Research

Consumer Management in Internet Age: FIIB Business Review

8(4) 279–291, 2019
2019 Fortune Institute of
A Study of Indian Car Buyers Digital International Business
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Communication Adoption by Applying in.sagepub.com/journals-permissions-india
DOI: 10.1177/2319714519883107

Competing Models journals.sagepub.com/home/fib

Rekha1
Pooja Jain2

Abstract
Consumer management has always been a challenging task for marketers. The task becomes even more challenging in internet age
witnessing proliferation of emerging marketing practices with each passing year. Digital marketing communication has emerged as the
most preferred communication alternative in recent years. Consumer have adopted digital communication in their buying decision
process for number of product categories, still the adoption has not been studied adequately for products lying in extended problem
solving category. This study compares the most popular technology adoption models to predict the intentions of Indian car buyers to
use digital communication while making a car buying decision to better under the consumer management. Primary data was obtained
from 801 car buyers consisting of both actual and potential buyers from Delhi. Structural equation modeling was used to evaluate and
compare the models in terms of overall fit, explanatory power and significance. The results of the study revealed that Decomposed
Theory of Planned Behaviour in explaining the digital communication adoption which could be used by the marketers for better con-
sumer management.

Keywords
Consumer management, digital marketing communication, emerging practices, technology adoption, Indian car buyers

Introduction become the most critical weapon in the marketers’ arsenal

Technology is of petite use if it is not acknowledged and
used by the target customers. In situations wherein
marketers are trying hard to persuade their target customers
by using contemporary technologies and spending
enormous sums of money, the issue of technology adoption
becomes more significant than ever (Patel & Chugan,
2018). There remains a sturdy need to understand the
individual user adoption of technology not only to defend
the augmented marketing spend towards these cotemporary
technologies but also for unveiling the potential of these
technologies in bringing a paradigm shift in consumer
management. Consumer management has always been a
challenging task for marketers. The task becomes even
more challenging in the internet age witnessing a
proliferation of emerging marketing practices with each
passing year. Managers who overlook internet while
formulating the marketing strategies would be at a
disadvantage. Digital marketing communication has
across the globe for customer management, and India being
no exception is also facing the dynamic changes in the
Indian marketing communication landscape.
There is an emergence of new customer in a new
marketplace who is digitally active, keen to get maximum
product information, explores competitive information,
makes an informed decision and expects the best of timely
services (Assael, 2004). Digital technologies facilitate
consumer engagement, repeat sales and increase customer
loyalty through data driven understanding of consumers’
thinking, evaluation and purchase. It helps to manage the
entire demand and consumer management process from
forecasting to end customer delivery and post purchase
behaviours. Effective consumer management is achieved
when organizations are able to manage their demand with
increased collaboration between marketing efforts and
supply chain management to generate customer value in
the digital space.

1 Department of Management, Banarsidas Chandiwala Institute of Professional Studies, Dwarka, New Delhi, India.
2 Jagan Institute of Management Studies, Rohini, New Delhi, India.

