇1

(17.3)(144)(7)
m= (96.2)(580)

m = 0.3125 lb
∆H = mCp (T2-T1)
∆H = (0.3125) (0.529) (2160-580)
∆H = 261.19 Btu
15|P a g e
Cv = Cp – R
96.2
Cv = 0.529 – 778

Cv = 0.4053 Btu/lb.°R

∆U = mCv (T2-T1)
∆U = (0.3125) (0.4053) (2160-580)
∆U = 200.17 Btu
𝑇
∆S = mCp ln 𝑇2
1

2160
∆S = (0.3125) (0.529) ln 580

∆S = 0.22 Btu/°R

16|P a g e
Isochoric Process

An isochoric process is a reversible constant volume process. A constant volume process may be
reversible or irreversible.

Sample Problems:

Problem1. There are 6.0 kg of gas, for which R = 377 J/kg.k and k = 1.25, that undergo a nonflow
constant volume process from P1 = 644.6 kPa and t1 = 78°C to P2 = 1756 kP a. During the process
the gas is internally stirred and there are also added 125.5 kJ of heat. Determine (a) T2, (b) the work
input and (c) the change of entropy.
Given:
k = 1.25
R = 377 J/kg.k
m = 6.0 kg
Q = 125.5 kJ
P1 = 644.6 kPa
P2 = 1756 kPa
T1 = 78 + 273 = 351°K
Required:
(a) T2
(b) the work input
(c) the change of entropy
Solution:
𝑇1𝑃2
T2 = 𝑃1

(351)(1756)
T₂= 644.6

T2 = 956.2°K
𝑅
Cv =
𝐾−1
377
Cv = 1.25−1

Cv= 1508 J/kg.K

∆U = mCv (T2-T1)
∆U =(6.0)(1.508)(956.2-351)
∆U = 5475.84kJ

17|P a g e
W = Q - ∆U
W = 125.5 – 5475.84
W = -5350.34kJ

18|P a g e
 𝑇
∆S = mCv ln 𝑇2
1

956.2
∆S = (6.0) (1.508) ln 351

∆S = 9.0678 kJ/K

Problem2.
Ten cu ft of air at 670 psia and 654°F is cooled to 244°F at constant volume. What are (a) the final
pressure, (b) the work, (c) the change of internal energy, (d) the transferred heat, (e) the change of
enthalpy, and (f) the change of entropy?
Given:
V = 10 cu ft
P1 = 670 psia
T1 = 654 + 460 = 1114°R
T2 = 244 + 460 = 704°R
Required:
(a) the final pressure
(b) the work
(c) the change of internal energy
(d) the transferred heat
(e) the change of enthalpy
(f) the change of entropy
Solution:
P1T2
P2 = T1

(670)(704)
P2= 1114

P2 = 423.41 psia
(a) W = 0
𝑃1𝑉1
m= 𝑅𝑇1

(670)(144)(10)
m= (53.34)(1114)

m = 16.24lb
19|P a g e
∆U = mCv (T2 – T1)
∆U = (16.24) (0.1714) (704-1114)
∆U = -1141.25Btu

Q =∆U
Q = -1141.25Btu
∆H = (16.24) (0.24) (704-1114)
∆H = -1598.02Btu

𝑇
∆S = mCvln 𝑇2
1

704
∆S = (16.24) (0.1714) ln 1114

∆S = -1.278 Btu/°R

Isentropic Process

An isentropic process is a reversible adiabatic process. Adiabatic simply means no heat. A reversible
adiabatic is one of constant entropy.

Sample Problems:

Problem1. From a state defined by 460 psia, 315 cu ft and 300°F, Helium undergoes and isentropic
process to 0.7 psig. Find (a) V2 and T2, (b) ∆U and ∆H, (c) Q and ∆S. What is the work (d) if the process
is nonflow?

