Handout in Earth Life Science Copy 2

Handout in Earth and Life Science
ASTRONOMY
On a clear night we can see stars that are trillions of kilometers away. The light from many of these stars
has travelled for years before reaching our eyes. Accepting the fact that our earth is no more than a
speck in a huge universe did not come easily. It was long believed that the earth was the center around
which all else move.
Structure, Composition, and Age
 The universe as we currently know, comprises all space and time, and all matter and energy in it.
 It is made of 4.6% baryonic matter (“ordinary” matter consisting of protons, electrons, and
neutrons: atoms, planets, stars, galaxies, nebulae and other bodies) 24% cold dark matter
(matter that has gravity but does not emit light), and 71.4% dark energy (a source of anti-
gravity)
 Hydrogen, Helium, and Lithium are the three most abundant elements
 Stars – the building block of galaxies – are born out of clouds of gas and dust in galaxies.
Instabilities within the cloud eventually results into gravitational collapse, rotation, heating up,
and transformation into a protostar-the hot core of a future star as thermonuclear reactions set
in.
Birth, evolution, death, and rebirth of stars
 The remaining dust and gas may end up as they are or as planets, asteroids, or other bodies in
the accompanying planetary system
 A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars and clusters of galaxies form superclusters. In between the
clusters is practically an empty space.
 Based on recent data, the universe is 13.8 billion years old. The diameter of the universe is
possibly infinite but should be at least 91 billion light-years (1 light-year = 9.4607 x 1012 km).
The Universe Contains Everything There Is
The word universe is certainly not new to you. It is one of the simplest words to define but one of the
most difficult ideas to imagine.
The universe is everything that exists. We are most familiar with objects in the universe that are
closest to us: the earth, the other planets, and our star – the sun. Beyond this small part of the
universe are billions of stars and other objects, such as comets and asteroids. As you will learn
further, the stars are gathered in groups called galaxies. Each galaxy includes billions of stars and
planets plus gas and dust between the stars. Millions of such galaxies are spread throughout the
universe. In addition to objects, the universe includes all empty space. It also includes all light
and other forms of energy that exist.
Large Scale Features of the Solar System

Teaching Guide for Senior High School, Earth & Life Science by Duka, de Silva, et al
Integrated Science by Bautista
Introduction to Earth Science by Thompson and Turk
Earth and Life Science by Olivar and Morales-Ramos
Biology, Concepts & Connection by Campbell
Modern Biology by Otto Page 1
 Much of the mass of the Solar System is concentrated at the center (Sun) while angular
momentum is held by the outer planets;
 Orbits of the planets are elliptical and are on the same plane;
 All planets revolve around the sun;
 The periods of revolution of the planets increase with increasing distance from the Sun; the
innermost planet moves fastest, the outermost, the slowest;
 All planets are located at regular intervals from the Sun
Small Scale Features of the Solar System
 Most planets rotate prograde;
 Inner terrestrial planets are made of materials with high melting points such as silicates, iron,
and nickel. They rotate slower, have thin or no atmosphere, higher densities, and lower contents
of volatiles – hydrogen, helium, and noble gases;
 The outer four planets – Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are called “gas giants” because of
the dominance of gases and their larger size. The rotate faster, have thick atmosphere, lower
densities, and fluid interiors rich in hydrogen, helium, and ices (water, ammonia, methane)
Origin of the Solar System

(Rival Theories)
Nebular Hypothesis
In 1700s Emmanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace independently