Corresponding author:
Rekha, Department of Management, Banarsidas Chandiwala Institute of Professional Studies, Sector-11 (Opposite Metro Station), Dwarka, New Delhi
110075, India.
E-mail: rekkhadahiya@gmail.com
280
Bird (2007) defines digital marketing as a communication
activity conducted over media using digital transmission,
not essentially requiring an internet connection, that
establishes a direct relationship between a company and its
customers or prospects as an individual. The term media
used here refers to the channels, instruments, applications,
manners and devices which for their functioning uses
digital codes (Rowan, 2002). Digital media includes
content-based platforms such as websites, social
networking sites, online communities and search engines
using primarily the internet technology and devices such as
mobile phones, digital TV, digital outdoors using both
internet and mobile technology.
Digital communication has become the preferred mode
of communication across industries of varied nature, size
and type because of its specific features ranging from being
attractive, simple, informative, rapid, adaptable and
desirable to cost effective (Dahiya & Gayatri, 2018).
Digital mode of communication establishes the direct
association with the target audience leading to better
consumer management (Chaffey & Ellis-Chadwick, 2019).
Although issues of authenticity, compatibility, complexity
and privacy have not yet been fully settled, consumers
across different product categories ranging from books,
electronics, fashion and furniture to big-ticket items such
as house and cars are making use of digital marketing
communication in their buying decision processes
(Chaudhry & Sharma, 2018).
Consumer management in the internet age can be
understood more easily if marketers have an in-depth
understanding of technology adoption by the target
consumers. One does not face scarcity of studies when it
comes to understanding the technology adoption in product
categories such as books, fashion accessories, clothing
banking and services, online gaming, online shopping,
internet and social networking sites usage, green marketing,
personal health and road safety (Chen & Lin, 2018;
Gugnani & Choudhary, 2017; Oyaid & Alshaya, 2019).
But, there lies a definite lack of researches when it comes
to understanding the technology adoption in technology-
mediated environment for an extended problem solving
product category like a car (Rekha, 2018).
Data-driven marketing has now confirmed its validity
as an essential marketing strategy across various industries
and the passenger car market is no exception. Marketers
are embracing digital technologies to transform the
consumer management parlance to make it more
personalized and omni-channel experience for the
customers at a relatively cheaper cost. Personalization, as a
demand management tool, is being used by car
manufacturers, real estate companies and financial service
providers to enhance customer experience (Currie, Dokka,
Harvey, & Strauss, 2018). Automobile manufacturers
around the globe are increasing the spend on various digital
platforms. Car marketers in India have breached the ‘10
per cent digital budget rule’ especially in the last five years
FIIB Business Review 8(4)
and are expected to spend 24 per cent of their budget on
digital platforms (Russo & Robbinson, 2019). Knowledge
about technology adoption of car buyers might improve the
bottom line for the marketers as it would reveal key
antecedents responsible for augmenting the consumer
experience. Marketers would benefit even more if they
knew the factors affecting usage intentions and somehow
predict the usage intentions in technology-mediated
environment. This would not only help them justify the
enormous money spent over digital platforms but would
also allow for more precise targeting of the chosen
segments, ultimately leading to better consumer
management (Rekha, 2018).
Researching about cars online before buying has
become a new normal and an integral part of car buying
decision process for the majority of the consumers. The
online experience has become central point in car
purchasing journey whereby car buyers start their journey
with the search engines, surf the websites and read the
customers and experts’ reviews (Chamberlain, 2018). As
per the major search engine, Google, 90 per cent of the car
buyers conducted online research before buying a car in
the year 2018. There are various micro-touch points where
consumers continuously alter their consideration set, join
online communities and follow their favourite car brands
online (Ghaswalla, 2019). Video, search and websites are
the primary influencers affecting the journey of car-buying
decision (Lidhoo, 2019). Smartphones have emerged as the
most influential digital device used by car buyers
throughout the car-buying decision process. Consumers
are influencing others and also getting influenced by
others. Digital information is influencing the vehicle type,
dealer and brand selection along with affecting the timing
and place of purchase (V12, 2018). Car buyers do not
hesitate in sharing their post-purchase feelings with others
and are engaged in online discussions about cars and
sharing exciting content with others (Dahiya & Gayatri,
2018). Under such circumstances, detailed information
about the digital communication usage pattern will reward
marketer with an enhanced probability of customer
acquisition, improved customer satisfaction, loyalty and
retention. Digital technologies can be helpful in generating
retailers’ information and consumers’ purchase triggers,
which simulate consumption. Goldenberg (2000) believes
that customer management through technology applications
enables firms to pursue cross-functional, customer-driven,
technology-integrated demand management strategy
achieving the objective of long-term mutually beneficial
relationships.
Academicians and researchers in the past have tried to
understand the usage intentions by employing prominent
technology adoption models such as technology acceptance
model (TAM), theory of reasoned action (TRA), theory of
planned behaviour (TPB) and decomposed TPB (DTPB) in
various domains especially in the foreign context. There
are few studies in the Indian context, which is quite
Rekha and Jain 281
different from other cultures in terms of technology
adoption rate, device ownership, spend on data, data usage
patterns, and trust and security issues. Academicians have
generally avoided the studies dealing with car buyers’
adoption of technology while buying a car; even though
the Indian passenger car market has been one of the most
prominent digital spenders across various platforms since
2009. This study tests the prevalent technology adoption
models in this relatively less explored product category. It
becomes interesting to see the digital dynamics in a
rewarding segment, contributing significantly to the GDP
with high export prospectus and motivating penetration
levels in the domestic country. Moreover, the Indian digital
advertising industry is expected to grow at an annual
growth rate of 32 per cent by 2021 (exchange4media,
2019). Such impressive statistics present an optimistic
state of digital marketing in India which warrants the
researchers and practitioners’ attention. TAMs have been
successful in revealing useful insights and predicting usage
intentions in technology mediated environment across
various product categories which further helps marketers
managing the critical aspects of consumer management,
namely understanding the consumers’ needs, salient beliefs
and opinions, the role of non-marketer controlled stimuli,
role of psychological factors, usage patterns, actual usage
and so on, to name the few. Next section gives a brief of all
the contemporary models used in the study.
Theoretical Models Used in the
Study
Theory of Reasoned Actions
Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) introduced the TRA which is
based on the assumption that individuals are rational in their
behaviour and make efficient use of related available
information. The theory explains the relationship between
beliefs, attitudes, intentions and behaviour. The most
immediate determinant of actual behaviour in this theory is
usage intention. Usage intentions are affected by attitude
and subjective norms (SN) towards performing the
behaviour. The researchers have liberally used the theory,
and recent application of the approach has been observed in
areas concerning healthcare, social media usage, training,
organ donation (Karnowski, Leonhard, & Kümpel, 2018;
Wong & Chow, 2018) and so on. However, the theory failed
