c

 

p 103

Let us note that if the topology of the range space 6is given by a basis
then to prove
continuity of / it suffices to show that the inverse image of every   
is open: The
arbitrary open set V of 6can be written as a union of basis elements
 a


•

Then

  

 
 
so that  is open if each set  is open.
If the topology on 6is given by a subbasis 
to prove continuity of / it will even suffice
to show that the inverse image of each  element is open: The arbitrary basis
element for 6can be written as a finite intersection n ‡ ‡ ‡ n 
of subbasis elements; it
follows from the equation
/-l(B) = / - 1 ( Si ) n - - - n / - 1 ( 5 Ä )

that the inverse image of every basis element is open.

EXAMPLE 1. Let us consider a function like those studied in analysis, a "real-valued
function of a real variable,"
/ : R ²> R.
In analysis, one defines continuity of / via the  definition," a bugaboo over the years
for every student of mathematics. As one would expect, the definition and ours are
equivalent. To prove that our definition implies the e -<5 definition, for instance, we proceed
as follows:
Given  in R, and given > 0, the interval V = (/(*o) ² e, /(*o) + e) is an open set
of the range space R. Therefore, /_1(V) is an open set in the domain space R. Because
/_1 (V) contains the point 
it contains some basis element (a, about We choose 
to be the smaller of the two numbers  and ²  Then if |JC ²   
the point 
must be in 

so that e V, and ² /(*o)l < C as desired.
Proving that the definition implies our definition is no harder; we leave it to you.
We shall return to this example when we study metric spaces.

EXAMPLE 2. In calculus one considers the property of continuity for many kinds of
functions. For example, one studies functions of the following types:
ù
(curves in the plane)
(curves in space)
(functions 
!of two real variables)
(functions 
y, "of three real variables)
(vector fields V(JC, !in the plane).
Each of them has a notion of continuity defined for it. Our general definition of continuity
includes all these as special cases; this fact will be a consequence of general theorems we
shall prove concerning continuous functions on product spaces and on metric spaces.

 #  $# 
%c

 

 c&'

E XAMPLE 3. Let R denote the set of real numbers in its usual topology, and let R^
denote the same set in the lower limit topology. Let
/ : R ²()

be the identity function;    for every real number  Then / is not a continuous
function; the inverse image of the open set *
of R^ equals itself, which is not open
in R. On the other hand, the identity function

$+) ²Ź R

continuous, because the inverse image of 

is itself, which is open in R^.
In analysis, one studies several different but equivalent ways of formulating the
definition of continuity. Some of these generalize to arbitrary spaces, and they are
considered in the theorems that follow. The familiar "e-6" definition and the "convergent
sequence definition" do not generalize to arbitrary spaces; they will be treated when we
study metric spaces.

Theorem  P ,
%6  #  $# - : ,-> 6&
&   .
$/ 
01
+
(1)p 

 
(2)p  / 1 /! 2 ,

&/(A) c 2
(3)p  / 1 /!  %  6
&  /~'(B)   %
,
(4)p For &e ,
% &
$& /& % 
& / 
$& /& %3 &&
3C 
If the condition in (4) holds for the point of ,
we say that / is 

 Ê

Ê

D/ We show that (1) =» (2) =>Ŷ (3) => (1) and that (1) =>Ŷ (4) => (1).
(1)p =>‡ (2). Assume that / is continuous. Let 2be a subset of ,We show that if ¼ 2

then  2 Let be a neighborhood of Then  (is an open set of ,containing
-it must intersect 2in some point !Then intersects 2in the point !
so that e
/(A), as desired.
(2)p =Ź (3). Let be closed in 6and let 24 We wish to prove that 2is closed
in X; we show that 2  2 By elementary set theory, we have 2 4 5 c 
Therefore, if e A,

¼ /(A) c 2c4

so that e 542Thus A C A, so that A = A, as desired.

(3) =Ź (1). Let be an open set of 6Set = 6Then


         

Now is a closed set of 6Then is closed in ,by hypothesis, so that /""' (is open in
X, as desired.
§18 c

 

p 

(1) 46 (4). Let 
,and let be a neighborhood of  Then the set 34
is a neighborhood of JC such that 3c 
(4) =» (1). Let V be an open set of 7; let* be a point of /~'(V). Then/(x) e V,
so that by hypothesis there is a neighborhood 3 of * such that 3 C V. Then
3c /-1(V). It follows that  can be written as the union of the open sets 3

so that it is open.p ß

Momeomorphisms
Let ,and 6be topological spaces; let / : X -> 6be a bijection. If both the function /
and the inverse function
+6 ,
are continuous, then / is called a 
 
The condition that /_1 be continuous says that for each open set 3 of ,
 the
inverse image of 3under the map : 6(,is open in F. But the 
1 / $ 
of £/ under the map /-1 is the same as the $ of 3under the map /. See Figure
18.1. So another way to define a homeomorphism is to say that it is a bijective
correspondence / : ,-> 6such that /([/) is open if and only if 3is open.