thought of a rotating gaseous cloud that cools and contracts in the middle to form the sun and
the rest into a disc that become the planets. This nebular theory failed to account for the
distribution of angular momentum in the solar system.
Encounter Hypothesis
 Buffon’s (1749) Sun-comet encounter that sent matter;
 James Jeans’ (1917) sun star encounter that would have drawn from the sun matter that would
condense to planets;
 T.C. Chamberlain and F.R. Moulton’s (1904) planetesimal hypothesis involving a star much bigger
than the Sun passing by the Sun and draws gaseous filaments from both out which planetesimals
were formed
 Ray Lyttleton’s (1940) sun’s companion star colliding with another to form a proto-planet that
breaks up to form Jupiter and Saturn
 Otto Schmidts accretion theory proposed that the Sun passed through a dense interstellar cloud
and emerge with a dusty, gaseous envelop that eventually became planets. However, it cannot
explain how the planets and satellite were formed. The time required to form the planets
exceeds the age of the solar system
Protoplanet Hypothesis – Current
 A. About 4.6 billion years ago, in the Orion arm of the Milky Way galaxy, a slow-rotating gas and
dust cloud dominated by hydrogen and helium starts to contract due to gravity
 B. As most of the mass move to the center to eventually become a proto-Sun, the remaining
materials form a disc that will eventually become the planets and momentum is transferred
outwards
 C. Due to collisions, fragments of dust and solid matter begin sticking to each other to form
larger and larger from meter to kilometer in size. These proto-planets of frozen water, ammonia,
methane, silicon, aluminum, iron, and other metals in rock and mineral grains enveloped in
hydrogen and helium.
Recent advancement/information on the Solar System
Exploration of Mars
Since the 1960s, the Soviet Union and the U.S. have been sending unmanned probes to the
planet Mars with the primary purpose of testing the planet’s habitability. The early efforts in the
exploration of Mars involved flybys through which spectacular photographs of the Martian
surface were taken. The first successful landing and operation on the surface of Mars occurred in
1975 under the Viking program of NASA. Recently, NASA, using high resolution imagery of the
surface of Mars, presented evidence of seasonal flow liquid water (in the form of brine – salty
water) on the surface of Mars.
Rosetta’s Comet
Rosetta is a space probe built by European Space Agency and launched on 2 March 2004. One of
its missions is to rendezvous with and attempt to land a probe (Philae) on a comet in the Kuiper
Belt. One of the purposes of the mission is to better understand comets and the early solar
systems. Philae landed successfully on comet (67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko) on 12 November
2014. Analysis of the water (ice) from the comet suggests that its isotropic composition is
different from water from Earth.
Pluto Flyby
On 14 July 2015, NASA’s New Horizon spacecraft provided mankind the first close-up view of the
dwarf planet Pluto. Images captured from flyby revealed a complex terrain - Ice Mountains and
vast crater free plains. The presence of crater free plains suggests recent (last 100 millions of
years) of geologic activity.
THE SUN, OUR STAR
The Parts of the Sun
A star is a glowing ball of hot gas that is making its own energy inside. The sun is the star closest
to us. It is an ordinary star, but it is more important to us than any of the other stars. Life on earth
depends on the sun’s heat and light.
Astronomers have never seen the interior of the sun. However they have calculated that the
temperature at the sun’s core is about 15,000,000 ºC. Because of this high temperature, the sun has no
solid material. It is made entirely of gases.
The temperature of the sun’s surface is about 5,500ºC – much cooler than the interior. Above
the surface is a thin spiked layer of gas called the chromosphere. It glows reddish during eclipses. Around
this layer is a faint crown of gas called the corona. The sun’s corona is seen from the earth only during a
total eclipse. The corona’s temperature is 2,000,000 ºC – much hotter than the surface.
Prominences, Sunspots and Flares
The sun can cause static on your radio and change the amount of power on electric lines. The
sun has these effects because of its magnetism. A magnet on the earth has a magnetic field – a region
around the magnet in which its magnetism is felt. The magnetic field of a small bar magnet might be an
area only a few centimeters wide. Small shavings of iron placed within this area will be attracted to the
magnet.
Sometimes the stormy activity takes the form of huge arches or loops of gas called prominences.
A typical prominence might extend 30,000 km high. A prominence can become nearly as large as the sun
itself. After a prominence erupts from the surface, it usually falls back into the sun in just a few minutes.
Sometimes, however, the magnetic field holds a prominence above the sun for weeks or months. But it
not always available because the sun rotates, or spins on its axis, about once every twenty five days.
Every twenty five days, then, the sun’s rotation brings such a long-lived prominence back to edge of the
sun that we see from earth.
The sun shows dark spots, called sunspots, which are scattered on its surface. These are areas
where the magnetic field is especially strong. Sunspots appear dark because they are giving off less
radiation and are, therefore cooler than the rest of the sun’s surface.
The number of sunspots on the sun varies from none to about one hundred. The number
changes in a fairly regular pattern called the sunspots cycle. The largest number of sunspots occurs
roughly every 11 years. In between, the sun has fewer sunspots. The last maximum number of sunspots
in the current 11-year cycle occurred in 2002. The next is expected to be in 2013.
When the sunspots cycle is at its maximum, tremendous explosions – solar flares – erupt from
the sun’s surface. A flare temperature is about 4,000,000 ºC. Depending on their size, flares may last
from 10 minutes to an hour.
WHAT STARS ARE
Fusion Makes Stars Shine
Stars shine because processes deep within them produce energy. This energy moves outward to
the stars’ surfaces. Then this energy is given off into space as radiation. We see some of this radiation as
light.
All matter in the universe consists of atoms. Atoms are mostly empty space. The center of an
atom, the nucleus, contains most of the atom’s mass. The nucleus may consist of several particles.
Protons and neutrons are the most common particles in atoms. Protons and neutrons are about the
same size and mass. Another atomic particle, the electron, moves about in the space around the nucleus.
Electrons are much smaller and lighter than protons and neutrons.
Hydrogen and helium are two kinds of atoms that exist as gases. The hydrogen nucleus has one
proton and a helium nucleus has two protons and usually has two neutrons. All stars contain hydrogen
and helium gas. A star like our sun is about 90 % hydrogen. Helium makes up about 9 % of our sun.
You have learned that the core of the sun is approximately 15,000,000 ºC. When atoms are
heated, they move faster. The high temperatures in the core of a star cause the atoms to move at
incredible speeds. When moving at high speeds, the nuclei sometimes collide and join to form a single,
larger nucleus. This process in which two or more nuclei combine to form one nucleus is called fusion.
Stars Are Born from Gas and Dust
When you hold a book and then let it go, it falls to the earth. Any action that starts an object
moving is a force. The book falls on earth because of the force of gravity which falls any two objects
together. In this case, it pulls the book and the earth together.
Stars form when the force of gravity pulls together particles of gas and dust in space. Gravity
gathers the gas and dust into a cloud called a nebula. The bright spots are stars that have already
formed. The small dark areas are especially dense clouds of gas and dust. Stars are forming there.
Gravity continues to pull together the gas and dust in these dark areas into the shape of the ball.
As gravity packs the matter tighter in the central region, the density, pressure and temperature increase.
A protostar forms. When the temperature gets high enough, fusion begins in the protostar. Once fusion
begins, the hot gases push outward. When the gravity pulling inward is exactly as strong as the force of
the gas being pushed outward, the gas stops moving. A star is born
The youngest stars known are in the Orion Nebula. With ordinary light, astronomers see a few
very young stars inside this nebula.
EARTH SUBSYSTEMS
System – a set of interconnected components that are interacting to form a unified whole
The atmosphere
A. Is the thin gaseous layer that envelops the lithosphere.
B. The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen (O2), 0.9% argon, and
trace amount of other gases
C. One of the most important processes by which the heat on the Earth’s surface is redistributed
is through atmospheric circulation
D. There is also a constant exchange of heat and moisture between the atmosphere and the
hydrosphere through hydrologic cycle.
The Lithosphere
A. It includes the rocks of the crust and mantle, the metallic liquid outer core, and the solid
metallic inner core;
B. The Plate Tectonics is an important process in shaping the surface of the Earth. The primary
driving mechanism is the Earth’s internal heat, such as that in mantle convection.
The Biosphere
A. It is the set of all life forms on Earth;
B. It covers all ecosystems – from the soil to the rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs, and
from the plankton-rich ocean surface to the deep sea
C. For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food chain comprises photosynthetic
organisms. During photosynthesis, CO2 is sequestered from the atmosphere, while oxygen is
released as a byproduct. The biosphere is a CO2 sink, and therefore, an important part of the
carbon cycle
The Hydrosphere
A. About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water (hydrosphere) and much of it is in the
form of ocean water.
B. Only 3% of Earth’s water is fresh: two-thirds are in the form of ice, and the remaining one-
third is present in streams, lakes, and groundwater.
C. The oceans are important sinks for CO2 through direct exchange with the atmosphere and
indirectly through the weathering of rocks
D. Heat is absorbed and redistributed on the surface of the Earth through ocean circulation.
The Structure of the Earth
1. Crust – thin, outermost layer of the Earth and is of two types: continental crust and oceanic
crust
2. Mantle – middle layer of the earth between the crust and the core and makes up about 83%
of Earth’s interior;
3. Core – innermost layer of the earth; outer core is in a liquid state whereas inner core is in solid
state
4. Lithosphere – rigid outer layer of the layer that is made up of the brittle crust and upper
mantle
5. Asthenosphere – layer of weak, ductile rock in the mantle; situated below the lithosphere
6. Moho – boundary separating the crust and the mantle
MINERALS AND ROCKS
Five important properties which define a mineral
 All minerals are solid;
 All minerals form naturally. Some artificial minerals are made in laboratories. They are not true
minerals;
 The substances that make up minerals were never part of living things nor they were formed by
living things;
 Each kind of mineral has a definite chemical composition or a limited range of composition;
 The atoms of minerals are connected to one another in an orderly, repetitive arrangement;
Group of Minerals
• The Silicate Minerals
These minerals are compounds containing the elements silicon and oxygen
• The Ferromagnesian silicate minerals
Silicate minerals that contain significant amounts of the elements iron and magnesium other
than silicon and oxygen.
• Non ferromagnesian silicate minerals
The most abundant silicate minerals in the crust are the feldspars. They have a variety of
colors but often are pink, milky green, white, or gray.
• The Non Silicates

Minerals that do not contain oxygen and silicon.
• Oxides – formed when an element combines with oxygen.
• Sulfides - are compounds containing the element sulfur
• Halides – form when certain elements combine with chlorine, iodine, bromine, and
fluorine
• Carbonates – compound containing a carbon atom surrounded by three oxygen atoms
• Sulfates – compounds containing a sulfur surrounded by four oxygen atoms
Physical Properties of Minerals
 Crystalline structure – the orderly, repetitive arrangement of atoms in a crystal

 Hardness – the resistance of a mineral to scratching.
o Mohs Scale of Hardness – a scale based on a series of 10 fairly common minerals and
numbered 1 to 10 (from softest to hardest) used to measure and express the hardness of
minerals.
 Cleavage – the tendency of some minerals to break along flat surfaces, which are planes of weak
bonds in the crystal.
 Streak – the color of the fine powder of a mineral, usually obtained by rubbing the mineral on an
unglazed, porcelain streak plate.
 Luster – the quality and intensity of light reflected from the surface of a mineral.
 Specific gravity – the weight of a substance relative to the weight of an equal volume of water.
Introduction to Rocks
Three Rock Types
• Igneous rocks form from the cooling and hardening of melted, or molten rock.
• Sedimentary rocks form from sediments – small bits of soil, older rocks, shells and remains of
dead plants and animals.
• Heat, pressure, and chemical reactions can change existing rocks into a third type – metamorphic
rocks.
Differences from Igneous Rocks
All igneous rocks form from magma that cools and hardens. But igneous rocks may differ from
one another in several ways.
 First, they do not all form in the same place.