to give significant results in the situations wherein behaviour
was not 100 per cent voluntary and under some constraints
(Samaradiwakara & Gunawardena, 2014).
Theory of Planned Behaviour
TPB proposed by Ajzen (1991) states that an individual’s
intention to perform the behaviour makes an individual
behaviour. TPB adds third construct known as perceived
behavioural control (PBC) which along with attitude and
SNs determines the usage intentions. PBC deals with the
user’s perception about the availability or non-availability
of the resources impeding or restricting the use of
technology. Recent application of the model includes
understanding alcohol consumption among university
students, use of assertive language in nursing and healthy
dietary behaviour (Li, Figg, & Schuez, 2019; Omura,
Stone, Maguire, & Levett-Jones, 2018). TPB also suffers
from certain limitations like the model explicitly states its
rational nature and ignores the differences in terms of
individual emotions, culture and contexts (Zhang, 2018).
Technology Acceptance Model
The TAM model proposed by Davis (1989) elucidated the
causal relationship of user’s internal beliefs (usefulness
and ease of use), attitude, intentions and actual usage
behaviour. Perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease
of use (PEOU) affect the attitude which affects the usage
intentions, which are also affected by PU. Usage intentions
is considered as a substitute for actual usage behaviour of
users. TAM is regarded as a parsimonious and robust
model. Recent applications of the model have been seen in
areas such as mobile learning e-procurement, mobile social
networking sites and internet banking (Al-Emran,
Mezhuyev, & Kamaludin, 2018; Hassan, Iqbal, & Iqbal,
2018). Most common limitations of TAM included the
inability to accurately explain the actual usage behaviour,
inadequate antecedents to usage intentions, ignorance of
external variables and being too simplistic to explain
(Ajibade, 2018). Researchers added more constructs to
have a broad and more comprehensive understanding such
as behavioural intention, SNs, voluntariness, job relevance,
output quality, demonstrability, trustworthiness and
enjoyment (Ayeh, Au, & Law, 2013).
Decomposed Theory of Planned Behaviour
Decomposed TPB proposed by Taylor and Todd (1995)
further disintegrates every construct of TPB, namely
attitude, SNs and PBC focusing on more detailed
explanation of usage intentions. Attitude is further
classified into three parts, namely PU, PEOU and
compatibility. SNs are decomposed into two main reference
groups, that is, mass media and peers comprising of friends,
family and relatives. SNs consider both interpersonal and
external influences affecting technology usage. PBC is
deconstructed into self-efficacy (SE), resource facilitating
conditions (RFCs) and technology facilitating conditions
(TFCs). Recently, the model has been successfully applied
in specific contexts, namely filling e-returns, mobile
banking, microfinance and tourism (Giovanis,
Athanasopoulou, Assimakopoulos, & Sarmaniotis, 2019;
Hanum, 2019).
282
A Review of Technology Adoption
Models
Earlier researchers have also compared the intention-based
models and have given different results (Dahiya & Gayatri,
2017). Mathieson (1991) found TAM having a slight edge
(69% explanation) over TPB (62% explanation) while
explaining usage intentions. TAM was superior in
explaining the attitude, whereas TPB was better than TAM
in explaining the specific explanation for the usage
intentions. Taylor and Todd (1995) found that DTPB and
TPB gave an elaborate rationale than the TAM model.
TAM explained technology usage intention and actual
usage with slightly lower variance, whereas DTPBs
explained variance was higher by 2 per cent for actual use
and up to 8 per cent for technology usage intention. DTPB
had better predictive power (60%) as compared to TAM
(52%) and TPB (57%).
Chau and Hu (2001) found TAM (42% explanation)
better than TPB (37% explanation) in predicting usage
intentions of telemedicine technology. Gentry and
Calantone (2002) in their study concerning online
procurement and shopping asserted that TAM was better
able to explain the usage intentions (92% explanation) as
compared to TRA (76% explanation) and TPB (86%
explanation). Shih and Fang (2004) found TRA superior in
explaining usage intentions (53% explanation) in
comparison to TPB (48% explanation) and DTPB (48%
explanation). Hung and Chang (2005) revealed that TPB
and DTPB were better in explaining the usage intentions
than TAM towards WAP services. Lin (2007) stipulated
that DTPB predicts the user intentions to shop online better
(57% explanation) than TPB (46% explanation) and TAM
(41% explanation).
Sahli and Legohérel (2015) in their study concerning
online tourism products confirmed the superior explanatory
power of DTPB. Shiau and Chau (2016) in their multi-
model comparison study concerning cloud computing
confirmed the superior explanatory power of TAM with
explaining 66 per cent of the variation in comparison to
TPB explaining 62 per cent of the variation in usage
intentions. Similarly, Singh and Srivastava (2014),
Mortimer, Neale, Hasan, and Dunphy (2015) and Kumar,
Lall, and Mane (2017) also advocate the use of extended
TAM. A recent study conducted by Cheng (2018) in Hong
Kong reaffirmed the superiority of TAM over TPB in
explaining usage intentions. Giovanis et al. (2019)
compared TAM, TPB, unified theory of acceptance and use
of technology (UTAUT) and DTPB to predict mobile
banking usage intentions and revealed that DTPB best
explained the usage intentions with perceived risk as an
added construct.
Research Hypotheses
Attitude in general has also been found instrumental in
affecting usage intentions across diverse contexts (Dumago,
FIIB Business Review 8(4)
1995; Hanna, 1988; Onurlubaş, 2018). Apart from these,
the basic structure of all the technological models designate
attitude as one of the major predictors of usage intentions
(Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Davis, 1989; Taylor & Todd,
1995). As the current study deals with the application of
digital marketing communication while buying a car,
attitude towards technology usage must play an important
role as well. So, it is hypothesized that:
H1: Attitude positively affects the intentions to use digital
marketing communication while buying a car.
Researches across different study areas also demonstrate
that apart from attitudinal beliefs, normative and control
beliefs are also significant factors affecting intentions and
actual usage (Li, Figg & Schuez, 2019; Hassan et al., 2018;
Taylor & Todd, 1995; Wong & Chow, 2018). Technology
adoption models used in the study, that is, TRA, TPB and
DTPB, also recognize SNs and PBC as vital elements
along with attitude affecting the usage intentions and actual
use. In the context of the current study, it can be easily
understood that car being a family product in India along
with being a self-expressive and expensive product might
warrant the approval or opinion of crucial people such as
family and friends regarding the usage of digital channels
while purchasing a car. Moreover, usage of digital channels
while buying a car would also require the possession of key
skill set, necessary knowledge and resources from the
buyers’ side. Keeping the aforementioned-points in mind,
following hypotheses were also formulated for the study:
H2: SNs positively affect the intentions to use digital marketing
communication while buying a car.
H3: PBC positively affects the intentions to use digital
marketing communication while buying a car.
H4: Usage intentions positively affect the actual usage of
digital marketing communication while buying a car.
It was also apprehended from the available literature that
unanimous vote cannot be garnered for one single model
while explaining usage adoption. There have been instances
wherein models with few constructs such as TAM and
TRA have better explained the usage intentions than
models with many constructs such as TPB and DTPB. On
the other hand, one can also find ample number of studies
which propound the approach that more the number of
constructs, better would be the explanation. However, it is
still not sure that chosen models will significantly explain
the variation in predicting intentions to use digital
marketing communication while buying a car, and if they
do so, which model best predicts their users’ intentions.
Research Methodology
Population proportion approach was used to conclude the
sample size for the study. This approach is used when the
objectives of the study are clearly defined (Lwanga &
Rekha and Jain 283