Given:

P1 = 460 psia

P2 = 0.7 + 14.7 = 15.4 psia

V1 = 315 cu ft

T1 = 300 + 460 = 760°R

Required:
(a) V2 and T2
(b) ∆U and ∆H
(c) Q and ∆S.
(d) work (non-flow)

20|P a g e
Solution:
𝑃
V2 = V1[ 1 ]1/k
𝑃2

460
V2 = 315[15.4]1/1.666

V2 = 2419.95 ft3
𝑃
T2 = T1[𝑃2 ]k-1/k
1

15.4
T2= 760 [ 460 ]1.666-1/1.666

T₂ = 195.47 °R
𝑃1𝑉1
m= 𝑅𝑇1

(460)(144)(315)
m= (386.04)(760)

m = 71.12lb

∆H = mCp (T2-T)
∆H = (71.12) (1.2441) (195.47-760)
∆H = -49949.84Btu
∆U = m Cv (T2-T)
∆U = (71.12) (0.745) (195.47-760)
∆U = -29911.28Btu
Q=0
∆S= 0

Q= ∆U + W
W= -∆U
W= -(-29911.28Btu)
W= 29911.28 BTU

Problem2. An adiabatic expansion of air occurs through a nozzle from 452 kPa and 50oC to 38 kPa. The
initial kinetic energy is negligible. For an isentropic expansion, compute T₂, the V₂ and ∆K.
Given:
P₁= 452 kPa
T₁= 50oC = 323 K
P₂= 38 kPa

21|P a g e
Required:
T₂
V₂
∆K
Solution:
𝑘−1
𝑃₂ 𝑘
T₂= 𝑇₁ [𝑃₁]
1.4−1
38 1.4
T₂=323[452]

T₂=159.2 K
P₁V₁=mRT₁
𝑚𝑅𝑇
V₁= 𝑃₁
(1)(.28708)(323)
V₁= 452

V₁= 0.205 m3/kg

1
𝑃₁ 𝑘
V₂=V₁[𝑃₂]
1
452 1.4
V₂=0.205 [ 38 ]

V₂= 1.202 m3/kg

∆H = cP (T₂ - T₁)
∆H = 1.0062 (159.2-323)
∆H = -164.8 kJ/kg

∆K= -∆H
∆K= -(-164.8 kJ/kg)
∆K= 164.8 kJ/kg

Polytropic Process

A polytropic process is an internally reversible process.

Sample Problems:

22|P a g e
Problem1. During a polytropic process, 20 lb of an ideal gas, whose R= 55ft.lb/lb.R and Cp= 0.25 BTU/
lb.R, changes state from 40 psia and 80oF to 160 psia and 420oF. Determine (a) n, (b) ∆U and ∆H, (c) ∆S
and (d) Q.
Given:
P₁ = 40 psia
P₂ = 160 psia
T₁= 80oF = 540 R
T₂= 420oF =880 R
m= 20 lb
𝑓𝑡.𝑙𝑏
R= 55 𝑙𝑏.𝑅
𝐵𝑇𝑈
CP= 0.25 𝑙𝑏.𝑅

Required:
(a) n
(b) ∆U and ∆H
(c) ∆S
(d) Q
Solution:
𝑛−1
𝑃₂ 𝑛 𝑇₂
(a)[𝑃₁] =𝑇₁
𝑛−1 𝑃₂ 𝑇₂
ln [𝑃₁]=𝑇₁
𝑛
𝑇₂
𝑛−1 𝑇₁
= 𝑃₂
𝑛 ln [ ]
𝑃₁

880
𝑛−1 540
= 160
𝑛 ln [ ]
40

1 1.63
1-𝑛 = 1.39

n= 1.17
(b) Cv= CP- R
55
Cv = 0.25 – 778
𝐵𝑇𝑈
Cv = 0.18 𝑙𝑏.𝑅

∆U = mCv (T₂-T₁)
∆U= (20) (0.18) (880-540)
∆U= 1224 BTU
23|P a g e
 ∆H= mCP (T₂-T₁)
∆H= (20) (0.25) (880-540)
∆H= 1700 BTU