 Second, igneous rocks differ according to the size of the minerals within them and it’s called
texture.
 A third way in which igneous rocks differs is in the type and amount of silicate minerals they
contain and as a result, they vary in color.
Magma and Intrusive Rocks
One of the most common intrusive rocks is granite. It makes up most of the continental crust.
Granite is a strong, hard, light-colored rock that can be highly polished.
Lava and Extrusive Rock
Sometimes magma pours out onto the earth’s surface through a volcano or through a large crack
in the ground called a fissure. Magma that reaches the surface is renamed lava. When lava
hardens, it becomes extrusive igneous rock. Extrusive rock usually has small crystals or no
crystals because lava cools quickly.
The most common extrusive rock is basalt, the counterpart of gabbro.
Sedimentary Rocks
All sedimentary rocks are made of sediments – solid particles of various sizes that are moved
from one place to another.
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
• Clastic Rocks – the most common type which is made of particles of other rocks that
accumulated and harden into new rocks.
• Another type of sedimentary rock, called chemical rock, develops from minerals that were once
dissolved in water.
• A third type – organic rock – forms when plant or animal remains, such as shells, harden into
rock.
Metamorphic Rocks
• Heat, pressure, and chemical reactions can change existing rocks into a third type –
metamorphic rocks
Foliated and Non foliated Metamorphic
• In foliated metamorphic rocks, minerals have been rearranged into visible layers or bands.
The most common foliated rocks are slate, schist, and gneiss.
• Non foliated rocks do not show layering or banding.
Exorgenic Processes
Processes that change the Earth’s Surface
Weathering – The Breakdown of Rocks
We should realize that the earth is continuously changing. Even such a hard material as rock changes
through time. Heat and pressure cause many of the changes that occur to rocks within the earth.
Rocks on the earth’s surface are exposed to conditions different from those inside the crust and mantle.
Exposure to air, water, temperature changes, plants, animals, and bacteria causes rocks to change and
break down during a group of processes called weathering. Weathering changes the size and chemical
makeup of rocks. Eventually, most weathered rock becomes soil.
Two types of weathering act on rocks – mechanical and chemical. Mechanical weathering breaks rocks
apart without changing their mineral composition. Chemical weathering changes the minerals that make
up the rock.
Erosion and Deposition
How does the soil end up in the sea? Erosion and deposition are responsible. Erosion is the loosening
and moving of weathered rock and soil from one place to another. The agents that produce erosion
include running water, water waves, wind, moving ice, and gravity.
A river can carry soil from land to sea. Winds have been known to blow soil hundreds of kilometers
across the country. In the past, ice ages produced glaciers that gouged the surface and carried giant
boulders hundreds of kilometers. A rock rolling down the hill is an example of erosion caused by gravity.
Over time, the process of erosion can level mountains. You may wonder, then, why the earth’s surface is
not as flat as a pancake by now. The answer is that the effects of erosion are roughly balanced by forces
inside the earth that lift the land and build mountains.
The materials that the agents of erosion carry are eventually dropped elsewhere in a process called
deposition. Deposition occurs because the agent of erosion loses energy. Running water slows down,
winds die down, and glaciers melt. The sand on a beach did not form there; it was deposited by waves.
Mechanical Weathering
Expanding and Freezing Break Up Rocks
Almost every cliff, mountain, road cut, or other mass of rock you might see contains a large number of
cracks called joints. Most joints are produced within the earth as the rock is compressed, pulled apart, or
raised by tectonic forces. Joints may be no wider than a hair, but they provide an important starting
point for the mechanical breakdown of the rock.
Joints begin to widen when the tremendous weight of overlying rocks is removed by erosion. With the
pressure released, the once buried rock begins to expand. Joints open ever so slightly, but enough to
allow other weathering agents to act on them.
One of the most important ways in which rocks are broken along joints is when water seeps into cracks
and, if the weather is cold enough, it freezes. The expanding ice pushes against the sides of the rock and
enlarges the joints. The ice acts like a wedge driven into the rock. This process is called frost action.
Another type of mechanical weathering is exfoliation – the peeling off of large curved sheets of rock
from an exposed surface. Exfoliation occurs in rocks where joints are closely spaced, parallel, and slightly
curved. As each layer breaks off, pressure is reduced on the underlying rock. The rock may then expand
enough to further crack along the next curved joint. This onion like peeling of layers creates dome-
shaped features.
Chemical Weathering
Water and Chemical Weathering
During chemical weathering, the minerals in rocks react with substances in the environment, such as
water, oxygen, or acids to form new substances. Water is the most important agent of chemical
weathering. Water that seeps into rocks may dissolve minerals and wash away in a process called
leaching.
In the process of hydration, water combines with certain minerals in rock. When this happens, the
mineral swells, and the outside becomes soft or brittle and eventually flakes off the rock. The new
minerals formed are usually clays. The clay forms when feldspar in the soil combines with water,
producing a clay mineral called kaolinite. Because feldspar is a common mineral in soils and rocks, the
hydration of feldspar to clay is a widespread example of chemical weathering.
Oxygen and Chemical Weathering
In a process called oxidation, certain minerals combine with oxygen in the air or water, forming new
substances called oxides.
Iron combines easily with oxygen and forms iron oxides, or rust. Like the rust on an old can, iron oxides
are various shades of yellow, orange, red, or brown. These oxides are usually responsible for the yellow
or red color of soils and clays.
Acids and Chemical Weathering
Many minerals will not dissolve in pure water or react chemically with gases in the air. But water often
combines with certain gases and forms acids which do react chemically with minerals. For example, rain
and groundwater combine with carbon dioxide and form carbonic acid—the same acid found in
carbonated soft drinks. As this weak acid trickles through the ground, it dissolves certain elements or
entire minerals and carries them away in solution.
Carbonic acid completely dissolves calcite, the principal mineral in limestone. Water containing carbonic
acid seeps through tiny holes in limestone and makes them larger.
PLATE TECTONICS
Theory of Drifting Continents
A. Alfred Wegener proposed that the continents were once joined in a large continent, Pangaea.
This supercontinent split apart and the continents drifted to their present positions.
B. Wegener used matching rock layers, fossils, and changing climates as evidence for continental
drift.
Discoveries in the Ocean
A. The mid-ocean ridge is a mountain chain in the oceans of the world. A rift valley runs along its
center.
B. In the process of sea-floor spreading, magma rises from the mantle, creating new crust at mid-
ocean ridges.
C. Records of magnetic field reversals are preserved in rocks in the oceanic crust. These records
indicate that the ocean floor is spreading.
D. The age and thickness of sea-floor sediments increase with distance from mid-ocean ridges.
Theory of Plate Tectonics
A. The plate tectonic theory states that the rigid outer part of the earth consists of pieces called
plates
B. Plates move apart and new crust forms at spreading boundaries. Plates collide at some
boundaries, and the heavier plate becomes subducted under the lighter one. Subducted crust
melts into the mantle. Mountain ranges form where plates collide. Strike-slip faults mark the
boundaries between two plates that are sliding past one another.
The Motions of Plates in the Crust
A. The flow of material in the outer part of the mantle caused by convection currents may be
responsible for plate movement.
B. Fossil and glacial deposits indicate the positions of the continents in the past. Present plate
motion is used to predict future plate positions.
THEORIES ON THE FORMATION OF THE PHILIPPINE ARCHIPELAGO
PACIFIC THEORY –
 According to this theory the Philippines was formed due to explosions in the Pacific basis
 The Philippines was formed due to explosions of underwater volcanos, resulted in piling up of
molten rocks turning into islands
ASIATIC THEORY –
 According to this theory by Leopoldo Faustino, the islands were formed through the process of
diastrophism
 This theory explains the movement of the earth that caused some parts either to rise or sink that
forms the Philippines. This happens with the folding, faulting, and wrapping of the earth
 According to this theory the Philippines and the rest of Asia was formed as the result of the
mount of the continental plates
PLATE TECTONIC THEORY –
 This theory explains that the Philippines was formed by the movement of earth’s crust
 Believes that the movement of the lands was caused by the movement of these plates
CRETACEOUS PERIOD –
 100 – 65 million years ago

 First islands in the Philippines were formed during this period
 Bicol peninsula, Leyte, and eastern parts of Mindanao were pushed upward due to diastrophism
PLEISTOCENE PERIOD –
 6 – 10 million years ago

 Occurrence of the glacial period in the northern parts of the world
 Resulted in the formation of Sudan Shelf: Northern Philippines, Taiwan, Borneo, Sulu, and
Palawan
HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA AND HAZARDS
Hydrometeorological hazards are processes of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature that

may cause the loss of life, injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental
degration.
Geologic Hazards and Mitigation
The processes that have shaped Earth continually act on or beneath the surface. Geologic hazards
brought by earthquakes, earthquake-induced landslides, volcanic eruption, and tsunamis are due to the
movement of plates and local concentrations of geologic heating. The geologic hazards cause great risk
to both humans and humanmade structures.
Earthquakes
Since 1968, the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), the government agency
overlooking all seismic and volcanic activities in the Philippines, have recorded 12 destructive
earthquakes. The infamous Luzon earthquake of 1990 alone caused innumerable injuries and a death
count of 1100. With the exception of Palawan, there have been earthquake events in all parts of the
Philippines. This is largely due the Philippine’s location within the Pacific Ring of Fire.
The top ten provinces that are at risk to Earthquakes include:
1. Surigao Del Sur 6. Tarlac