Lemeshow, 1991). For the current study, z value is taken as and facilitation or impeding stipulations. Product of
95 per cent, the margin of error as 3.5 per cent and p-value evaluation and belief statement was taken as the final score
as 0.5 indicating significant variability (Krejcie & Morgan, for each item. Scoring for all the constructs except attitude
1970). A sample size of 784 was obtained using the said (A), PBC, SNs (only S1), usage intentions (UI) and actual
approach, which was rounded off to 800 by the researchers. usage (AU) was done in a similar manner. The measurement
Delhi was chosen as sample area for the study. Multi-stage process for A, PBC, S1, UI and AU included the direct
sampling was used to collect the data wherein Census 2011 average scoring of the statements constituting the constructs.
(Government of India, 2011) was considered as a frame of The scale was pilot tested with 90 respondents and necessary
reference which divided Delhi into nine districts. The items were removed from the scale.
proportion of respondents in the sample was kept the same
as it was in the population in each district. Any adult
member of the family which either owned a car or planned The Sample Characteristics
to buy a car in the near future from the selected geographical The sample represented a comparatively younger
area was considered eligible to be a sampling unit. Primary population wherein 36 per cent of the respondents were in
data were collected from the respondents with the help of a the age bracket of 18–25 years. The findings corroborate
structured questionnaire using a survey method. Keeping well with the study conducted by Pew Research which
the general non-response rate towards surveys in states that young consumers lead the digital revolution and
consideration, the questionnaire was directed to 2,500 are ahead of all other generations in owning digital devices
people using both online and physical mode of distribution. using social networking technology and adopting new
Eight hundred forty filled questionnaires were received technology effortlessly (Jiang, 2018). Another report by
from January to August 2017 by the researchers with a Forbes states that by 2020, 40 per cent of the automotive
response rate of 34 per cent. After data cleaning, 801 market would comprise of the millennials. Buying power
responses were found suitable for further analysis. Models of the millennials would be far more assertive than the
were compared in terms of overall fit, explanatory power other generations (Grosman, 2018). Postgraduate
and significance using structural equation modelling. educational background was held by 46 per cent of
respondents. Little more than 40 per cent (42%) were
found belonging to above 0.4 million and below 0.8 million
Measurement income category. Service sector respondents accounted for
Many researchers have preferred using elicitation studies 40 per cent of the sample, whereas about little less than 30
while studying technology adoption (Dahiya & Gayatri, per cent (29%) student respondents also formed the sample
2018). Downs and Hausenblas (2005) believe that for the study. Male respondents over-represented the
elicitation studies help researchers to identify the true sample, that is, 64 per cent. In the sample, metropolitan
beliefs of target population and help in reducing the nature of the sample area resulted in over-representation
researcher’s bias which facilitate replication of the theory (45%) of the urban area in comparison to semi-urban
irrespective of the context. For the present research, an (28%) and the rural regions (27%). Table 1 gives the details
elicitation study was conducted with a small group of of the respondents’ profiles for the study.
respondents comprising of colleagues, superiors, car
enthusiasts, car dealers, employees in an IT company and Table 1. Respondents’ Profiles
few management students to elicit the commonly held
beliefs regarding the use of digital marketing Percentage of
Factor Options Respondents
communication while making a car buying decision.
Review of available literature also highlighted the Age 18–25 years 36
important determinants of usage intentions in the 26–30 years 18
technological sphere. Considerable cues were availed from 31–35 years 15
the studies of Davis (1989), Ajzen (1991) and Taylor and 36–40 years 10
Todd (1995) while constructing the scale. Above 40 years 21
The most common beliefs uncovered after the in-depth Education Senior secondary 16
study of available literature were converted into statements Graduate 46
after making essential changes in order to fit the product Post graduate 35
under consideration in the study, that is, car. The statements Others 3
primarily showcased the demeanour of Indian car buyers Income Below 0.4 million 19
while making car-buying decisions in digital realms (Dahiya 0.4 million and above 42
& Gayatri, 2017). The measurement process was espoused but below 0.8 million
from Francis et al. (2004) whereby evaluation statements 0.8 million and above 31
but below 2 million
were prepared for each belief statement stressing upon the
2 million and above 8
favourable or unfavourable outcome, impetus to conformance
(Table 1 Continued)
284 FIIB Business Review 8(4)