$/  

This remark shows that a homeomorphism / : , -* 6 gives us a bijective cor-

respondence not only between ,and 6but between the collections of open sets of ,
and of 6As a result, any property of ,that is entirely expressed in terms of the topol-
ogy of X (that is, in terms of the open sets of X) yields, via the correspondence /, the
corresponding property for the space 6Such a property of X is called a  #  $

Ê of X.
You may have studied in modern algebra the notion of an   /#&between al-
gebraic objects such as groups or rings. An isomorphism is a bijective correspondence
that preserves the algebraic structure involved. The analogous concept in topology is
that of &   /#&-it is a bijective correspondence that preserves the topological
structure involved.
Now suppose that / : X ²(6is an injective continuous map, where X and 6
are topological spaces. Let Z be the image set /(X), considered as a subspace of 6
then the function /' : X ²» Z obtained by restricting the range of / is bijective. If /'
happens to be a homeomorphism of X with Z, we say that the map / : X ²>Ŷ 6is a
Ê  

 or simply an 

 of X in 6
  
106 Topoog
 paces and connuous Funcons c 

 
EXAM E 4. The functin / : R -» R gi en by 
 4 3x + 1 i a homeomorphi m. See
Figure 18.2. If we define g : R -*Ŷ R by the equation

then one can check easily that 

g(y)) = y and g((x)) 4 x for all real numbers x and y. It
follows that / is bijecti e and that g = /1; the continuity of / and g is a familiar result
from calculus.

E XAM E 5. The function F : (-1,1) -*Ŷ R defined by

*
*
Ú


is a homeomorphism. See Figure 18.3. We have already noted in Example 9 of 3 that F is

a bijective order-preserving correspondence; its inverse is the function G defined by

G(y) 4 y
l + (l+4y2)l/2-

The fact that F is a homeomorphism can be proved in two ways. One way is to note that
because F is order preserving and bijective, F carries a basis element for the order topology
in (² 1, 1) onto a basis element for the order topology in R and vice versa. As a result, F is
automatically a homeomorphism of (²1, 1) with R (both in the order topology). Since the
order topology on (² 1,1) and the usual (subspace) topology agree, F is a homeomorphism
of (-1, 1) withR.

3x + 1
F(x)
1-x2

Fgure 18.2 Fgure 18.3

A second way to show F a homeomorphism is to use the continuity of the algebraic

functions and the square-root function to show that both F and G are continuous. These
are familiar facts from calculus.

EXAME 6. A bijective function  : X -*Ŷ Y can be continuous without being a home-

omorphism. One such function is the identity map g : Re -»Ŷ R considered in Example 3.
Another is the following: Let S denote the un crce,

[x *2 + y2 = l},
;18 connuous Funconsp 

considered as a subspace of the plane R2, and let

F : [0,1) ²Ŷ> S1

be the map defined by /(/) = (cos 2n, sin 2n). The fact that / is bijective and continuous
follows from familiar properties of the trigonometric functions. But the function  is
not continuous. The image under / of the open set U 4 [0, |) of the domain, for instance,
is not open in S1, for the point p  /(0) lies in no open set V of R 2 such that V n S1 C
(U). See Figure 18.4.

‘i
>

Fgure 18.4


E XAM LE 7. Consider the function

g : [0, 1) ²Ź M2

obtained from the function / of the preceding example by expanding the range. The map g
is an example of a continuous injective map that is not an imbedding.

c‘
i
 c‘
i
‘ 
i‘


How does one go about constructing continuous functions from one topological space to
another? There are a number of methods used in analysis, of which some generalie to
arbitrary topological spaces and others do not. We study first some constructions that do
hold for general topological spaces, deferring consideration of the others until later.

T‘
 Ú  ‘ ‘
i
 ‘
i
‘ 
i‘
 Pe X,Y, and Z be
opoogca spaces.
(a)p (consan uncon) I  : X ( Y maps a o X no e snge pon yo oY, en  s
connuous.
(b)p (Incuson) I A s a subspace oX, e ncuson uncon j : A *Ŷ X s connuous.
 
(c)p (composes) I  : X ( Y and g : Y ²Ź Z are connuous,  en  e map g o  : X ->‡
Z s connuous.
108  #  $# 
%c

 

p c&'

%p ) /
$& % 
7: ,-> 6

 


%2#  ,

&
& / / %

  2 + 2-> 6

 
 p ) /
$ / #
%
$& /
$ P +,²Ź 6   

  78 
#   6 


$ &  $    ,
 &
 &  

 $: , -> Z

%!/ /
$& /
$  

 78# &1
$6
#
&
& 

&+,-> Z 
%! #
%
$& /
$  


 
p P  /
 

!& #+,966

 ,
 
./
& 

  #
 3&&3

  / &
D/ 
(a) Let 4! for every in ,Let be open in 6The set  equals ,
or :
depending on whether contains yo or not. In either case, it is open.
(b)pIf 3is open in ,
then j 33D 2
which is open in 2by definition of
the subspace topology.
(c)pIf 3is open in Z, then $3is open in 6and  $3is open in ,But

