Practical Manual

On

Farm Power

Jagvir Dixit
and
S. K. Lohan

Division of Agricultural Engineering

Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural
Sciences & Technology of Kashmir (SKUAST-K)
Shalimar Campus, Srinagar-191121
 Contents

S. No. Practical Page No.

1. Study of I.C. Engine parts and functions
2. Study of Working principle of Four stroke
and Two stroke cycle I.C. Engine
3. Study of Valve system and valve timing
diagramme
4. Determination of engine power
5. Study of Oil & Fuel system -
determination of physical properties
6. Study of Air cleaning system
7. Study of Diesel injection system &
timing
8. Study of Cooling system
9. Study of governing system
10. Study of Lubricating system
11. Study of electrical and ignition system
12. Determination of Tractor engine heat
balance and engine performance curves
Experiment. 1. Study of I.C. Engine parts and functions

A heat engine is a machine, which converts heat energy into mechanical energy. The
combustion of fuel such as coal, petrol and diesel generates heat. This heat is supplied to a
working part at high temperature. By the expansion of burnt substance, heat energy is
converted into useful work, which drives the working part. Heat engines can be further
divided into two types:
(i) External combustion: the combustion of fuel takes place outside the engine
cylinder and the steam thus formed is used to run the engine and
(ii) Internal combustion: the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine
cylinder itself.
The IC engine can be further classified as:
(i) Stationary or mobile,
(ii) Horizontal or vertical and
(iii) Low, medium or high speed.

The two distinct types of IC engines used for either mobile or stationary operations are:
Carburettor Type IC Engine
In this engine liquid fuel is atomized, vaporized and
mixed with air in correct proportion before being
taken to the engine cylinder through the intake
manifolds. The ignition of the mixture is caused by an
electric spark and is known as spark ignition or SI
Engine
Diesel Type IC Engine
In this only the liquid fuel is injected in the cylinder
under high pressure.

Major Components of I.C. Engine and their functions

S.No Name of the Part Main Function
1 Cylinder

2 Cylinder block

3 Cylinder Liner

4 Cylinder head

5 Piston

6 Piston head
7 Piston skirt

8 Piston Rings

9 Piston Pin

10 Connecting Rod

9. Crankshaft

10. Crankcase

11 Engine Bearings

12. Valves

13 Camshaft

14 Flywheel

15 Timing gears

16 Oil pan

17 Dipstick

18 Oil guide sleev for

journal bearing

Exercise: Label the different parts of the engine.

Experiment No. 2.Study of Working principle of Four stroke and Two
stroke cycle I.C. Engine

Four-Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine

The reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into the rotary motion of the
crankshaft by means of a connecting rod and crankshaft. The crankshaft rotates in the main
bearings, which are set in the crankcase. The flywheel is fitted on the crankshaft in order to
smoothen out the uneven torque that is generated in the reciprocating engine.
In four-stroke cycle engines there are four strokes completing two revolutions of the
crankshaft. These strokes are
1. Suction stroke
2. Compression stroke
3. Power stroke and
4. Exhaust stroke.

Suction Stroke:
In suction stroke the piston is descending from TDC to BDC. Due to the downward
movement of the piston low-pressure zone (less than atmospheric pressure) is created
inside the cylinder, which enables the entry of the pure air into the cylinder through the inlet
valve, whereas, the exhaust valve remains closed during suction stroke.

Compression stroke:
The next stroke is the
compression stroke in which the piston
moves up from BDC to TDC with both
the valves remaining closed. The air,
which has been drawn into the cylinder
during the suction stroke, is
progressively compressed as the piston
move upwards. The compression ratio
usually varies from 14: 1 to 22: 1 in case
of diesel engines. The pressure at the
end of the compression stroke ranges
from 30 to 45 kg/cm2. As the air is
progressively compressed in the
cylinder, its temperature increases, until
when near the end of the compression
stroke, it becomes sufficiently high
(650-80Oo C) to instantly ignite any fuel
that is injected into the cylinder. When
the piston is near the top of its
compression stroke, a liquid hydrocarbon fuel, such as diesel oil, is sprayed into the
combustion chamber under high pressure (140-160 kg/cm2), higher than that existing in the
cylinder itself. This fuel then ignites, being burnt with the oxygen of the highly compressed
air.

Power stroke:
During the fuel injection period, the piston reaches the end of its compression stroke
and commences to return on its third consecutive stroke, viz., power stroke. During this
stroke the hot products of combustion consisting chiefly of carbon dioxide, together with the
nitrogen left from the compressed air expand, thus forcing the piston downward. This is only
the working stroke of the cylinder. During the power stroke the pressure falls from its
maximum combustion value (47-55 kg/cm2) to about 3.5-5 kg/cm2 near the end of the stroke.
The temperature, after the ignition is about 1600-2000oC.

Exhaust stroke:
The exhaust valve then opens, usually a little earlier than when the piston reaches its
lowest point of travel. The exhaust gases are swept out on the following upward stroke of the
piston, when again piston will travel from BDC to TDC. The exhaust valve remains open
throughout the whole stroke and closes at the top of the stroke. During this stroke the
exhaust temperature and pressure are 650oC and 3.5-5 kg/cm2 respectively.