𝐶𝑃
(c) k = 𝐶𝑣

0.25
k = 0.18

k = 1.39
𝑘−𝑛
Cn= Cv[1−𝑛]
1.39−1.17
Cn= 0.18 [ ]
1−1.17
𝐵𝑇𝑈
Cn= 0.0541
𝑙𝑏.𝑅
𝑇₂
∆S= m Cn ln 𝑇₁
800
∆S= 10 (0.0541) ln 500
𝐵𝑇𝑈
∆S= 0.2543 𝑅

(d) Q= m Cn ln (T₂-T₁)
Q= 10 (0.0541) ln (800-500)
𝐵𝑇𝑈
Q= 0.2543 𝑅

Problem2. When ambient 5 kg of air at 64 kPa and 247 K is compressed polytropically to 620 kPa.
Assume n = 1.38 for this process path and that air behaves as an ideal gas.Calculate Q & W, in kJ/kg.
Given:
M=5 kg
P₁ = 64 kPa
T₁ = 247 K
n = 1.38
P₂ = 620 kPa

Required:
Q
W
Solution:

24|P a g e
 𝑛−1
𝑃₂ 𝑛 𝑇₂
[𝑃₁] =𝑇₁
𝑛−1
𝑃₂ 𝑛
T₂= 𝑇₁ [𝑃₁]
1.38−1
620 1.38
T₂= 247 [ 64 ]

T₂= 461.6 K
𝑚𝑅 (𝑇₂−𝑇₁)
W= 1−𝑛
5(.28708) (461.6−247)
W= 1−1.38

W= -810.62 kJ/kg

𝑘−𝑛
(b) Cn= Cv[1−𝑛]
1.4−1.38
Cn= 0.718[ 1−1.38 ]

Cn= -0.0377
Q= m Cn ln (T₂-T₁)
Q= 5 (-0.0377) ln (461.6-247)
Q= -1.012kJ/kg

GAS CYCLE

In gas cycles, the working fluid remains in the gaseous phase throughout the entire cycle, whereas in
vapor cycles the working fluid exists in the vapor phase during one part of the cycle and in the liquid
phase during another part.

Carnot Cycle

The Carnot cycle consists of the following four processes:

A reversible isothermal gas expansion process. In this process, the ideal gas in the system absorbs qin
amount heat from a heat source at a high temperature Th, expands and does work on surroundings.

A reversible adiabatic gas expansion process. In this process, the system is thermally insulated. The gas
continues to expand and do work on surroundings, which causes the system to cool to a lower
temperature

A reversible isothermal gas compression process. In this process, surroundings do work to the gas at Tl,
and causes a loss of heat

25|P a g e
A reversible adiabatic gas compression process. In this process, the system is thermally insulated.
Surroundings continue to do work to the gas, which causes the temperature to rise back to high
temperature

Sample Problems:

Problem1.A carnot engine operating between 555 K and 225 K produces 24 kJ of work. Determine (a)
Qa, (b) ∆S during heat rejection and (c) e.
Given:
T₁= 555 K
T₂= 225 K
W= 24 kJ
Required:
(a) Qa,
(b) ∆S during heat rejection
(c) e.
Solution:
𝑇₁−𝑇₃
e= 𝑇₁
555−225
e= 555

e= 0.595
𝑊
QA= 𝑒
24
QA=0.595

QA= 40.34 kJ
W=QA- QR
-QR=40.34 kJ – 24 kJ
QR=-16.34 Kj

𝑄𝑟
∆S= 𝑇₃
−16.34
∆S= 225
𝑘𝐽
∆S=− 𝐾
26|P a g e
e= 0.0726
e= 7.26%
Problem2. A carnot power cycle operates on 1.75lb of air between the limits of 90 F and 750 F. The
pressure at the beginning of isothermal expansion is 420 psia and at the end of isothermal expansion is
200 psia. Determine (a) the volume at the end of isothermal compression, (b) ∆S during an isothermal
process, (c) Qa, (d) Qr, (e) W, (f) e, (g) the ratio of expansion during isothermal heating and the overall
ration odf expansion and (h) the mean effective pressure.
Given:
m= 1.75lb
P₁=420 psia
T₁= 1210 R
P₂= 200 psia
T₂= 550 R