2. La Union 7. Ifugao
3. Benguet 8. Davao Oriental
4. Pangasinan 9. Nueva Vizcaya
5. Pampanga 10. Nueva Ecija
La Union and Pangasinan are prone to Earthquakes, due to the Manila Trench while Surigao del Sur and
Davao Oriental are at risk for earthquakes due to Philippine trench and nearby active faults. Frequency
of shallow and left-lateral strike-slip earthquakes in Nueva Viscaya, Nueva Ecija, Eastern Pangasinan,
Benguet, and La Union can be attributed to its location along the Philippine Fault Zone.
Landslides
When earthquakes occur, the shaking and rupture are usually accompanied by other environmental risks
such as landslides.
When earthquakes happen in human made embankments and natural slopes in mountainous areas, the
hazard and potential devastation greatly increases.
Most of the provinces are susceptible to landslide hazards. The top ten provinces that are at risk to
earthquake-induced landslides include:
1. Ifugao 6. Bukidnon
2. Lanao Del Sur 7. Aurora
3. Sarangani 8. Davao del Sur
4. Benguet 9. Davao Oriental
5. Mountain Province 10. Rizal
Ifugao, Lanao del Sur, and Sarangani are highly vulnerable to landslide compared to Rizal. Despite the
low vulnerability of Benguet, its high exposure factor or population density has made living in the region
more risky. Aurora ranked higher than Davao del Sur and Davao Oriental despite its low vulnerability due
to Aurora being more susceptible to landslide than the other two provinces.
Volcanic Eruptions
The Philippines lies within the Pacific Ring of Fire. This explains the distribution of most volcanoes in the
Philippines. The Mount Pinatubo eruption of 1991 was well known to be the most violent eruption in the
20th century.
Since volcanoes are not present in some provinces, these particular areas have no risk to volcanic
eruptions. The top ten provinces at risk for volcanic eruptions include:
1. Camiguin 6. Sorsogon
2. Sulu 7. South Cotabato
3. Biliran 8. Laguna
4. Albay 9. Camarines Sur
5. Bataan 10. Batanes
Camiguin is at high risk because the land area is so small that when a volcanic eruption occurs, it can
affect the whole province. Sulu ranked second because it has the most number of active and
potentially-active volcanoes.
SCIENCE – is the process of observation and experimentation based on facts and data.
BIOLOGY as a branch of science refers to all living things both plants and animals. It is also known and
defined as the “Science of Life.”
MAJOR BRANCHES:
 Botany – is the scientific study of plants

 Zoology – is the scientific study of animals.
Different phyla in the animal kingdom:
 Helminthology – the study of parasitic worms (Platyhelminthes)

 Conchology – the study of mollusks (shells)
 Herpetology – the study of reptiles and amphibians
 Ichthyology – study of fishes
 Ornithology – study of birds
 Entomology – study of insects
 Mammology – study of mammals
 Anthropology – study of apes and man.
 Acarology – study of tics and mites
 Batracology – study of frogs
 Ophiology/Serpentology – study of snakes
Branches of Botany:
 Paleobotany is the study of the history of plants through fossils.

 Dendrology is the study of trees, lianas and shrubs.
 Brylogy is the study of mosses, hornworts and liverworts.
 Pteridology is the study of ferns.
 Phycology is the study of algae.

 Palynology is the study of spores and pollen.
 Lichenology is the study of lichens.
 Plant Anatomy is the study of the plants' cell and tissue makeup.
 Plant Genetics study the genetic makeup of plants.
 Plant Morphology studies the life cycle as well as the structure of the plants.
 Plant Physiology studies the usefulness of plants.
 Ethnobotany is the study of human-plant relationship.
 Phytopathology studies the diseases of plants.
 Plant systematic classifies and names the plants.
 Phytochemistry is the study of the plant's chemistry and chemical processes.
 Plant Ecology studies the importance and the role of plants in the eco system.
Other branches:
 Morphology – study of form and structure of animals.

 Microbiology – is the scientific study of microorganisms.
 Bacteriology – the study of bacteria
 Virology – the study of viruses.
 Protozoology – the study of protozoan or one-celled animals.
 Anatomy – study of internal structure of animals.
 Cytology – study of cell structure, its organelles and its functions
 Histology – study of the structure and functions of tissues.
 Histology – study of the structure and functions of tissues.
 Physiology – study of the functions of various organs in the body of an animal.
 Embryology – study the development of egg after fertilization.
 Evolution – study of origin, variation and interrelationship of past and present age
 Genetics – study of heredity and variations.
 Taxonomy – study of naming and classification of organisms
 Ecology – study of the relationship between the organisms and their surrounding
environment.
 Palaeontology – study of extinct animals or fossils.
 Ethology – study of animal behavior.
 Pathology – study of diseases.

 Etiology – study of causes of diseases.
 Immunology – study of immunity to diseases.
 Cryobiology – study of effects of low temperatures on organisms.
 Eugenics – study of improvement of human race by application of laws of heredity.
 Euphenics – study of systematic treatment of genetic diseases of man.
 Euthenics – study of improvement of human race by providing good ecological and social
conditions like education and training.
 Parasitology – study of parasites
Characteristics of living things

 Living things organize protoplasm – A characteristic of living things is that they are made up of
very complex compounds that react with each other in a special system known as protoplasm.
Substances are organized in this way only in living things.
Protoplasm alone is not a living substance. In fact protoplasm is not a substance with a
definite composition in the way that water, table salt, and sugars are, for example. These all
have a definite chemical composition. The composition of protoplasm differs in living things. In
fact protoplasm is not even the same in all parts of one individual. The makeup of protoplasm is
changing constantly. It is made up mostly of water, with many substances dissolved or
suspended in it. These substances are organized into a system by an organism, and the state of
chemical activity called the living condition is established.
 Living things need energy – Chemical activities require the use of energy. Energy is the ability to
do work. Since life is a state of constant chemical activity, a constant supply of energy is needed.
Most organisms get their energy from the sun. Green plants use the sun’s energy to make
complex chemical substances called foods. Both plants and animals break down foods to release
this energy. All organisms use the energy from food to maintain themselves, grow and
reproduce. Life continues only as long as an organism can obtain and use energy.
 Organisms respond to their environment – The environment plays a key role in an organism’s
ability to obtain energy. Some factors in the environment support life and others threaten it.
Exactly what is the environment? An organism’s environment is all the living and
nonliving things around it. The environment includes physical factors such as air, soil, water, heat
and light. It also includes all the many life forms that share the physical environment.
A living organism is able to respond to its environment. This function of living systems is
referred to as irritability. An organism responds to a stimulus from the environment. A stimulus
is a factor or environmental change capable of producing activity in an organism. The stimulus
may be light, temperature, water, sound pressure, or the presence of chemical substances, or
food sources. The Organism’s response is the way it reacts to a stimulus.
 Living things adapt to their environment – Tropical fish are suited to living in water. They have
fins for moving and gills for removing oxygen from water. They could not survive out of water.
The desert lizard has scales, a slender body, and long legs. It is suited to a desert environment.
You may be able to think of other ways in which these two organisms are suited, or adapted, to
their very different ways of life. An adaptation is a characteristic of an organism that makes it
able to live in its environment.
Conditions in an environment change from time to time. Sometimes the changes are
sudden. This can happen when there is a fire, a flood, or volcanic eruptions. Other changes may
take place over a very long time. These include such things as changes in climate, changes in soil,
and in the steady wearing down of mountains and hills.
 Living things develop and grow – Development is a series of orderly changes that occur in an
offspring from its beginning to maturity. The life span in an organism includes five stages: (1)
beginning, (2) growth, (3) maturity, (4) decline, and (5) death. After an organism is formed, it
goes through a period of rapid development. This growth and development period may last for
minutes, weeks, months, or years, depending on the organism. As the organism grows larger, the
rate of growth decreases. Finally, maturity is reached, and growth is reduced to repairing and
replacing worn-out cells. In time, the organism reaches a point at which it can no longer repair or
replace all damaged or worn-out materials. This marks the period of decline, which ends to
death.
 Living things reproduce themselves – The process by which organisms produce offspring is
called reproduction. Reproduction may occur in many ways. A Bacterium reproduces by splitting.
In some cases, parent organisms form special cells for reproduction. In other instances, a part of
the parent organism may break off and the piece may grow on its own. However, all forms of
reproduction are alike in principle. Living material from a parent contains instructions for the
formation and growth of anew organism. Many organisms require two parents for the process of
reproduction.
ATTRIBUTES OF LIFE
 GROWTH – the increase in size and volume

 METABOLISM - the total of all chemical reaction to sustain life
 Irritability – the ability or capacity to response to stimuli.
◊ hydrotropism – response towards or away water.
◊ thigmotropism – response towards or away touch.
◊ phototropism – response towards or away light
◊ heliotropism – response towards or away sunlight

 Reproduction – the creation of new species.