(Table 1 Continued) websites, social networking sites, YouTube, online

Percentage of communities, mobile phones, smartphones, digital
Factor Options Respondents outdoors, e-mails and digital TV. This can be seen from
Occupation Student 29 Table 1 that websites emerged as one of the most used
Service 40 digital channels of communication used by 85 per cent of
Business 22 the respondents followed by smartphone used by 75 per
Home-maker 9 cent of the respondents. YouTube was used by 67 per cent
Gender Male 64 and social networking sites were used by 55 per cent of the
Female 36 respondents. Digital TV was used by 26 per cent, whereas
Place of living Urban 45 mobile phone was used by merely 19 per cent of the
Semi-urban 28 respondents. Similar results were also observed in the
Rural 27 recent study conducted by Google India (Lidhoo, 2019).
Channels of Traditional channels 25
communication Digital channels 75
Statistical Analysis
Usage of digital Websites (manufacturer 85
channel & 3rd party websites) Four contemporary models were tested using structural
Social networking sites 55 equation modelling using maximum likelihood estimation.
YouTube 67 Two-stage model building process involving measurement
Phone (feature) 19 model and the structural model was used. Cronbach’s alpha
Smartphone 75 value was used to check the reliability of the scale. Each
Online communities 35 construct was found exceeding the minimum cut off
Digital outdoors 31 statistic value of 0.7 indicating the internal consistency
Digital TV 26 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). Confirmatory factor
E-mails 30 analysis was used to assess the validity of the scale.
Source: Authors’ analysis. Convergent validity of the scale was checked with the help
of factor loading and variance extracted. Factor loadings
for all the items exceeded the cut off value of 0.6 (Bagozzi
There were 25 per cent (198 out of 801) of the & Yi, 1988). Average variance extracted (AVE) was also
respondents who only believed in traditional channels of found more than the recommended level of 0.5 (Farrell,
communication while purchasing a car. In the sample, 75 2010). Statistical analysis was conducted in line with
per cent (603 out of 801) of the respondents made use of at earlier studies conducted in a similar area (Dahiya &
least one digital communication channel while making a Gayatri, 2017; 2018; Rekha, 2018). Table 2 depicts the
car-buying decision. Digital channels in the study included reliability and validity statistics of the scale used.

Table 2. Validity and Reliability of the Scale

Factor
Construct Item Loadings AVE Cronbach’s Alpha ASV MSV
Perceived usefulness (PU) PU1 0.94 0.865 0.952 0.114 0.194
PU2 0.95
PU3
0.90
Perceived ease of use (PEOU) PEOU 1 0.99 0.970 0.986 0.072 0.194
PEOU 2 0.98
Compatibility (C) C1 0.96 0.912 0.954 0.099 0.185
C2 0.95
Subjective Norms (SNs) SN1 0.92 0.865 0.951 0.067 0.123
SN2 0.97
SN3
0.91
Self-efficacy (SE) SE1 0.99 0.912 0.954 0.130 0.137
SE2 0.92
Technology facilitating conditions (TFC) TFC1 0.99 0.970 0.989 0.071 0.121
TFC2 0.98
Resource facilitating conditions (RFC) RFC1 0.91 0.883 0.936 0.071 0.119
RFC2 0.97
(Table 2 Continued)
Rekha and Jain 285

(Table 2 Continued)
Factor
Construct Item Loadings AVE Cronbach’s Alpha ASV MSV
Attitude (A) Att1 0.89 0.748 0.891 0.167 0.336
Att2 0.87
Att3
Att4 0.86
0.84
Perceived behavioural control (PBC) PBC1 0.89 0.783 0.849 0.194 0.372
PBC2 0.88
Usage intentions (UI) U1 0.83 0.624 0.793 0.156 0.384
U2 0.81
U3
U4 0.80
0.71
Actual usage (AU) AU1 0.84 0.714 0.758 0.147 0.221
AU2 0.85
Source: Authors’ analysis.

Table 3. Discriminant Validity of the Scale

PU PEOU C SN SE TFC RFC A PBC UI AU
PU 0.930
PEOU 0.682 0.984
C 0.618 0.657 0.954
SN 0.582 0.621 0.741 0.975
SE 0.655 0.666 0.658 0.716 0.954
TFC 0.725 0.612 0.651 0.689 0.701 0.984
RFC 0.710 0.522 0.625 0.658 0.683 0.652 0.939
A 0.628 0.548 0.597 0.597 0.684 0.524 0.689 0.864
PBC 0.701 0.710 0.529 0.654 0.655 0.587 0.688 0.710 0.885
UI 0.652 0.598 0.653 0.668 0.681 0.625 0.655 0.701 0.687 0.789
AU 0.611 0.652 0.658 0.620 0.702 0.627 0.621 0.689 0.659 0.658 0.845
Source: Authors’ analysis.
Note: The diagonal elements in bold are the square roots of AVEs, whereas non-diagonal elements are the latent correlations.

