EXPEREMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
PSY 116
CHAPTER I: EXPEREMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY AND SCIENTIFIC
METHOD
Psychology is the science of behavior
Psychological science – research about
psychological processes underlying behavior.
Science connotes content and process.
Methodology consists of the scientific
techniques we use to collect and evaluate data.
Data are the facts we gather using scientific
methods.
Heider called nonscientific data gathering
commonsense psychology.
-This approach uses nonscientific sources
of data and nonscientific inference.
An everyday example is believing that
“opposites attract.”
Commonsense psychology is the kind of
everyday, nonscientific gathering that shapes our
expectations and beliefs and directs our behavior
toward others.
As commonsense psychologists, the person’s
ability to gather data in a systematic and
impartial way is constrained by two factors:
1. sources of psychological information
2. our inferential strategies
Sources of psychological information – the data
we gather as commonsense psychologists come
from sources that seem credible and trustworthy-
friends, relatives, people with authority
Nonscientific inference is the nonscientific use
of information to explain or predict behavior.
The gambler’s fallacy, overuse of trait
explanations, stereotyping, and overconfidence
bias illustrate this problem.
 In the gambler’s fallacy, people misuse
data to estimate the probability of an
event, like when a slot machine will pay
off.
 When we overuse trait explanations to
explain others' behavior, we often make
unwarranted dispositional attributions
and underuse situational information.
This bias can reduce the accuracy of our
explanations and predictions.
 In stereotyping, we falsely assume that
specific behaviors cluster together.
For example, since Imei is a Chinese-
American student, she must study 10
hours a day and excel at math. In reality,
she failed calculus.
Stereotypes ignore individual
differences.
 In overconfidence bias, we feel more
confident about our conclusions than is
warranted by available data.
This form of nonscientific inference can
result in erroneous conclusions when we
don’t recognize the limitations of
supporting data.
Characteristics of Modern Science
1. Alfred North Whitehead’s scientific mentality
assumes that behavior follows a natural order
and can be predicted.
This assumption is essential to science. There is
no point to using the scientific method to gather
and analyze data if there is no implicit order.
The principle of determinism is applied when we
believe that the causes of human behavior can be
researched.
2. Gathering Empirical Data
Data are empirical when observed or
experienced, preferably in a systematic and
orderly way.
Galileo’s empirical approach was superior
to Aristotle’s commonsense method.
Galileo correctly concluded that light objects
fall as rapidly as heavy ones in a vacuum.
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3. Seeking General Principles
A law consists of statements generally expressed
as equations with few variables
that have overwhelming empirical support.
Laws, like the Laws of Thermodynamics,
are useful in the physical sciences.
A theory is an interim explanation; a set of
related statements used explain and predict
phenomena.
Theories integrate diverse data, explain behavior,
and predict new instances of behavior.
4. Good thinking is critical to the scientific
method.
We engage in good thinking when data
collection and interpretation are systematic,
objective, and rational.
• Occam’s Razor- this emphasizes to the
basic premise that entities should not be
multiplied without necessity.
The principle of parsimony is that we prefer the
simplest useful explanation.
• For example, Crandall (1988) showed
that a social contagion model of bulimia
was more parsimonious than competing
explanations.
5. Self-Correction
Modern scientists accept the uncertainty of their
own conclusions. Changes in scientific
explanations and theories are an extremely
important part of scientific progress.
6. Publicizing Results
The number of scientific papers published each
year in scientific journals is growing, and new
journals are constantly being added in
specialized disciplines. This continuous
exchange of information is vital to the scientific
process.
7. Replication
We should be able to repeat our procedures and
get the same results again if we have gathered
data objectively and if we have followed good
thinking.
Four major objectives of research conducted
in Psychology
1. Description
In psychological science, we are referring to a
systematic and unbiased account of the observed
characteristics of behaviors. Good description
allow us greater knowledge of behaviors
because they provide us with the information
about what the behavior will be like.
2. Prediction refers to the capacity for knowing
in advance when certain behaviors would be
expected to occur – to be able to predict them
ahead of time – because we have identified other
conditions with which the behaviors are linked
or associated.
3. Explanation
When we have explained a behavior, we also
understand what causes it to occur. Explanation
includes knowledge of the conditions that
reliably reproduce the occurrence of a behavior.
4. Control refers to the application of what has
been learned about behavior.
Control is rarely the intent of experimentation,
but some research is conducted with the intent of
producing behavioral change along with
increasing knowledge.
Applied Research is research that is designed to
solve real-world problems.
Basic Research is research designed to test
theories or to explain psychological phenomena
in humans and animals.
Three Main Tools of Scientific Method
1. Observation is the systematic noting and
recording of events.
We can only make a scientific study of events
that are observable. To make scientific study of
internal process like feeling and thinking, we
must able to define those events in terms of
observable signs.
2. Measurement is quantifying an event or
behavior according to generally accepted rules.
We try to measure in standardized units so that
our measurements will be meaningful. We keep
our measurements consistent.
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3. Experimentation is a process undertaken to
demonstrate that already observed events will
occur consistently under a particular set of
conditions.
To conduct an experiment, the hypothesis must
be testable; procedures must be available to test
it, and it must be ethical to do so.
Scientific Explanation in Psychological
Science
Antecedent Condition – are the circumstances
that come before the event or behavior that we
want to explain.
Treatment Condition- a specific set of
antecedent conditions created by the
experimenter and presented to subjects to test its
effect on behavior.
Psychology Experiment- is a controlled
procedure in which at least two different
treatment conditions are applied to subjects.