 Homeostasis – the capacity to maintain steady internal environment despite changes in external
environment.
 Evolution – the process in which all organisms have developed from older forms of life.
 Movement – the ability of an organism to move
INTRODUCTION TO THE WORLD OF THE CELL

Microscopes provide windows to the world of cell
Before microscopes were first used in the seventeenth century, no one knew for certain that
living organisms were composed of cells. The first microscopes, like the ones you may have used in a
biology laboratory, were light microscopes. A light microscope works by passing visible light through a
specimen. Glass lenses bend the light to magnify the image of the specimen and protect the image into
the viewer’s eye. A photograph taken through a microscope is called a micrograph. Sometimes we may
see a notation “LM 109X” printed along the right edge of the micrograph. It tells that the photograph
was taken through a light microscope and the image is about 109 times the actual size of the organism.
Magnification, the increase in the apparent size of an object, is only one important factor in
microscopy. Also important is resolving power, a measure of the clarity of an image. Resolving power is
the ability of an optical instrument to show two objects as separate.
From the year 1665, when English microscopist Robert Hooke discovered the cells, until the
middle of the twentieth century, biologists had only light microscopes for viewing cells. But they
discovered a great deal, including the cells composing animal and plant tissues, microscopic organisms
and some of the structures within cells. By the mid 1800s, these discoveries led to the cell theory, which
states that all living things are composed of cells and that all cells come from other cells.
Our knowledge of cell structure took a giant leap forward as biologists began using the electron
microscopes in the 1950s. Instead of light, the light microscope (EM) uses a beam of electrons. The EM
has a much higher resolving power than the light microscope.
The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) studies the detailed architecture of cell surfaces. The
SEM uses an electron beam to scan the surface of the cell or group
of cells that have been coated with metal. The Transition Electron Microscope is used to study the details
of internal cell structure.
Electron microscopes have truly revolutionized the study of cells and cell organelles. They have
not replaced the light microscope. One problem with EM is that they cannot be used to study living
specimens because the specimen must be held in a vacuum chamber; that is all the air and liquid must
be removed.
EUKARYOTIC CELLS ARE PARTITIONED INTO FUNCTIONAL COMPARTMENTS
All eukaryotic cells whether from animals, plants, protists, or fungi – are fundamentally similar to
one another and profoundly different from prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are much more complex
than prokaryotic cells. The most obvious difference is the variety of structures in the cytoplasm and that
most of these structures are composed of membranes. In eukaryotes, membranes partitioned the
cytoplasm into compartments, which biologist call membranous organelles. The membranous organelles
are the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, mitochondria and lysosomes.
ORGANELLES OF THE ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
The nucleus is the cell’s genetic control center
The nucleus is the genetic control center of the eukaryotic cells. Its DNA, like a prokaryote’s DNA,
is the cell’s hereditary plan. Nuclear DNA is attached to proteins, forming very long fibers called
chromatin. Each fiber constitutes a chromosome. During cell reproduction, the chromatin coils up,
forming thicker structures that are visible with a light microscope as individual chromosomes. Enclosing
the nucleus is a nuclear envelop, a double membrane perforated with pores that control the flow of
materials into and out of the nucleus. Adjoining the chromatin within the nucleus is the mass of fibers
and granules called the nucleolus. The nucleolus, consisting of parts of the chromatin DNA are combined
with RNA and proteins is where ribosome is made.
Overview: Many cell organelles are related through the endomembrane system
We now focus on eukaryotic organelles that are formed of interrelated membranes. Some of
these membranes are physically connected and some are not, but collectively, they constitute a
cytoplasmic network that biologists call the endomembrane system. Many of the organelles of these
systems work together in the synthesis, storage, and export of important molecules.
One of the organelles, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the prime example of the direct
interrelatedness of parts of the endomembrane system. There are two kinds of ER: rough ER and smooth
ER. These organelles differ in structure and function, but the membranes that form them are continuous.
Membranes of the rough ER are also continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelop. The
space within ER is separated from the cytoplasmic fluid by the ER membrane. Thus, the interconnected
membranes of the ER and the nuclear envelop partition the inside of the cell into two separate
compartments. Dividing the cell into compartments is a major function of the endomembrane system.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum makes membrane and proteins
The “rough” in rough ER, refers to the appearance of this organelle in electron micrographs. It
shows the roughness result from ribosome, which stud the membranes of the organelles. Rough ER is a
network of interconnected flattened sacs, with two main functions. One is to make more membrane.
Some of the proteins made by ER ribosome are inserted into the ER membrane. As a result, the ER
membrane enlarges, and some of it later ends up in other organelles. The other function of rough ER is
to make proteins that are secreted by the cell. An example of such a secretory protein is an antibody, a
defensive molecule made and secreted by white blood cells. Ribosome of the rough ER synthesizes the
antibody’s polypeptides, which assemble into functional proteins inside the ER.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum has a variety of functions
Smooth ER is continuous with rough ER and is a network of interconnected tubules that lack
ribosome. Much of its activity results from enzymes embedded in its membrane. One of the most
important functions of smooth ER is the synthesis of lipids including fatty acids, phospholipids and
steroids. Each of these products is made by particular kinds of cells. For example in mammals, smooth ER
in cells of the ovaries and testes synthesizes the steroid sex hormones. Our liver cells also have large
amounts of smooth ER, with additional kinds of functions. Certain enzymes in the smooth ER of liver help
regulate the amount of sugar released from liver cells into the blood stream. Other liver enzymes help
break down drugs and other potentially harmful substances. Smooth ER has another function, which is
the storage of calcium. In muscle tissue, these are necessary for contraction. When a nerve signal
stimulates a muscle cell, calcium ions leak from the smooth ER into the cytoplasmic fluid, where they
trigger contraction of the cell.
The Golgi apparatus finishes, sorts and ships cell products
The Golgi apparatus performs several functions in close partnership with the ER. Serving as a
molecular warehouse and finishing factory, a Golgi apparatus receives and modifies substances
manufactured by the ER. One side of the golgi stack serves as a receiving dock for transport vesicles
produced by ER. When a golgi receives transport vesicle containing glycoprotein molecules, it takes in
the materials and then modifies them chemically. One function of this chemical modification seems to
be mark and sort the molecules into different destinations. The shipping side of the golgi stack serves as
depot from which finished sort products move to the plasma for export from the cell. Alternatively,
finished products may become part of the plasma membrane itself or part of another organelle, such as
a lysosome.
Lysosomes digest the cell’s food and wastes
A fourth component of the endomembrane system, the lysosome, is produced by the rough ER and the
golgi apparatus. The name lysosome is derived from two Greek words meaning “breakdown body,” and
lysosomes consist of digestive enzymes enclosed in a membranous sac. The ER and golgi apparatus
cooperate to make lysosome.
Lysosomes have several types of digestive functions:
 It fuses with food vacuoles, exposing the nutrients to hydrolytic enzymes that digests them;
 Lysosomes help destroy harmful bacteria;
 Lyosomes serve as recycling centers for damaged organelles;