Table 4. Fit Indices and Explanatory Power of Structural Models

Index TAM TRA TPB DTPB Recommended Value
CMIN/DF 2.423 2.651 2.567 2.759 ≤3
NFI 0.898 0.842 0.901 0.962 ≥0.80
RFI 0.912 0.923 0.945 0.955 ≥0.90
IFI 0.920 0.945 0.961 0.975 ≥0.90
TLI 0.901 0.921 0.956 0.971 ≥0.90
CFI 0.942 0.955 0.968 0.975 ≥0.90
RMSEA 0.075 0.068 0.060 0.054 ≤0.10
Explanatory Power (R2)
TAM TRA TPB DTPB
R2AU 0.226 0.232 0.301 0.412
R2UI 0.446 0.506 0.609 0.631
R2A 0.547 – – 0.402
R2SN – – – 0.313
R2PBC – – – 0.554
Source: Authors’ analysis.
286 FIIB Business Review 8(4)

Discriminant validity was checked by comparing the
square roots of AVEs of each construct to their inter-
construct correlations. The square root of AVE of each
construct was found higher than the inter-construct
correlations, which established the discriminant validity of
the scale (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Table 3 gives the
discriminant validity statistics of the scale.
Data were collected for all the constructs concurrently
using the same data collection tool, that is, structured
questionnaire and such methodology might lead to common
factor bias. So, ‘Harman’s single factor test’ was used to
identify the probable issue of common factor bias wherein
unrotated single factor solution accounted for 27.983 per
cent of the variation which eliminated the doubts about
common factor bias. Measurement indices were analysed
to specify the model fit. The chi-square, also known as
CMIN in Amos, value for all four models was found below
3. ‘Root mean square error of approximation’ (RMSEA)
value was found less than the recommended value of 0.08
(Browne & Cudeck, 1993). Other goodness of fit indices
such as normed fit index (NFI), relative fit index (RFI),
incremental fit index (IFI), Tucker Lewis index (TLI) and
comparative fit index (CFI) were also used to judge the fit
Figure 2 depicts the results for the TRA. It can be
observed from the figure that paths from attitude and SNs
to usage intentions were found significant and path from
usage intention to actual usage was also found significant.
Overall, the model explained 51 per cent variation in usage
intentions and 23 per cent variation in actual usage.
Figure 3 displays the results of the TPB model. It can be
observed from the figure that paths from attitude, SNs and
PBC to usage intentions were found significant. Paths from
usage intentions and PBC to actual usage were also significant.
The overall model explained 61 per cent of the variation in
usage intentions and 30 per cent variation in the actual usage.
Figure 4 exhibits the results of DTPB model. All the
paths of DTPB were found significant. Attitude, SNs and
perceived behavioural control were found to be significant
predictors of usage intentions and collectively explained
61 per cent variation in usage intentions. Perceived
behavioural control and usage intentions significantly
affected actual usage and accounted for 41 per cent of
variation in the latter.
(.187, .000)
(.187, .000)
Perceived
Usefulness (.559, .000)

of the model. All goodness of fit indices were found Perceived

(.559, .000)
exceeding the value of 0.9, indicating a good fit of model.
Usefulness
Attitude Usage Actual Usage
(.249, .000)
(.547, .000) Intentions (.226, .000)
Attitude Usage .000)
(.555, (.446,Actual
.000)Usage
(.249, .000) (.397, .000)
(.547, .000) Intentions (.226, .000)
(.555, .000) (.446, .000)
(.397, .000)
Structural Model Results Perceived
Ease of Use
Perceived
(.559, .000)
(.559, .000)
Ease of Use

Model fit indices of the structural model given in Table 4

presents that all four models thrived well in predicting the Figure 1. Results of TAM
car buyers’ intentions to use digital communication in their Source: Authors’ analysis.
car-buying decisions. The chi-square value was less than
three and other indices of the goodness of fit were found
having value of more than the recommended cut off value
(.605, .000)
Attitude
(.605, .000)
Attitude
which indicated that all four models were a good fit for the Usage
Intentions
(.439, .000)
Actual Usage
(.232, .000)
(.439, .000)
data. Table 4 also explains the explanatory power of all (.506, .000) Usage
Intentions
Actual Usage
(.232, .000)
four models used in the study. It can be observed from the
Subjective
Norms (.477, .000) (.506, .000)

table that DTPB explained 63 per cent of the variation in Subjective

Norms (.477, .000)
the car buyers’ intentions to use digital communication,
followed by TPB which explained 61 per cent of the Figure 2. Results of TRA
variation, whereas TRA and TAM could account for only
Source: Authors’ analysis.
51 per cent and 45 per cent variation in usage intentions
respectively. Actual usage behaviour was also best
explained by DTPB with 41 per cent of explanation
followed by TPB with 30 per cent explanation. Attitude
(.438, .000)
Figure 1 describes the structural relationship between Usage (.347, .000)
the constructs of ‘technology adoption model’. Figure 1 Subjective
(.425, .000) Intentions
Actual Usage
(.301, .000)
(.609, .000)
also details the path coefficients, their significance and Norms

explained variation for each dependent construct in the (.408, .000)

model. It can be observed from the figure that paths from Perceived (.528, .000)

PU and PEOU to attitude were found significant. Path from Behavioural

Control
attitude to usage intentions was also found significant and
similarly path from usage intentions to actual usage. The Figure 3. Results of TPB
model explained 45 per cent of variation in usage intentions Source: Authors’ analysis.
and 23 per cent variation in actual usage. The model also
accounted for 55 per cent variation in attitude construct.
Rekha and Jain 287