 


by elementary set theory.
(d)pThe function 2equals the composite of the inclusion map j+2²>‡ ,and
the map / : ,²> 6
both of which are continuous.
(e)pLet / : ,-> 6be continuous. If ,c Z C 6
we show that the function $+,
-> Z obtained from / is continuous. Let be open in Z. Then 48 n 3for some
open set 3of 6Because Z contains the entire image set ,

   


by elementary set theory. Since 3is open, so is $
To show &+, ->Ŷ Z is continuous if Z has 6as a subspace, note that &is the
composite of the map / : ,-> 6and the inclusion map j+6968
(f) By hypothesis, we can write , as a union of open sets 3
 such that 3 is
continuous for each Let be an open set in 6Then
 

 


because both expressions represent the set of those points lying in 3 for which
e V. Since 3is continuous, this set is open in 3
and hence open in ,But

  
 




so that  is also open in ,p ß

Theorem 
The pasting Úemma) P ,= 2U 

.& / 2
%/   %
,
P +2966
%$+-Ź 6 

 7= $ / 1 /!¼ An 
&


%$ 
 $1 

 

&: ,²>‡ 6

% 
%! 
$&4
¼ 2

%&4$ 
§18 c

 

p 109

D/ Let C be a closed subset of 6Now

&;c4/<c3$c

by elementary set theory. Since / is continuous, c is closed in 2 and, therefore,

closed in , Similarly, $c is closed in  and therefore closed in , Their union
&(C) is thus closed in ,p Ŷ

This theorem also holds if 2and are open sets in ,-this is just a special case of the
"local formulation of continuity" rule given in preceding theorem.

EXAMPLE 8. Let us define a function & )by setting

for < 0,
&4
='for * > 0.

Each of the "pieces" of this definition is a continuous function, and they agree on the
overlapping part of their domains, which is the one-point set {0. Since their domains are
closed in K, the function &is continuous. One needs the "pieces" of the function to agree
on the overlapping part of their domains in order to have a function at all. The equations

>4 2 for  0,

+'for > 0,

for instance, do not define a function. On the other hand, one needs some limitations on
the sets 2and to guarantee continuity. The equations

3 'for  0,
+ 'for > 0,

for instance, do define a function / mapping R into IR, and both of the pieces are continuous.
But / is not continuous; the inverse image of the open set (1, 3), for instance, is the nonopen
set[0, 1). See Figure 18.5.


=

$/ ;?
  #  $# 
%c

 

 c&'

Theorem 

aps into products) P +2+,6 $1
!&  0

©
Ú) a
©i
o),©
a)) &




 
%
!& 



/i : 2²Ź ,
%+2+6
/ 

 
The maps and are called the 
Ê

Ê 
 of /.
D/ Let
+,x 6²Ź ,and
' +,x 6(6be projections onto the first and
second factors, respectively. These maps are continuous. For  = 3 x 6 and
^'(V) = X x V, and these sets are open if 3and V are open. Note that for each e 2

@4
55and 4
'

If the function / is continuous, then and are composites of continuous func-
tions and therefore continuous. Conversely, suppose that and are continuous. We
show that for each basis element 3x V for the topology ofXxF, its inverse image
 3x V) is open. A point is in 3x if and only if  3
that is, if
and only if e 3and ¼ V. Therefore,

r1(t/xV) = /1-1(£/)n/2-'(V).
Since both of the sets /f' (£/) and /2_ (V) are open, so is their intersection.p Ŷ

There is no useful criterion for the continuity of a map / : 2(,whose

% 
is a product space. One might conjecture that / is continuous if it is continuous
"in each variable separately," but this conjecture is not true. (See Exercise 12.)
EXAMPLE 9. In calculus, #/ /" %/1 in the plane is defined to be a continuous
map / : *
A96)'It is often expressed in the form /(f) = 
!-and one
frequently uses the fact that / is a continuous function of if both and !are. Similarly,
a 1  / %in the plane

!4D
!+Q
!j4
D
!
Q
!
is said to be continuous if both Dand Qare continuous functions, or equivalently, if v is
continuous as a map of R2 into K2. Both of these statements are simply special cases of
the preceding theorem.
One way of forming continuous functions that is used a great deal in analysis is to
take sums, differences, products, or quotients of continuous real-valued functions. It
is a standard theorem that if /, $: ,-> M are continuous, then +$
$
and / ‡ $
are continuous, and =$ is continuous  $  0 for all  We shall consider this
theorem in §21.
§18 c

 

p 111
 Yet another method for constructing continuous functions that is familiar from analysis is to
take the limit of an infinite sequence of functions. There is a theorem to the effect that if a sequence
of continuous real-valued functions of a real variable converges uniformly to a limit function, then
the limit function is necessarily continuous. This theorem is called the 3
 /P& / It is
used, for instance, to demonstrate the continuity of the trigonometric functions, when one defines
these functions rigorously using the infinite series definitions of the sine and cosine. This theorem
generalizes to a theorem about maps of an arbitrary topological space ,into a metric space 6We
shall prove it in §21.