Passive Elements and Phasor Diagrams

Resistor i R v = Ri
+ v - V = RI
v

i I V

Inductor di
i L v=L
dt
+ v -
V = jwL I
v
i

V
I

C dv
Capacitor
i
i=C
dt
+ v -
I = jwC V
v i I

V
EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
1 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 Ideal Transformer

i1 i2 v1 i 2 N1
+ + a= = =
v1 v2 v 2 i1 N2
- - V1 I2 N1
a= = =
N1:N2 V2 I1 N2
Transformer feeding load:
I1 I2
+ +
V1 V2 Z
- -

V2 = V1/a
I2 = V2/Z
I1= I2/a

V2 V1

Assuming a RL load
connected to secondary I1
and ideal source to primary
I2

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
2 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 Two Winding Transformer Model

à The linear equivalent model of a real

transformer consists of an ideal transformer and
some passive elements

i1 i2
+ +

v1 v2
N1:N2
- -

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
3 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 AC Generators and Motors

à AC synchronous generator
« Single-phase equivalent

à AC synchronous motor
« Single-phase equivalent

à AC induction motor (rarely used as generator)

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
4 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 Steady-state Solution

In sinusoidal steady-state a circuit may be solved using phasors

I
R vs

+
VS jwL θ
-

0 π 2π

V S = R I + jw L I Ix=I cosθ

V S = (R + jw L ) I VS
θ
V S = (R + jX ) I θ
V S = Z I
V S I
I =
Z
V ∠ 0 Iy=I sinθ I
I = m ax

Z ∠ θ
Rectangular form Polar form
I = I m ax ∠ − θ

I = Ix + j Iy = Imax ∠ θ

F r o m r e c ta n g u la r f o r m to p o la r f o r m :
2 2
I = I x + I y M a g n itu d e
− 1  I y 
θ = ta n   A n g le o r p h a s e
 I x 

F r o m p o la r f o r m to r e c ta n g u la r f o r m :
I x = I c o s θ R e a l p a rt
I y = I s in θ R e a c tiv e o r im a g in a r y p a rt

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
5 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 Single-phase Power Definitions

i(t) = Im sin (wt+θi) amps

+
v(t) = Vm sin(wt+θv) Load: any R,L,C
volts combination
-

w: angular frequency in rad/sec

w=2πf f: frequency in Hz

Instantaneous pow er
p (t ) = v (t ) i(t ) = [V m sin w t + θv ][ I m sin ( w t + θi ) ]
V m I m {c o s ( θ v − θ i ) − c o s ( 2 w t + θ v + θ i )}
1
p (t ) =
2

A v e rage P o w er (o r R E A L P O W E R )
T
1 1
P =
T ∫0
p(t ) d t =
2
V m I m c o s θ = V rm s I rm s c o s θ

A p p a ren t P o w e r
S = V rm s I rm s

P o w e r F a c to r
REAL POW ER P
pf = =
APPARENT POWER S

F o r th i s c ircuit, th e p o w e r f a c to r i s
V rm s I rm s c o s θ
pf = = cosθ
V rm s I rm s

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
6 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 Power Triangle

S
Ssin θ=Q
θ

P=Scosθ
Real Power P = S cos θ = V I cos θ watts

Reactive Power Q = S sin θ = V I sin θ vars

C o m p le x P o w e r
S = S ∠ θ = P + j Q
S = V I c o sθ + jV I s in θ

If θ = θ v - θ i
a n d a s s u m in g a re fe re n c e θ v = 0
t h e n θ = -θ i
th e re fo re
S = V [I c o s ( - θ ) + j I s i n ( - θ ) ]
i i

S = V [I c o s ( θ ) - j I s i n ( θ ) ]
i i

S = V I *

T h e m a g n itu d e
is c a lle d A p p a re n t P o w e r:
S = V I v o lt - a m p e re s (V A )

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
7 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 Power Consumption by Passive Elements

Impedance: Z = R + jX = Z ∠θ Ω

Resistive Load
Z = R = R ∠ 0o
P = V I cos0o = V I = I2 R = V 2
/ R w a tts
Q = V I sin 0 o = 0 v a rs

A resistor absorbs P

Purely Inductive Load

Z = jw L = jX L = X L ∠ 90 o

P = V I co s(9 0 o
) = 0 w a tts
o
Q = V I sin (9 0 ) = V I = I2X L = V 2
/ X L var s

An inductor absorbs Q

Purely Capacitive Load

1
Z = = -jX C = X C ∠ − 90o
jw C
P = V I co s(-9 0 o ) = 0 w a tts
Q = V I sin (-9 0 o ) = -V I = -I 2 X L = -V 2
/ X L var s

A capacitor absorbs negative Q. It supplies Q.