Perceived
2. All the models considered attitude as an important
Usefulness
determinant of usage intentions; therefore, H1 was
(.259.000)
Perceived
Ease of Use
(.096.000)
accepted. A recent study conducted by Lin, Shie,
(.278, .000) Attitude
(.402, .000)
Jou, and Lai (2018) also validated the findings by
Compatibility
confirming that attitude positively affects the usage
(.501, .000)
intentions. Construct of attitude was better explained
Family (.966, .000)
by TAM (55%) in comparison to DTPB (40%). Similar
Friends
(.915, .000)
Subjective (.154, .000) Usage
(.389, .000)
Actual Usage
results were found in the studies conducted by Shiau
and Chau (2016), Kumar et al. (2017) and Cheng
Norms Intentions
(.913, .000) (.412, .000)
(.313, .000) (.632, .000)

(2018). The results suggest that when car buyers

Online
Friends

consider digital marketing communication delivering

(.568, .000)
(.327, .000)
Self-Efficacy (.250,.000)
Perceived
subtle benefits over traditional communication
Resource
Behavioural
Control and easy to use, they are more likely to use digital
(.554, .000)
Facilitating
Conditions (.150, .000) communication in their car buying decision.
(.153, .000)
3. TPB and DTPB found SNs as a significant determinant
of intentions to use digital communication while
Technology
Facilitating
Conditions