• The subjects’ behaviors are then
measured and compared to test a
hypothesis about the effects of those
treatments on behavior.
 An experiment requires that we create at
least two treatment conditions and
randomly assign subjects to these
conditions.
 In psychology experiments, we control
extraneous variables so we that we can
measure “what we intend to measure.”
 An experiment attempts to establish a
cause- and-effect relationship between
the antecedent conditions (IV) and
subject behavior (DV).
 Experiments establish a temporal
relationship, because causes must
precede effects. However, not all prior
events are causes.
A pseudoscience is any field of study that
gives the appearance of being scientific,
but has no true scientific basis and has not
been confirmed using the scientific method.
Modern pseudosciences include past life
regression, reparenting, and rebirthing.
CHAPTER II: RESEARCH ETHICS
Research ethics are a framework of values
within which we conduct research.
Ethics help researchers identify actions we
consider good and bad, and explain the
principles by which we make responsible
decisions in actual situations.
Institutional review boards (IRBs), which are
composed of laypeople and researchers,
evaluate research proposals to make sure that
they follow ethical standards.
 IRBs protect the safety of research
participants.
 Their first task is to decide whether a
proposed study increases participants’
risk of injury since psychological
research can cause physical and/or
psychological discomfort.
 As researchers, we must accurately
estimate the degree of risk in our
research. We typically do this by
reading the literature and consulting
with colleagues.
 IRBs will also help researchers estimate
the degree of risk involved in their
studies.
 Studies that place subjects at risk
increase the chance of harm compared
with not participating in the study.
 Minimal risk studies do not increase the
likelihood of injury.
 IRBs should approve an “at risk” study
when a risk/benefit analysis determines
that risks to participants are outweighed
by gains in knowledge.
Which three principles did the Belmont
Report (1979) emphasize?
The Belmont Report proposed three principles:
1. Respect for persons: individuals have
the right of self-determination (basis of
informed consent).
2. Beneficence: minimize harm and
maximize potential benefits (basis of
risk/benefit analysis).
3. Justice: fairness in both the burdens
and benefits of research.
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What is informed consent?
A subject or guardian agrees in writing to the
subject’s participation after relevant details of
the experiment have been explained.
This description may include risks and benefits,
but does not extend to deception or the
hypothesis.
 Perhaps the most important principle
built into ethics codes is the right of a
participant to refuse to be in the study
or discontinue participation.
 Ethical researchers, therefore, cannot
coerce participants to agree to be in the
study or prevent participants from
discontinuing the study.
Who is targeted by APA ethical guidelines?
APA ethical guidelines apply to psychologists
and students when they assume the role of
psychologists during research or practice.
Deception may be used when it is the best way
to obtain information.
 Deception may not be used to minimize
the participants’ perception of risk or
exaggerate their perception of potential
benefits.
 Subjects must be allowed to withdraw
from the experiment at any time and
should never face coercion to remain.
 The experimenter should provide
debriefing (full disclosure) after either
their personal participation or the
completion of the entire study.
What does debriefing involve and when is it
required?
Debriefing involves explaining the true nature
and purpose of the experiment.
Debriefing is an essential component of good
experimental research. We must offer our
participants a full explanation of our study any
time that we use deception.
In debriefing, an experimenter discloses the
true nature and purpose of the study to the
subject and solicits subjects’ questions at the
end of the experiment
What is a confederate? Why is the use of a
confederate deceptive?
A confederate is an experimenter’s accomplice.
Use of a confederate is deceptive because
subjects are led to believe that the confederate is
another subject, experimenter, or bystander,
when he or she is actually part of the
experimental manipulation.
What is the principle of full disclosure?
Full disclosure means explaining the true
nature and purpose of the study to the subject at
the end of their participation or at the
completion of the entire experiment.
Explain the difference between anonymity
and confidentiality.
Anonymity means that subjects are not
identified by name.
Confidentiality means that data are securely
stored and only used for the purpose explained
to the subject.
How do researchers achieve these goals?
 Researchers achieve anonymity by
collecting data without names and
assigning code numbers.
 They achieve confidentiality by storing
data in a locked safe and only using the
data for the purposes explained to the
participants.
How do psychologists protect the welfare of
animal subjects?
Animal welfare is the humane care and
treatment of animals.
Institutions that conduct animal research must
establish an Institutional Animal Care and Use
Committee (IACUC) to evaluate animal
research before it is conducted.
 The IACUC must determine that the
researchers have explored all
alternatives and have documented that
there are no other feasible alternatives.
Animal rights is the position that sensate
species (those that can feel pain and suffer)
have equal value and rights to humans.
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What is scientific fraud? What motivates

fraud?
Scientific fraud involves falsifying or
fabricating data.
A researcher’s graduation, tenure, promotion,
funding, or reputation may motivate researchers
to commit fraud.

What are the main lines of defense against

fraud?
The peer review process filters submitted
manuscripts so that only 15-20% of articles are
printed.
Replication, where researchers attempt to
reproduce the findings of others, is the second
line of defense.
Competition by colleagues for scarce resources,
while a cause of fraud, is the third line of
defense.

What is plagiarism? Why is it wrong?

Plagiarism is misrepresenting someone’s “ideas,
words, or written work” as your own.
 Plagiarism is a form of fraud, in which
an individual claims false credit for
another’s ideas, words, or written work.

Which ethical issues may be involved in

research reports?
-Authorship credit should only be given to those
who made a major contribution to the research
or writing.
-Researchers should not take credit for the same
research more than once.
-The ethical solution is to cite original
publications when republishing data in a journal
article or republishing journal articles in an
edited volume.