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
8 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 Advantages of Three-phase Systems

à Creation of the three-phase induction motor

Three-phase Single-phase
induction motor induction motor
Starting torque yes no
needs auxiliary
starting circuitry
Steady state torque Constant Oscillating causing
vibration

à Efficient transmission of electric power

ð 3 times the power than a single-phase circuit by
adding an extra cable

i ia
+ va
v Single-phase ib Three-phase
- Load vb Load
ic
vc

p = vi p = va ia + vb ib + vc ic

à Savings in magnetic core when constructing

ð Transformers
ð Generators

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
9 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 Three-phase Voltages
va vb vc

va(t) = Vm sin wt volts

vb(t) = Vm sin (wt - 2π/3) = Vm sin (wt - 120°) volts
vc(t) = Vm sin (wt - 4π/3) = Vm sin (wt - 240°) volts
or
vb(t) = Vm sin (wt + 2π/3) = Vm sin (wt + 120°) volts

w=2πf w: angular frequency in rad/sec f : frequency in Hertz

Vc

120 °
120 ° Va
120 °

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems Vb © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
10
 Star Connection (Y)

à Y-connected Voltage Source

+
Van
-
- Vbn
- n
+
+ Vcn b
c

Line - to - neutral voltages Van, Vbn, Vcn.

(phase voltages for Y - connection)
same magnitude: V P
VP = Van = Vbn = Vcn

Line - to - line voltages Vab, Vbc, Vca

same magnitude: VLL
Vab = Van - Vbn

VLL = 3 VP

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
11 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 ∆)
Delta Connection (∆

à ∆-connected Voltage Source

a
Vca -
+ +
c Vab
- -

Vbc + b

Line - to - line voltages Vab, Vbc, Vca.

(phase voltages for ∆ - connection)
same magnitude: VLL = VP

Phase currents Iab, Ibc, Ica.

same magnitude: I P

Line currents Ia, Ib, Ic.

same magnitude: I L
IL = 3 IP

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
12 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 Y-connected Load

Ia
a ia

+
Van Za
-
- Vbn
- n n'
+ Zc Zb
+ Vcn b
c
Ib
ia
Ic
ia

Balanced case: Za = Zb = Zc = Z
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
Ib = Ia∠ -120°
Ic = Ia∠ - 240°

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
13 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 ∆-connected Load

Ia
a ia

+
Van
-
- Zca Zab
Vbn
- n
+
+ Vcn b
Zbc
c
Ib
ia
Ic
ia

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
14 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 ∆ Equivalence
Y-∆

Za

Zca Zab
n'
Zc Zb Zbc

Balanced case:

Za = Zb = Zc = Zy

Z ∆ = 3Zy

Zab = Zbc = Zca = Z ∆ = 3Zy

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
15 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 Power in Three-phase Circuits

Three-phase voltages and currents:

va =Vm sin( wt +θv ) ia = Im sin( wt +θi )
vb =Vm sin( wt +θv −120°) ib = Im sin( wt +θv −120°)
vc =Vm sin( wt +θv − 240°) ic = Im sin( wt +θi − 240°)

The three-phase instantaneous power is:

p(t) = p3φ = va ia + vb ib + vc ic
sin( wt +θv ) sin( wt +θi ) + sin( wt +θv −120°) sin( wt +θv −120°)
p3φ = VmIm 
 + sin( wt +θv − 240°) sin( wt +θi − 240°) 

This expression can easily be reduced to:

p3φ = 23 VmIm cos(θv −θi )

Since the instantaneous power does not change with the time,
its average value equals its intantaneous value:
P3φ = p3φ
P3φ = 3VP I P cosθ