 Also, lysosomes play vital roles in embryonic development.
Vacuoles functions in the general maintenance of the cell
Like lysosomes, vacuoles are membranous sac that belongs to the endomembrane system.
Vacuoles come in different shapes and sizes. A plant cell’s central vacuole can serve as large lysosome.
The central vacuole may also help the plant cell grow in size by absorbing water, and it can store vital
chemicals or waste products of metabolism. Central vacuoles in flower petals may contain pigments that
attract pollinating insects. Others contain poisons that protect against plant-eating.
ENERGY – CONVERTING ORGANELLES
Chloroplasts convert solar energy to chemical energy
Most of the living world runs on the energy provided by photosynthesis, the conversion of light
energy from the sun to the chemical energy of sugar molecules. Chloroplasts are the photosynthesizing
organelles of plants and protests. Internal membranes partition the chloroplast into three major
compartments:
 the narrow intermembrane space, between the outer and the inner membranes of the
chloroplasts
 The space enclosed by the inner membrane, contains a thick fluid called stroma and a network of
tubules and hollow disk formed of membranes
 The space inside the tubules and disk, that the disk occurs in stacks, each called a granum.
Mitochondria harvest chemical energy from food
Mitochondria are organelles that convert energy from one chemical form to another. They carry
out cellular respiration, in which the chemical energy of foods such as sugars is converted to chemical
energy of a molecule called ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP is the main energy source for cellular
work. It has two compartments: the intermembrane space that forms one-fluid filled compartment. The
inner membrane encloses the second compartment, containing a fluid called the mitochondrial matrix.
Many of the chemical reactions of cellular respiration occur in the matrix. The inner membrane is highly
folded, and enzyme molecules that make ATP are embedded in it. The cristae increase the membrane’s
surface area, enhancing the mitochondrion’s ability to produce ATP.
MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS ACROSS A MEMBRANE
The nature of phospholipids and the kinds of proteins in a membrane determine whether a
particular substance can cross the membrane. Some molecules can cross without the cell doing any
work, but even in these cases, transport proteins may be needed and physical principles dictate when
the molecules can cross and in which direction they will go.
Diffusion is the tendency for particles of any kind to spread out spontaneously to regions where
they are less concentrated. Diffusion requires no work; it results from the random motion of atoms and
molecules. Because a cell does not perform work when molecules diffuse across its membrane, the
diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane is called passive transport.
OSMOSIS IS THE PASSIVE TRANSPORT OF WATER
Because a cell contains an aqueous solution and is surrounded by one, and because the plasma
membrane is permeable to water, water molecules can readily pass into and out of the cells. Diffusion of
water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane is a special case of passive transport called
osmosis. A membrane permeable to water but not to solutes separates two solutions with different
concentrations of solutes. The solution with a higher concentration of solutes is said to be hypertonic.
The solution with lower solute concentration is hypotonic. Water crosses the membrane until the solute
concentration is equal on both sides. The direction of osmosis is determined only by the difference in
total solute concentration, not by the nature of solutes. For example, seawater has a great variety of
solutes, but it will lose water to a solution containing a high enough concentration of a single solute.
Only if the total solute concentrations are the same on both sides of the membrane will water molecules
move at the same rate in both directions. Solutions of equal solute concentration are said to be isotonic.
CELL EXPEND ENERGY FOR ACTIVE TRANSPORT
In contrast to passive transport, active transport requires that a cell expend energy to move
molecules across a membrane. In this situation, a transport protein actively pumps a specific solute
across a membrane against the solute’s concentration gradient – that is, away from the side where it is
less concentrated. Membrane proteins usually use ATP as their energy source for active transport.
EXOCYTOSIS AND ENDOCYTOSIS TRANSPORT LARGE MOLECULES
So far, we’ve focused on how water and small solutes enter and leave cells by moving through
the plasma membrane. The story is different for large molecules.
A cell uses the process of exocytosis to export bulky materials. In the first step, a membrane-
enclosed vesicle filled with macromolecules moves to the plasma membrane. Once there, the vesicle
fuses with the plasma membrane and the vesicle’s content spill out of the cell. When we weep, for
instance, cells in our tear glands use exocytosis to export to export a salty solution containing proteins.
In endocytosis, a cell takes in macromolecules or other particles by forming vesicles or vacuole from its
plasma membrane. Phagocytosis or cellular eating (a kind of endocytosis) engulfs its prey by wrapping
extensions called pseudopodia, around it, and packaging it within a vacuole. The vacuole then fuses with
a lysosome, and a lysosome’s hydrolytic enzymes digest the contents. Another kind of endocytosis, the
pinocytosis or cellular drinking is the process of taking droplets of fluid from its surroundings into tiny
vesicles.
PLANT STRUCTURE and FUNCTION
Angiosperms have dominated the land for over 100 million years, and there are about 235,000
species of flowering plants living today. Most of our foods come from a few hundred domesticated
species of flowering plants. Among these foods are roots, such as carrots; the fruits of trees and vines,
such as apples, nuts, and berries; the fruits and seeds of legumes, such as peas and beans; and grains,
the fruits of grasses such as rice , wheat, and corn.
Plant biologists classify angiosperms in two groups, called monocots and dicots, based on several
structural features. The names “monocot” and “dicot” refer to the first leaves that appear on the plant
embryo. These embryonic leaves are called seed leaves, or cotyledons. A monocot embryo has one seed
leaf; a dicot embryo has two seed leaves.
Monocots include the orchids, bamboos, palms, and lilies, as well as the grains and other grasses. The
leaves, stems, flowers, and roots of monocots are also distinctive. Most monocots have leaves with
parallel veins. Monocot stems have vascular tissues arranged in a complex array of bundles. The flowers
of most monocots have their petals and other parts typically in multiples of three. The roots of monocots
form a fibrous system (a mat of threads) that spreads out below the soil surface. Most angiosperms are
dicots, which include most shrubs and trees (except for conifers) as well as the majority of our
ornamental plants and many of our food crops. Dicot leaves have a multibranched network of veins, and
dicot stems have vascular bundles arranged in a ring. The dicot flower usually has petals and other parts
in multiples of four or five. The large vertical root of a dicot, known as taproot, goes deep into the soil.
THE STRUCTURE & FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES
Leaves – the organs of the plant in which photosynthesis takes place.
Parts of a leaf
 Blade (lamina) – the broad, flat part pf the leaf.

 Veins – the strengthening and conducting structures.
 Petiole – the leaf stalk connecting the leaves to the stem.
 Midrib – the large central vein.
 Stipule – the leaf-like structure at the base of the petiole.
Leaf Arrangement
 Alternate leaf arrangement – when only one leaf is attached to each node
 Opposite leaf arrangement – when two leaves are at one node.

 Whorled leaf arrangement – has three or more leaves at a node.
Division in leaves
1. Simple leaf – has only one blade and one petiole.

2. Compound leaf – is deeply divided into separate parts called leaflets and each leaflet has its own
petiole.
 Palmately compound leaf – has leaflets attached to a single petiole.
 Pinnately compound leaf – has leaflets that are attached along both sides of the petiole.
 Bipinnately compound leaf – leaflets themselves are divided into little leaflets.
Venation – refers to the arrangement of the veins in a leaf.
 Parallel venation – the main veins are parallel both with the edge of the leaf and with each
other.
 Palmate venation – large veins spread out from the base of the blade.
 Pinnate venation – large vein runs the length of the blade with small veins branching from it to
the edge.
Internal leaf structure
1. Epidermis – covered with a thin layer, called the cuticle (cutin) that is made of a waxy substance
that slows down the escape of water vapor and other gases from the leaf tissues.
Stomata – the openings or pore scattered throughout the epidermis.
Guard cells – two bean-shaped cells around each stoma.
2. Mesophyll
a. Palisade parenchyma – directly below the upper epidermis and consist of elongated cells
containing many chloroplasts.
b. Spongy parenchyma – has irregularly shaped cells with few chloroplasts containing veins and
air spaces directly connected to the stomata.34
Functions of leaves
1. For photosynthesis
2. For transpiration
3. For respiration
4. For conduction of food and water
THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF STEMS
Stem – serves as the vital link between the roots and the leaves.
External Structure
1. Bud – the most obvious part of the stem.