Required:
(a) V₄
(b) ∆S
(c) Qa
(d) Qr,
(e) W
(f) e
(g) ratio of expansion(isothermal)and the overall ratio of expansion
(h) the mean effective pressure

Solution:
𝑚𝑅 𝑇₁
V₁= 𝑃₁
(1.75)(53.34)(1210)
V₁= 420(144)

V₁=1.87 ft3
𝑚𝑅 𝑇₂
V₂= 𝑃₂
(1.75)(53.34)(1210)
V₂= 200 (144)

V₂= 3.92 ft3

27|P a g e
 𝐾
𝑇₃ 𝐾−1
P₃= P₂[𝑇₂]
1.4
550 1.4−1
P₃= 200 [1210]

P₃= 12.66 psia

𝑚𝑅 𝑇₃
V₃= 𝑃₃
(1.75)(53.34)(550)
V₃= 12.66 (144)

V₃= 28.16 ft3

𝑉₁
V₄=V₃ 𝑉₂

1.87 ft3
V₄=28.16 ft3 3.92ft3

V₄= 13.43 ft3

𝑉₂
∆S = mRln 𝑉₁
3.92
∆S = (1.75)(53.34)ln 1.87
BTU
∆S = 195.68 R

QA= T₁ (∆S)
QA= 1210 (195.68)
QA= 236772.8BTU

QR= -T₃ (∆S)

QR= -(550) (195.68)
QR= -107624 BTU

W= QA+ QR
W= 236772.8BTU+ (-107624BTU)
W= 129148.8BTU
𝑊
e=𝑄
𝐴

129148.8
e = 236772.8

e = 0.55 or 55 %

28|P a g e
 𝑉₂
Isothermal expansion ratio= 𝑉₁
2.671
Isothermal expansion ratio= 1.3335

Isothermal expansion ratio= 2

𝑉₃
Overall expansion ratio= 𝑉₁
11.98
Overall expansion ratio=1.3335

Overall expansion ratio=8.98

𝑊
Pm= 𝑉𝑑
𝑊
Pm=𝑉 −𝑉
3 1

236772.8BTU (778)
Pm= (28.16−1.87)(144)

Pm = 45427.08 psia

Three-Process Cycle

Problem1. 1 cu. ft of helium at 20 psia and 80 F are compressed isentropically 1-2 to 80 psia. The
helium is then expanded polytropically 2-3 with n= 1.35 to the initial temperature. An isothermal 3-1
returns the helium to the initial state. Find T₂, V₂, P₃, QA..
Given:
P₁= 20 psia
T₁= 540 R
V₁= 18 ft3
P₂= 80 psia
T₃= 540 R

Required:
(a)T₂
(b)V₂
(c) P₃,
(d) QA,

29|P a g e
Solution:
𝑃₁𝑉₁
m= 𝑅𝑇₁
20(144)(18)
m= 386.04(540𝑇)

m= 0.2486 lb
1
𝑃₂ 𝑛
V₃=V₂[𝑃₃]
1
80 1.35
V₃=7.832[9.435]

V₃= 38.155 ft3

𝑘−1
𝑃₂ 𝑘
T₂=T₁[𝑃₁]
1.666−1
80 1.666
T₂=540[20]

T₂= 939.9 R
1
𝑃₁. 𝑘
V₂=𝑉₁ [ 𝑃₂ ]
1
20 1.666
V₂=18 [80]

V₂=7.832 ft3
𝑛
𝑇₃ 𝑛−1
P₃=𝑃₂ [𝑇₂]
1.35
540 1.35−1
P₃=80 [939.9]

P₃=9.435 psia

𝑘−𝑛
Cn=Cv[1−𝑛]
1.666−1.35
Cn=0.754[ ]
1−1.35

Cn= -6808
QA=mCn(T₃-T₂)
QA= (0.2486) (-0.6808) (540-939.9)
QA=67.68 BTU
Problem2. Twenty cu. ft of helium at 30 psia and 80 F are compressed isentropically 1-2 to 80 psia. The
helium is then expanded polytropically 2-3 with n= 1.35 to the initial temperature. An isothermal 3-1
returns the helium to the initial state. Find T₂, V₂, P₃, QA.
30|P a g e
Given:
P₁= 30 psia
T₁= 540 R
V₁= 20 ft3
P₂= 80 psia
T₃= 540 R