Vm Im
where: VP = IP = θ = θv −θi
2 2
EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
16 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 Three-phase Power

In a Y-connection
VLL = 3 VP IL = IP

V 
P3φ = 3VP I P cosθ = 3 LL  I L cosθ = 3 VLL I L cosθ
 3

In a ∆ -connection
VLL = VP IL = 3 IP

I 
P3φ = 3VP I P cosθ = 3VLL  L  cosθ = 3 VLL I L cosθ
 3

Regardless of the connection (for balanced systems),

the average power (real power) is :
P3φ = 3 VLL I L cosθ watts

Similarly, reactive power and apparent power expressions are:

Q3φ = 3 VLL I L sinθ vars
S3φ = 3 VLL I L VA

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
17 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 Per unit modelling

àPower lines operate at kilovolts (KV)

and kilowatts (KW) or megawatts (MW)

To represent a voltage as a percent of a reference

value, we first define this BASE VALUE.

Example:
Base voltage: Vbase = 120 KV
Circuit voltage Percent of Per unit value
base value
108 KV 90% 0.9

120 KV 100% 1.0

126 KV 105% 1.05

60 KV 50% 0.5

actual quantity
per unit quantity =
base quantity
108
Voltage_1= = 0.9 p.u.
120

** The percent value and the per unit value help

the analyzer visualize how close the operating
conditions are to their nominal values.

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
18 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 Defining bases

4 quantities are needed to model a network in per unit system:

V: voltage VBASE
I: current IBASE
S: power SBASE
Z: impedance ZBASE
V a c tu a l I a c tu a l
V pu = I pu =
V base I base
S a c tu a l Z a c tu a l
S pu = Z pu =
S base Z base

Given two bases, the other two quantities are easily determined.
If b a s e v o lta g e a n d b a s e p o w e r a r e k n o w n :
V base = 100 K V , S base = 100 M V A

th e n , b a s e c u r r e n t a n d b a s e im p e d a n c e a r e :
S 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0
I base = base
I base = = 1000 A .
V base 1 0 0 ,0 0 0
V base 1 0 0 ,0 0 0
Z base = Z base = = 100 Ω
I base 1000
A n o th e r w a y to e x p re s s b a s e im p e d a n c e is:

V base V (V ) 2

= =
base base
Z =
base
I base  S  S
 
base base

 V base 
R e a l p o w e r b a s e a n d re a c tiv e p o w e r b a s e a re:
P base = S base = 100 M W
Q base = S base = 100 M V A R

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
19 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 Three phase bases

In three-phase systems it is common to have data for the

three-phase power and the line-to-line voltage.

S base -3 Φ = 3 S base −1Φ

V base − LL = 3 V base − LN

T h e b a s e c u r r e n t a n d im p e d a n c e
f o r th e th r e e - p h a s e c a s e a r e :

 S base − 3Φ 
 
 3  S base − 3Φ
I base = =
 V base − LL  3 V base −
  LL
 3 

 V base − LL 

Z =

 3


=
(V base − LL ) 2

base
 S base − 3Φ  S base − 3Φ
 
 3 

I n p e r u n i t,
lin e - to - n e u tra l v o lta g e = lin e - to - lin e v o lta g e
V L N (pu) = V L L (pu)
w hy?

With
With p.u.
p.u. calculations,
calculations, three-phase
three-phase values
values ofof voltage,
voltage,
current
current and
and power
power can
can be
be used
used without
without undue
undue anxiety
anxiety
about
aboutthe
theresult
resultbeing factorofof√3
beingaafactor √3incorrect
incorrect!!!
!!!

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
20 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 Example

The following data apply to a three-phase case:

Sbase=300 MVA (three-phase power)
Vbase=100 KV (line-to-line voltage)

a Three-phase load Normally, we' d say:

P = 3 VL I L cos θ = 3 VL I L pf
b 270 MW
P 270x106
c 100 KV I= = = 1948.5 A.
3 VL pf 3 (100x10 3 ) ( 0.8)
pf=0.8

Using the per unit method:

Single-phase equivalent:
270
P= = 09
. p.u.
300
V =1.0 p.u. +
I=1.125 p.u.
V=1 p.u.
P = V I pf
-
then
P 09
.
I= = = 1125
. p.u.
V pf (10
. )(08
.)