 Terminal bud – found at the tip of the stem.
 Lateral or axillary – located at the side.
2. Bud scales – protect the bud from injury and from drying out.
3. Leaf scar – the place at which a leaf was attached
4. Bundle scars – the tiny bumps or dots inside the leaf scar.
5. Lenticels – openings from which gases can be exchanged between the inner tissues and the
surrounding air.
Internal Structure
1. Bark – the outermost region of the stem.

a. Epidermis – the outermost layer composed of brick-shaped cells that protect the innermost.
b. Cortex – the largest part that stores food and water.
c. Phloem – made up of parenchyma cells that transport food.
2. Wood
a. Vascular cambium – made up of meristematic cells responsible for the growth in diameter of
the stem.
b. Xylem – made up of collenchyma cells that carry water.
3. Pith – the primary tissue that makes up the center of the stem.
Functions
1. For conduction of food and water

2. For storage of food and minerals
3. Support the leaves, flowers and fruits
4. Some function for photosynthesis
THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ROOTS
Roots – anchor a plant in the ground where they absorb water and minerals the plants need for growth.
Parts of the root system
 Primary root
 Secondary root
 Tertiary root
 Rootlets
Types of Root System
1. Taproot system – the primary root grows straight down into the ground and becomes the major
root or a taproot of the system.
2. Fibrous root system – the primary root does not live long which produces many slender
branching roots.
Regions of development in a young root
1. region of cell division – consist of a root apical meristem where cells divide more rapidly than
those in other parts.
2. region of elongation – cells become two or three times longer and a little wider than their
original size.
3. region of maturation – cells mature and differentiate into special tissues.
Root cap – a tissue at the tip of the root that protects the tissues behind it.
Internal Structure of a young root
1. Epidermis – is the outermost layer of cells in the young root. It absorbs water and minerals and
protects the underlying tissues.
2. Cortex – the largest region of the young root consist of loosely packed parenchyma cells.
Endodermis – the innermost ring of the cortex.
3. Pericycle – the outermost part of the vascular cylinder, which forms a ring of parenchyma cells.
4. Vascular cylinder – the chief strengthening and conducting tissue of the root.
 xylem
 phloem
 pith
Functions of Roots
1. Absorbs water and dissolved minerals

2. Anchor the plant
3. Storage of food and minerals
FLOWER STRUCTURE & FUNCTIONS
Flower – the organ of reproduction of the plant.
Parts of a flower
1. Accessory parts
a. Petals – the brightly colored and odored parts of a flower.

b. Sepals – the leaf-like structure that forms the outermost ring of a flower.
c. Receptacle – the expanded lower part.
d. Pedicel/peduncle – the flower stalk that holds the entire flower.
2. Essential parts
a. Stamen – the male reproductive organ of a flower.
 Anther – the yellow box-like structure that contains the pollen grain.
 Filament – slender stalk that hold the anther.
b. Pistils – the female reproductive organ.
 Ovary – the swollen base that rests directly on the receptacle.
 Style – the slender stalk-like structure
 Stigma – the tip of the pistil.
Types of Flowers
1. Complete flower – when it has all the accessory parts and both the essential organs.
2. Incomplete flower – when it lacks any of the accessory or essential parts.
3. Perfect flower – when it has both the essential organs although it may lack any of the accessory
parts.
4. Imperfect flower – when it lacks any of the essential organs.
 Staminate flower – has only stamen.
 Pistilate – has only pistil.
5. Regular flower – when parts of the flower are equal in size and shape (radial symmetry)
6. Irregular flower – when it shows bilateral symmetry.
Pollination – the transfer of pollen grain from the anther to the stigma of a flower by the agent.
Types:
 Self pollination
 Cross pollination
THE FUNCTIONING HUMAN ORGANISMS

FOOD - (the basic human need) the fuel that supplies the human organism with energy. It is also the
source of building materials for the body.
NUTRITION - is the study of the nutrients and how the body uses them.
Three basic nutrients found in food:
 carbohydrates
 proteins
 fats
Animals ingest their foods in a variety of ways. .
Methods of Feeding:
 Absorptive feeders – lacking a mouth or digestive tract; they absorb nutrients through their body
surface.
Ex. Tapeworms
 Ingestive feeders – they eat (ingest) living or dead organisms either plants or animals or both
through a mouth.
1. Omnivores – animals that ingest both plants and animals
2. Herbivores – the plant-eaters
3. Carnivores – eat other animals
Different mechanisms used . . .
Ingestive feeders use several different mechanisms to obtain their food:
 Suspension feeders – extract food particles suspended in the surrounding water.

Ex. Oysters, clams, scallops
 Substrate feeders – live in or on their food source, and eat their way through the food.
Ex. Caterpillars & earthworms
 Fluid feeders – obtain food by sucking nutrient-rich fluids from a living host either a plant or an
animal.
Ex. mosquitoes
 Bulk feeders – they ingest relatively large pieces of food

Ex. man
FOUR MAIN STAGES OF FOOD PROCESSING
1. Ingestion – the act of eating.

2. Digestion – the breaking down of food molecules small enough for the body to absorb.
Digestion occurs in two phases:
a. mechanical digestion – food is mechanically broken down into small pieces
b. chemical digestion – the chemical breakdown process called an enzymatic hydrolysis
3. Absorption – the third stage wherein the cells lining the digestive tract take up (absorb) small
nutrient molecules
4. Elimination – the last stage of food processing in which the undigested material passes out of the
digestive tract.
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM – consists of an alimentary canal and accessory glands.
Main parts of the canal:
1. mouth 6. stomach
2. oral cavity 7. small intestine
3. tongue 8. large intestine
4. pharynx 9. rectum
5. esophagus 10. anus
Digestive glands:
1. Salivary glands
 Parotid glands – the largest, below the ear
 Sublingual – under the tongue
 Submandibular – beneath the jaw
2. liver
3. pancreas
 they secrete digestive juices that enter the alimentary canal through ducts
 Secretions from the liver are stored in the gallbladder before they are released into the
intestine.
MOUTH – an opening through which food is taken into an animal’s body.
Structures in the oral cavity:
a. Saliva – contains several substances important food processing.

b. Buffers – neutralize food acids
c. antibacterial agents – kill many harmful bacteria that may enter the mouth
d. salivary amylase – a digestive enzyme that hydrolyze starch
4. Teeth
Kinds
 Incissors – bladelike, used for bitting

 Canine – pointed, used for tearing
 Premolars & molars – used for grinding and crushing
General areas of a tooth

 crown – the part above the gum

 neck – a narrow part at the gum line
 root – the part beneath the surface
Layers of a tooth
 enamel – the outer hard part

 dentine – the second layer
 pulp cavity – the center of a tooth where the blood vessels and nerve fibers are located
 Hard palate – the bony structure covered with membrane that forms the roof of the chewing
area.
5. Tongue – a muscular organ covered with taste buds
- Besides enabling to taste food, it manipulates food and helps shape it into a ball called a
BOLUS.
Important functions:
 Tasting
Taste buds – are structures in the tongue for tasting food which are highly
sensitive
 Chewing
 Swallowing
PHARYNX (throat cavity) serve as a resonating cavity
ESOPHAGUS – a muscular tube that conveys food boluses from the pharynx to the stomach.
 peristalsis rhythmic waves of contraction of smooth muscles in the walls of the digestive
tract.
 This tube connects the mouth to the stomach
STOMACH – a pouchlike organ which grinds and churns food (temporary reservoir of food)
 is highly elastic and can stretch to accommodate about 2 liters of food & drink
 a large muscular pear shape organ located in the upper left side of the abdomen.
GASTRIC GLAND - a tubular structure in the stomach that secretes gastric juice
Types of cells
a. mucous cells – secrete mucus which lubricates and protects the cells lining the stomach.
b. Parietal cells – secrete HCl
c. Chief cells – secrete pepsinogen, an inactive form of the digestive enzyme pepsin
GASTRIN – hormone in the stomach which stimulates secretion of gastric juice.
ACID CHYME – mixture formed when stomach churns the food with the gastric juice
HEARTBURN – occasional backflow of acid chime into the lower end of the
esophagus.
PYLORIC SPHINCTER – muscular ring that regulates the passage of food out of the stomach and
into the small intestine.
The stomach takes about 2 – 6 hours to empty after meal.
GASTRIC ULCER – an open sore in the lining of the stomach, resulting when pepsin and HCl
destroy the lining tissues faster than they can regenerate
HELICOBACTER PYLORI – a spiral-shaped prokaryote.
SMALL INTESTINE – the longest organ of the alimentary canal with the length of over 6 m (2.5 cm in
diameter).
TWO GLANDULAR ORGANS
1. pancreas – produces digestive enzymes and an alkaline solution rich in bicarbonate. The alkaline
solution neutralizes acid chime as it enters the small intestine.
2. liver (largest gland) – performs a wide variety of functions including the production of bile.
BILE – a solution of bile salts secreted by the liver which emulsifies fats and aids in their digestion
GALLBLADDER – stores bile until it is needed in the small intestine.
PANCREATIC AMYLASE (amylopsin) – an enzyme that hydrolyzes starch into the disaccharide
maltose.
MALTASE – enzyme that splits maltose into the monosaccharide glucose.
SUCRASE – hydrolyzes table sugar
LACTASE - hydrolyzes milk sugar.
Children generally have much more lactase than adults. Some adults lack lactase altogether, and
ingesting milk products can give them cramps and diarrhea because they cannot digest the lactose.
The small intestine also completes the digestion of proteins begun in the stomach. The pancreas
and the duodenum secrete HYDROLYTIC ENZYMES:
 TRYPSIN AND CHYMOTRYPSIN – break polypeptides into shorter chains than those resulting from
pepsin digestion.
 AMINOPEPTIDASE AND CARBOPEPTIDASE – split off one amino acid at a time, working from the
ends of the polypeptides.
 DIPEPTIDASE – hydrolyzes fragments only two or three amino acids long.
 NUCLEASES – hydrolyzes the nucleic acids.
EMULSIFICATION - process when bile salts (from the gallbladder) coat tiny droplets and keep them
separate from one another.
LIPASE – an enzyme that breaks fat molecules down into fatty acids & glycerol.
VILLI – small fingerlike projections around the wall of the small intestine.
MICROVILLI – tiny surface projections in the epithelial cells of a villus.
LARGE INTESTINE (colon) – about 1.5 m long & 5 cm in diameter joins the small at a T-shaped
junction where a sphincter controls the passage of unabsorbed food materials out of the small
intestine.
Cecum – pouch in the T-shape arm of the large intestine.
Appendix – a small finger-like extension of the cecum.
Feces – the waste products of digestion consists mainly of indigestible plants fibers and prokaryotes
that normally live in the colon.
E. coli – colon bacteria that produce important vitamins, including biotin, folic acid, several B
vitamins and vit. K.
Rectum – the terminal portion of the colonwhere the feces are stored until they can be eliminated.
If the lining of the colon is irritated by a viral or bacterial infection – the colon is less effective in
reclaiming water, and diarrhea may result. The opposite problem, constipation, occurs when the
colon reabsorbs too much water and the feces become too compacted.
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM – “System of Internal Transport”
Major Functions
 Transporting oxygen and nutrients.