Required:
(a) T₂
(b)V₂
(c) P₃,
(d) QA,
Solution:
𝑃₁𝑉₁
m= 𝑅𝑇₁
30(144)(20)
m= 386.04(540𝑇)

m= 0.4144lb
1
𝑃₂ 𝑛
V₃=V₂[𝑃₃]
1
80 1.35
V₃=11.10 [9.435]

V₃= 4985.928 ft3

𝑘−1
𝑃₂ 𝑘
T₂=T₁[𝑃₁]
1.666−1
80 1.666
T₂=540[30]

T₂= 799.2 R
1
𝑃₁. 𝑘
V₂=𝑉₁ [ 𝑃₂ ]
1
30 1.666
V₂=20 [80]

V₂=11.10 ft3
𝑛
𝑇₃ 𝑛−1
P₃=𝑃₂ [𝑇₂]

31|P a g e
 1.35
540 1.35−1
P₃=80 [939.9]

P₃=9.435 psia
𝑘−𝑛
Cn=Cv[1−𝑛]
1.666−1.35
Cn=0.754[ ]
1−1.35

Cn= -6808
QA=mCn(T₃-T₂)
QA= (0.4144) (-0.6808) (540-799.2)
QA=73.126 BTU

SPARK-IGNITION OR GASOLINE ENGINE

The spark ignition engine premixes the fuel with air before admitting the mixture into the cylinder of the
device. Various mechanical and electrical systems have been developed to carry out this mixing. The
fuel mixture is then compressed before being ignited with an electrical spark.
Otto Cycle
The Otto cycle is a description of what happens to a mass of gas as it is subjected to
changes of pressure, temperature, volume, addition of heat, and removal of heat. The
mass of gas that is subjected to those changes is called the system. The system, in this
case, is defined to be the fluid (gas) within the cylinder.

Sample Problems:
Problem1. Let assume an otto cycle with compression ratio of 9:1. The intake air is at 100kPa, 30oC and
the volume of the chamber is 399 cm3 prior to the compression stroke. The temperature at the end of
adiabatic is 800K. Cp= 1.01 kJ/kgK; Cv= 0.718kJ/kgK; R= 287.1 J/kgK. Calculate the T3, P3, Qa and the
thermal efficiency of this cycle.

Given:
P1= 100 kPa = 100000 Pa T4= 800 K R= 287.1 J/kgK
T1= 30oC = 303.15 K rk= 9
V4 =V1= 399 cm3= 0.000399 Cp= 1.01 kJ/kgK
m3
Cv= 0.718kJ/kgK

Required:
T3, P3, Qa and e
Solution:
32|P a g e
 𝑘
𝑉₄ 𝑘 𝑇₃ 𝑘−1
(a). [𝑉₃] = [𝑇₄]

T3 = T4 (rk)k-1
T3 = 800 K(9)0.4
T3 = 1926.579 K
1 1 𝑃 𝑉
(b) m= 𝑅𝑇
100000 (0.000399)
m= 287.1 (303.15)

m= 4.584x10-4 kg
𝑉₄
rk= 𝑉₃
0.000399
V₃= 9

V₃= 4.433x10-5 m3
𝑚𝑅𝑇₃
P3= 𝑉₃

287.1 (1926.579 K)4.584x10−4 kg

P3= 4.433𝑋10−5

P3=5719.618 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑇₂ 𝑉₁ 𝑘−1
(c) [𝑇₁] = [𝑉₂]

T₂= T₁(rk)k-1
T₂= 303.15(9)0.4
T₂= 730.0533 K
Qa= mcv (T₃-T₂)
Qa= 4.584x10-4 kg0.718(1926.579-730.0533)
Qa= 393.813 J
1
(d) e=1-𝑟 𝑘−1
𝑘