This current is 12.5% higher than its base value!

 300,000
To check: 1.125xIbase = (1.125)  = 1125
. x 1732 = 19485
. A.
 3 100 

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
21 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 Transformers in per unit calculations

à With an ideal transformer

+ +
2400 V. V1 V2 4.33 + j 2.5 ohms
- -

2400:120 V
5 KVA

High Voltage Bases Low Voltage Bases

Sbase1 = 5 KVA Sbase2 = 5KVA
Vbase1= 2400 V Vbase2 = 120 V
Ibase1 = 5000/2400=2.083 A I base2 = 5000/120=41.667 A
Zbase1= 2400/2.083=1152 Ω Z base2 = 120/41.667=2.88 Ω

From the circuit: V1=2400 V.

V2=V1/a=V1/20=120 V.

In per unit: V1=1.0 p.u.

V2=1.0 p.u.

+ +
1.0 1.0
- -

The load in per unit is:

Z=(5∠ 30°)/Zbase2 =1.7361 ∠ 30° p.u.

The current in the circuit is:

I=(1.0 ∠0°)/ (1.7361 ∠ 30°) =0.576 ∠-30° p.u.

The current in amperes is:

Primary: I1=0.576 x Ibase1= 1.2 A.
Secondary: I2=0.576 x Ibase2= 24 A.

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
22 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 One line diagrams

à A one line diagram is a simplified

representation of a multiphase-phase circuit.

Transmission line TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER

GENERATOR

GENERATOR Transmission line

Transmission line

LOAD

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
23 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 Nodal Analysis

Suppose the following diagram represents the single-phase equivalent of

a three-phase system
z13=j2 p.u.

z3=j2 p.u.
z1=j1 p.u.

z12=j0.5 p.u. z23=j0.5 p.u.

V1= 1 p.u. V3= -j1 p.u.

z2=10 p.u.

Finding Norton equivalents and representing impedances as admittances:

y13=-j0.5 p.u.

1 y12=-j2 p.u. 2 y23=-j2 p.u. 3

y1=-j1 p.u.
y2=0.1 p.u. y3=-j0.5 p.u.

I1= -j1 p.u. I3= -0.5 p.u.

I1=y1 V1 + y12(V1-V2) + y13(V1-V3)

0 = y12 (V2-V1) + y2 V2 + y23(V2-V3)
I3=y13(V3-V1) + y23(V3-V2) + y3 V3
In matrix form:
 y 1 + y 12 + y 13 - y 12 - y 13   V1   I1
    
 - y 12 y 12 + y 2 + y 23 - y 23   V2  =  0 
 - y 13 - y 23 y 13 + y 23 + y 3   V3   I3 

 − j 3.5 j2 j 0.5   V1   - j1   V1   0.77 ∠ − 24 ° 

        
 j2 0.1 − j 4 j 2   V2  =  0  solving  V2  =  0.73∠ − 35°  p . u .
 j 0.5 j2 − j 3   V3   - 0.5  V3   0.71∠ − 44 ° 

EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
24 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000
 General form of the nodal analysis

The system of equations is repeated here to find a general solution technique:

y1 +y12 +y13 - y12 - y13 V1 I1
    
 - y12 y12 +y 2 + y23 - y23 V2 =  0 
 - y13 - y23 y13 +y23 +y3 V3 I3
or
Y11 Y12 Y13 V1 J1
    
Y21 Y22 Y23 V2 = J2
Y31 Y32 Y33 V3 J3

In general:
N
Yii = ∑yij i = 12
, ... N
j=1

Yij = -yij i = 12
, ... N; j = 12
, ... N; i≠ j

J i = ∑Ii (from current sources flowing into the node) i = 12

, ... N

Once the voltages are found, currents and powers are

easily evaluated from the circuit. We have solved one
of the phases of the three-phase system (e.g. phase
‘a’). Quantities for the other two phases are shifted
120 and 240 degrees under balanced conditions.

Actual quantities can be found by multiplying the per

unit values by their corresponding bases.
EECE 458/571
Three-phase systems
25 © Salvador Acevedo, 2000