buying a car; therefore, H2 was accepted. Similar

Figure 4. Results of DTPB results have been observed in the studies conducted
Source: Authors’ analysis. by Shiau and Chau (2016) and Chang, Chou, Yeh,
and Tseng (2016). Car is a high involvement product
category involving significant investments, so the
It can also be observed from the figure that PU, PEOU and
opinion of family, friends and online friends cannot
compatibility were found significant determinants of attitude
be simply ignored by the car buyers.
and explained 40 per cent of the variation in attitude. Friends,
4. PBC significantly affected both usage intentions
family and online friends explained 31 per cent of the
and actual usage in both TPB and DTPB models;
variation in SNs. Similarly, SE, RFCs and TFCs explained
therefore, H3 was accepted. DTPB decomposed the
around 55 per cent of the variation in PBC. Overall, the
PBC construct and established that SE, resource and
model explained 63 per cent variation in usage intentions.
TFCs affect the usage intentions and actual usage
of digital marketing communication. Similar results
Findings and Discussion have been found in the studies conducted by Hajli and
Lin (2016) and Chen and Lin (2018). SE affected PBC
All four models achieved a comfortable fit to the data the most, which means that if customers felt confident
(Table 4). Therefore, it seemed appropriate to understand to use digital technology without anybody’s help, then
the results of the study based on path coefficients and it might affect their usage intentions and actual usage.
explanatory powers of the model. Comparison of models
revealed the critical findings which are as follows: Bagozzi (1992) considers parsimony as an important
criterion to make the final choice in situations where all
1. In all the models, actual usage preceded usage models fit the data. Although DTPB explained the
intentions; therefore, H4 will be accepted. TPB and maximum variation in the usage intentions and actual
DTPB considered perceived behavioural control along usage but it is a complex and least parsimonious model
with usage intentions which determined the actual with 12 variables explaining usage intentions and actual
usage. TAM and TRA were roughly equivalent in their usage. Lin (2007) asserts that parsimony can be
capabilities to explain the actual usage (23%). DTPB compromised against a detailed and improved explanation
excelled over TPB in explaining the actual usage of the target behaviour. DTPB explained about 18 per cent
by revealing 41 per cent of the variation. DTPB also more variation in usage intentions and actual usage than
explained usage intentions better (63%) than TRA TAM. DTPB also explained 18 per cent more variation in
(51%), TAM (45%) and TPB (61%). The slight increase actual usage and about 12 per cent more variation in usage
in explanation is due to the decomposed nature of DTPB intentions than TRA. DTPB explained mere 2 per cent
model. The findings were in tandem with the studies more variation in usage intentions and 10 per cent more
conducted by Sahli and Legohérel (2015) and Giovanis variation in actual usage than TPB. However, it is not sure
et al. (2019) wherein DTPB was considered superior that mere 2 per cent increase in explanation for usage
to other TAM in explaining the usage intentions. intentions can offset the increased complexity involved in
However, the results of the study were contradictory to using DTPB. But, 10 per cent increase in actual usage of
the studies conducted by Gentry and Calantone (2002) digital marketing communication while buying a car can
and Chau and Hu (2001) wherein TAM was considered inevitably shift the balance in favour of DTPB.
as the best technology adoption model.
288
Theoretically, DTPB emerged as the most competitive
model based on the variation explained in the dependent
variables. Practically, the discretion of adjudging the best
suitable model is subject to the managerial judgment
depending upon the outcomes required, that is, simple
versus detailed understanding. The findings of the study
are in tandem with the earlier studies with the difference
that the application of technology adoption models has
been observed in a less explored product category.
Implications of the Study
The study extends its sound contextual support to the
extant Western models and theories dealing with consumer
management through technological adoption by assuring
its successful application in a growing and evolving digital
economy. So far, the technology adoption theories have
been found successful in ‘low context’, ‘individualistic’
Western culture emphasizing ‘verbal’ communication
(Rekha, 2018). The successful results in the Indian market
classically associated with ‘high context’, ‘collectivist’
culture having core beliefs in ‘non-verbal’ communication,
further establish the robustness of prevailing technology
adoption theories thereby adding depth and breadth to the
global approach of digital marketing. The results imply
that digital marketing communication has the capability
not only to break the stereotypical communication beliefs
but also overpower the barriers of cultural and
demographical differences such as low literacy rate and
security and privacy issues in a high involvement product
category (Dahiya & Gayatri, 2018). The results can be
accredited to the possession of low-cost internet-enabled
mobile devices in India whereby English speaking young
population in the country is accessing the relevant
information through digital channels irrespective of
product category. The findings add significant knowledge
to the existing consumer management literature in the
preview of emerging technologies, especially the internet.
All four models were found fit and successfully
explained the substantial variation in usage intentions. This
can be apprehended from the results that when number of
independent variables increases, an augmentation can be
observed in the variation explained in dependent variable.
However, too much decomposition of the variables (i.e.,
DTPB) do not add much to the variation explained in usage
intentions but it is better to understand the predictors by
precisely understanding their constituents. Decision-
maker’s judgement is warranted while choosing a model
especially when a trade-off is required between improved
understanding and parsimony. Marketers can use TAM if
the sole objective is to assess the attitude towards digital
marketing communication. DTPB model can be applied
for a comprehensive and improved understanding of usage
intentions and actual behaviour. Both the models imply
that attitude is the key construct which can be effectively
used by the marketers to consumer management.
FIIB Business Review 8(4)
The results imply that although Indian car buyers are
using digital channels of communication because of positive
normative, behavioural and control beliefs, at the time of
actual purchase of high involvement products, fears and
doubts associated with technological medium overpower its
core beliefs as the overall impact on actual behaviour was
less than the usage intentions for all four models. The
findings reveal the role of perceived risks in the technological
domain which if handled by marketers can positively affect
consumer management in technological domains. Other
researchers in the area here can look for potential mediators/
moderators which can account for enhanced understanding
of the phenomenon of interest.
The study provides important implications for marketers
as well. Consumer management in the internet age offers an
interesting yet challenging proposition for the marketers.
Digital communication technologies might be used by
Indian car buyers if marketers are able to nurture a positive
attitude towards digital communication by spreading its
usefulness and PEOU over traditional mode of
communication. They must also devise an integrated
communication programme to give a consistent experience
over digital platforms. Marketers should ensure the
trustworthiness of the communication and compatibility of
digital communication with other digital devices. They
should also identify and influence the influencers in the
customer’s reference group. Customers must be put at ease
while using digital channels and address the key challenges
of consumer management in digital realms such as
technicality, security, privacy and accessibility. Relevant
content, quick loading time and early response to the
customers should be ensured by marketers. Embracing and
incorporating new technologies by marketers will help to
streamline their consumer management process and improve
the top and bottom line for firms. Analysing customer
patterns, aligning delivery of products and services to
customer needs and creation of enhanced services can be
achieved by adoption of digital technologies in marketing
efforts. The Indian car market is a competitive marketplace
where several domestic and international players operate
and spend a significant amount on digital platforms to brand
themselves (Rekha, 2018). Such knowledge about consumer
management in the internet age would lay down the guiding
principles for the marketers who are battling to make
effective sales to the vast customer base comprising of actual
and potential car buyers (Dahiya & Gayatri, 2017).
Limitations and Future Scope of
the Study
The study was conducted for one of the products, that is,
‘car’ lying in extended problem-solving product category
in a metropolitan city Delhi. Further research is required to
ensure whether the results of the present study hold across
different time, place and product settings. The causality
Rekha and Jain 289
across all models has been inferred on the basis of theory
and cross-sectional nature of the study. Therefore, to
further ascertain the validity of the results obtained, it is
recommended to conduct a longitudinal study to show the
causation. Although specific tests were applied to deal with
common method bias, deploying a more controlled
research design can fully eliminate the issue of common
method bias. Even after significant results and model fit
obtained for all four contemporary models, the capability
to determine the predisposition of non-users to adopt
digital channels in the future is questionable. The study did
not consider the direct role of younger members of the
family who may not buy a car but can play a significant
role in deciding the type of channel used, vehicle model
and its type. The study collectively used the term ‘digital
channels of communication’ for diverse digital technology
platforms and devices such as websites, phones, digital TV,
e-mails and social networking sites. Therefore, the results
obtained cannot be specifically and precisely applied for a
particular channel of communication.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iD
Rekha https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9141-1731
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About the Authors

Rekha is Assistant Professor of marketing with Banarsidas Chandiwala Institute of Professional Studies,
Dwarka, Delhi. She holds her doctorate degree in Digital Marketing from Uttarakhand Technical University,
Dehradun, Uttarakhand. She has about 12 years of teaching experience. She has written more than 25
research papers in refereed journals. She has also authored three books in marketing domain. Her areas of
teaching and research are digital marketing, advertising and brand management, consumer behaviour, sales
management and marketing management. She can be reached at rekkhadahiya@gmail.com

Pooja Jain is currently designated as Director with Jagan Institute of Management Studies, Rohini, Delhi.
She completed her doctoral degree from Uttarakhand Technical University, Dehradun wherein she studied the
ICT applications for rural consumers. She has more than 16 years of teaching experience. She has many
papers to her credit in journals of repute. Her areas of teaching and research are online marketing, rural
marketing, sales management and consumer behaviour. She regularly conducts management development
and training programs for junior and middle level executives. She can be reached at poojajain@jimsindia.org