1
e=1-91.4−1

e=0.584756 or 58%

Problem2.In an air standard Otto cycle, the compression ratio is 7 and the compression begins at 37oC
and 100 kPa and the volume of the chamber is 450 cm3 prior to the compression stroke. At the end of the
adiabatic is T₄=60K. Cp= 1.01 kJ/kgK; k=1.4;R= 287.1 J/kgK. Calculate m, T₃, Qa and the mean
effective pressure.
33|P a g e
Given:
rk= 7
T₁= 37oC= 310.15K
P₁= 100 kPa= 100000 Pa
V₄=V₁= 450cm3=0.00045 m3
T₄= 600K
Cp= 1.01 kJ/kgK
k=1.4
R= 287.1 J/kgK
Required:
m, T₃, Qa and Pm
Solution:
𝑃 1 𝑉₁
m= 𝑅𝑇₁
100000 Pa(0.00045)
m= J
287.1 (310.15K)
kgK

m= 5.0536x10-4kg
𝑘
𝑉₄ 𝑘 𝑇₃ 𝑘−1
[ ] =[ ]
𝑉₃ 𝑇₄
T3 = T4 (rk)k-1
T3 = 600K(7)0.4
T₃= 1306.74 K
𝐶p
(a) Cv= 𝐾
1.01 kJ/kgK
Cv= 1.4
kJ
Cv= 0.721 kgK

𝑇₂ 𝑉₁ 𝑘−1
[ ]=[ ]
𝑇₁ 𝑉₂
T₂= T₁(rk)k-1
T₂= 310.15 K (7)0.4
T₂= 675.4776 K
Qa= mcv (T₃-T₂)
Qa= 5.0536x10-4(0.721)(1306.74 -675.4776)
34|P a g e
Qa=230.01 J
1
(d) e=1-𝑟 𝑘−1
𝑘

1
e=1-71.4−1

e=0.5408
W= Qa(e)
W= 230.01 J(0.5408)
W= 124. 399 J
𝑉₄
V₃=𝑟
𝑘

0.00045
V₃= 7

V₃= 6.4286x10-5

𝑊
Pm=𝑉
𝑑

124.399
Pm =0.00045−0.00006428

Pm= 322 kPa

HEAT TRANSFER
35|P a g e
Heat transfer is the process of transfer of heat from high temperature reservoir to low temperature
reservoir. In terms of the thermodynamic system, heat transfer is the movement of heat across the
boundary of the system due to temperature difference between the system and the surroundings. The
heat transfer can also take place within the system due to temperature difference at various points inside
the system.
Conduction
The transfer of heat between two solid bodies is called as conduction. It depends on the difference in
temperature of the hot and cold body. It can be expressed as:
𝑘𝐴 (𝑇₁ − 𝑇₂)
Q= 𝐿

Sample Problems:
Problem1. Asbestos layer whose thickness is 0.24 m is used as an insulator over a boiler wall. Consider
an area of 2.9m2 and calculate the rate of heat flow over this area if the temperatures on either side of the
insulation are 245oC and 27oC. Given K = 0.116 W/mK
Given:
K = 0.116 W/Mk
dx= 0.24 m
T₁= 30oC
T₂= 400oC
A= 2.9m2
Required:
Rate of heat flow
Solution:
q = – k dt / dx
0.116 (27 – 245)
q= – 0.07

q = 105.4W/m2
Q = q (A)
Q= 105.4W/m2 (2.9) m2
Q = 305.6 W

Problem2. Determine the rate of heat transfer by conduction per unit area, by means of conduction for a
furnace wall made of fire clay. Furnace wall thickness is 2" or half a foot. Thermal conductivity of the
furnace wall clay is 0.3 W/m·K. The furnace wall temperature can be taken to be same as furnace
operating temperature which is 1500C and temperature of the outer wall of the furnace is 500C.