 It conveys metabolic waste to waste disposal organs.
 It helps control the make up of the environment in which the tissue cells live
 It helps control the make up of the blood by continuously moving it through organs, such as the
liver and kidneys that regulate the blood’s content.
Basic Types of Circulatory Systems
1. Open circulatory System – blood pump through open vessels and flows out among the cells.
2. Closed Circulatory System – consists of a heart and a network of tube-like vessels. The blood is
confined to the vessels, which keep it distinct from the interstitial fluid.
Three kinds of vessels:
 Arteries – carry blood away from the heart to organs throughout the body.
 Veins – return blood to the heart.
 Capillaries – convey blood between arteries and veins within each organ.
ARTERY vs. VEIN
ARTERY VEIN
Blood flow From heart to From tissues to

tissues heart
Blood carried Oxygenated, Deoxygenated

except p.a. except p.v.
Tunica Thicker Thinner
Location deeper More superficial
Valves absent Present
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM – a closed circulatory system with a heart and branching network of arteries,
capillaries and veins.
BLOOD CIRCUITS OF TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATES
1. Pulmonary circuit – carries blood between the heart and the gas exchange tissues in the
lungs.
2. Systemic Circuit – carries blood between the heart and the rest of the body.
HUMAN HEART - is about the size of a clenched fist and enclosed in a sac under the breastbone.
Important Structures of the Heart
1. Covering
a. Pericardium
b. Pericardial sac – found between the heart and the pericardium; for lubrication to
prevent friction.
2. Muscles
3. Chambers
a. Left and Right Atria – receiving chambers of the heart.
b. Left and Right Ventricles – pumping chambers of the heart.
4. Valves – consists of thin flaps of flexible, tough fibrous tissue called leaflets.
a. atrioventricular valve (AV valve) – separates atrium from ventricles.
 mitral valve – separates left atria from left ventricle
 Tricuspid valve – separates right atria from right ventricle.
b. Semilunar valve
 Pulmonic - found between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery.
 Aortic – found between the left ventricle and the aorta.
A TRIP TO THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Beginning with the pulmonary circuit, the right ventricular pumps blood to the lungs via two
pulmonary arteries. As the blood flows through capillaries in the lungs, it unloads carbon dioxide and
loads up on oxygen. The oxygen-rich blood then flows back to the left atrium via pulmonary veins. Next,
the oxygen-rich blood flows from the left atrium into the left ventricle. The oxygen-rich blood leaves the
left ventricle through the aorta. The aorta is our largest blood vessel, with a diameter of 2.5 cm, several
large arteries branch from the aorta and lead to the upper body. The aorta then curves down, behind the
heart and more arteries branching from it supply blood to the abdominal organs and the lower body.
Within each one, arteries carry blood into arterioles, which I turn convey it to capillaries. The capillaries
rejoin as venules, which carry the blood back into the veins. Oxygen-poor blood from the upper body
and head is channeled into a large vein called the superior vena cava. Another large vein, the inferior
vena cava, drains blood from the lower body. As the blood flows from the right atrium into the right
ventricles, we complete our journey.
Cardiac Cycle – the alternating relaxations and contractions in the heart.
Main Phase of the Cardiac Cycle
1. diastole – period of relaxation

2. systole – the period of contraction
CARDIAC OUTPUT – the volume of blood per minute the left ventricle pumps into the aorta.
LUB DUPP – the heart’s sound pattern
PACEMAKER – s specialized region of cardiac muscle that maintains the heart’s pumping rhythm by
setting the rate at which the heart contracts.
ARTIFICIAL PACEMAKER - a tiny electronic device surgically implanted near the AV node to emit
electrical signals that trigger normal heart beats.
HEART ATTACK – is the death of the cardiac muscle cells and the resulting failure of the heart to deliver
enough blood to the rest of the body.

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Handout in Earth and Life Science

Structure, Composition, and Age

Birth, evolution, death, and rebirth of stars

The Universe Contains Everything There Is

Large Scale Features of the Solar System

 All planets revolve around the sun;

 All planets are located at regular intervals from the Sun

Small Scale Features of the Solar System

 Most planets rotate prograde;

Origin of the Solar System

In 1700s Emmanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace independently

 Buffon’s (1749) Sun-comet encounter that sent matter;

Protoplanet Hypothesis – Current

Recent advancement/information on the Solar System

THE SUN, OUR STAR

The Parts of the Sun

Prominences, Sunspots and Flares

WHAT STARS ARE

Fusion Makes Stars Shine

Stars Are Born from Gas and Dust

A. Is the thin gaseous layer that envelops the lithosphere.

A. It is the set of all life forms on Earth;

The Structure of the Earth

6. Moho – boundary separating the crust and the mantle

MINERALS AND ROCKS

Five important properties which define a mineral

 All minerals are solid;

• The Silicate Minerals

• The Ferromagnesian silicate minerals

• Non ferromagnesian silicate minerals

• The Non Silicates

Physical Properties of Minerals

 Crystalline structure – the orderly, repetitive arrangement of atoms in a crystal

Three Rock Types

Differences from Igneous Rocks

 First, they do not all form in the same place.

Magma and Intrusive Rocks

Lava and Extrusive Rock

The most common extrusive rock is basalt, the counterpart of gabbro.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

Foliated and Non foliated Metamorphic

• Non foliated rocks do not show layering or banding.

Processes that change the Earth’s Surface

Weathering – The Breakdown of Rocks

Erosion and Deposition

Expanding and Freezing Break Up Rocks

Water and Chemical Weathering

Oxygen and Chemical Weathering

Acids and Chemical Weathering

Theory of Drifting Continents

Discoveries in the Ocean

Theory of Plate Tectonics

The Motions of Plates in the Crust

THEORIES ON THE FORMATION OF THE PHILIPPINE ARCHIPELAGO

PLATE TECTONIC THEORY –

 100 – 65 million years ago

 6 – 10 million years ago

HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA AND HAZARDS

Hydrometeorological hazards are processes of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature that

Geologic Hazards and Mitigation

The top ten provinces that are at risk to Earthquakes include:

1. Surigao Del Sur 6. Tarlac

 Botany – is the scientific study of plants