36|P a g e
Given:
T₁ = 1500oC
T₂= 500oC
L = 2" = 2 × 0.0254 m = 0.0508 m
k = 0.3 W/m·K
Required:
Q/A=rate of heat transfer
Solution:
𝑘𝐴 (𝑇₁ − 𝑇₂)
Q= 𝐿
𝑘 (𝑇₁ − 𝑇₂)
Q/A = 𝐿
0.3 (1500−500)
Q/A= 0.0508

Q/A = 5905.5 W/m2

Convection
The transfer of heat between the solid surface and the liquid is called as convection heat transfer.
Expressed as:
Q= hc A (∆T
Sample Problems:

Problem1.The air in a typical house is completely replaced in less than an hour. Suppose that a
moderately-sized house has inside dimensions 14mx19mx4m high, and that all air is replaced in 1800
sec. Calculate the heat and heat transfer per unit time in watts needed to warm the incoming cold air by
10.0oC, thus replacing the heat transferred by convection alone.
Given:
Density= 1.29 kg/m3
V=(14x19x4)m3
c= 1000J/kg.C
T= 10.0oC
t (time) = 0.5 h = 1800 s
Required:
Q= heat
Q/t= heat transfer per unit time

37|P a g e
Solution:
mass (m)
Density=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑉)

m= density (V)
m= 1.29 kg/m3(14x19x4)m3
m= 1372.56 kg
Q=mcT
Q=1372.56 kg (1000J/kg.C) 10.0oC
Q=13725600 J

13725600 J
Q/t = 1800 s

Q/t = 7625.3 kW
Problem2.A 32 ft uninsulated steam line crosses a room. The outer diameter of the steam line is 18 in
and the outer surface temperature is 280oF. The convective heat transfer coefficient for the air is 18
BTU/hr.ft2oF. Calculate the heat transfer rate from the pipe into the room if the room temperature is
72oF.
Given:
L= 32 ft
D= 18 in = 1.5 ft
hc=18 BTU/hr.ft2oF
TO= 280oF
TI= 72oF
Required:
Q= Heat transfer rate
Solution:
Q= hc A (∆T)
Q= hc( 2 π r L ) (∆T)
Q= 18 BTU/hr.ft2oF [(2) (3.14) (0.75 ft) (32ft) (280oF- 72oF)
BTU
Q= 564295.68 ℎ𝑟

Radiation

38|P a g e
When two bodies are at different temperatures and separated by distance, the heat transfer between them
is called as radiation heat transfer. In case of the conduction and convection heat transfer there is a
media to transfer the heat, but in case of the radiation heat transfer there is no media. The radiation heat
transfer occurs due to the electromagnetic waves that exist in the atmosphere. Expressed as:
Q/t = c e A (T₂4- T₁4)
Sample Problems:
Problem1. A surface area of 1.0 m2, emissivity 0.8 and temperature 150oC is placed in a large,
evacuated chamber whose walls are maintained at 25oC. Find the rate at which radiation is emitted by
the surface. What is the net rate of radiation exchange between the surface and the chamber wall?
Given:
SA= 1.0m2
e = 0.8
TI= 150oC = 423 K
TO= 25oC = 298 K
Stefan-Boltzmann constant (c)= 5.6710-8J/sm2K4
Required:
Heat rate emitted (QE)
Net rate from the surface to the chamber wall (Q)
Solution:
QE= c e (A) (T4)
QE= 5.6710-8J/sm2K4(0.8) (1.0m2) (4234)
QE= 1452 W

Q= c e (A) (T4)
Q=5.6710-8J/sm2K4(0.8) (1.0m2) (4234- 2984)
Q=1094.70428 W
Problem2.What is the rate of heat transfer by radiation, with an unclothed person standing in a dark
room whose ambient temperature of 35.0 C and a surface area of 1.50 m2. The emissivity of skin is 0.97
in the infrared, where the radiation takes place. T₂= 300 K; Stefan-Boltzmann constant= 5.6710-8J/sm2K4
Given:
T₁= 35.0 C= 308K
T₂= 300 K
e= 0.97
Stefan-Boltzmann constant (c)= 5.6710-8J/sm2K4

39|P a g e
SA= 1.50 m2

Required:
Q/t= rate of heat transfer
Solution:
Q/t = c e A (T₂4- T₁4)
Q/t = 5.6710-8J/sm2K4 (0.97) 1.50 m2 (3004- 3084)
Q/t= -74.19 J/s
Q/t= -74.19 W

40|P a g e