Two-stroke cycle diesel engine:

The cycle of the four-stroke of the piston (the suction, compression, power and exhaust
strokes) is completed only in two strokes in the case of a two-stroke engine. The air is drawn
into the crankcase due to the suction created by the upward stroke of the piston. On the
down stroke of the piston it is compressed in the crankcase,
The compression pressure is usually very low, being just
sufficient to enable the air to flow into the cylinder through
the transfer port when the piston reaches near the bottom of
its down stroke.

The air thus flows into the cylinder, where the piston
compresses it as it ascends, till the piston is nearly at the top
of its stroke. The compression pressure is increased suffi-
ciently high to raise the temperature of the air above the
self-ignition point of the fuel used. The fuel is injected into
the cylinder head just before the completion of the
compression stroke and only for a short period. The burnt
gases expand during the next downward stroke of the piston.
These gases escape into the exhaust pipe to the
atmosphere through the piston uncovering the exhaust port.

Four-Stroke Spark Ignition Engine

In this gasoline is mixed with air, broken up into a mist and partially vaporized in a
carburettor (Fig. 5). The mixture is then sucked into the cylinder. There it is compressed by
the upward movement of the piston and is ignited by an electric spark. When the mixture is
burned, the resulting heat causes the gases to expand. The expanding gases exert a
pressure on the piston (power stroke). The exhaust gases escape in the next upward
movement of the piston. The strokes are similar to those discussed under four-stroke diesel
engines. The various temperatures and pressures are shown in Fig. 5. The compression
ratio varies from 4:1 to 8:1 and the air-fuel mixture from 10:1 to 20:1.

Two-Stroke Spark Ignition Engine

The two-cycle carburettor type engine makes use of an airtight crankcase for partially
compressing the air-fuel mixture (Fig. 6). As the piston travels down, the mixture previously
drawn into the crankcase is partially compressed. As the piston nears the bottom of the
stroke, it uncovers the exhaust and intake ports. The exhaust flows out, reducing the
pressure in the cylinder. When the pressure in the combustion chamber is lower than the
pressure in the crankcase through the port openings to the combustion chamber, the
incoming mixture is deflected upward by a baffle on the piston. As the piston moves up, it
compresses the mixture above and draws into the crankcase below a new air-fuel mixture.

Troubles shooting in engine operation

1. Engine doesn’t start when cranked
a. Low level of fuel in tank
b. Defective feed pump
c. Chocked fuel inlet pipe
d. Chocked fuel fulters
e. Defective injection timing
f. Battery not fully charged
g. Battery terminal not connected
h. Starter pinion jammed
i. Faulty switch
j. Engine too stiff
2. Engine stops after short run or stops when load put on
a. Air in injection system
b. Defective feed pump
c. Defective injectors
d. Chocked air cleaner
e. Chocked exhaust system
f. Weak compression in engine
3. Engine runs smooth on load but on idle speed it does not run smooth
a. Defective idle speed adjustment
b. Weak engine compression
c. Defective governer setting
d. Worn out pimping elements
e. Defective injectors
4. Engine produce less power
a. Dirty or low quality of diesel oil
b. Air in injection system
c. Defective feed pump
d. Chocked fuel lines
e. Chocked fuel filter
f. Blocked vent hole in the tank cap
g. Worn out pumping elements
h. Defective injection timing
i. Defective governor
j. Deposit of carbon in combustion chamber
5. Engine gets overheated very soon
a. Due to faulty cooling system
 i. Leakage in cooling system
ii. Dirt and scale on cooling system
iii. Defective water pump
iv. Thermostat valve not opening properly
v. Fan belt loose
vi. Radiator chocked
b. Due to insufficient combustion
i. Wrong injection timing
ii. Engine overloaded
iii. Exhaust pipe chocked
iv. Faulty injectors
c. Due to improper lubrication
i. Oil filter chocked
ii. Dirt lubricating oil
iii. Air cleaner out of order
iv. Too high oil viscosity
v. Defective lubricating pump
6. Engine smoke excessively
a. Engine gives black smoke
i. Chocked inlet passage
ii. Chocked air cleaner
iii. Defective calibration of pump
iv. Engine overloaded
v. Excess fuel injected
b. Engine gives blue smoke
i. Worn out oil rings, piston rings, ring sticking in piston
ii. Worn out piston
iii. Worn out cylinder liners
iv. Using low viscosity lubricating oil used
v. Level of lubricating oil in sump too high
c. Engine gives white smoke
i. Engine too cold
ii. Insufficient compression
iii. Presence of water in fuel

7. Engine knocks
i. Fuel pump installed after repairs or dismantling with large advance of
beginning of fuel feed
ii. One or more fuel injector in operative
iii. Incorrect valve clearance
iv. Piston ring worn out by height or wrong piston groove
v. Worn out big end bearing
 8. Observe the various components of ci and si , 4 stroke and 2 stroke engine.
Make the following observations and draw their skletches:

I II III
NAME OF PART OBSERVATION SKETCH
Cylinder

Piston

Valve

Connecting rod

Experiment. 3. Study of Valve system and Valve timing Diagramme

A valve is a small mechanical device, used for opening and closing the passage
leading to the engine cylinder. Inlet valve of an internal combustion engine allows air or air
fuel mixture to go into the combustion chamber. The exhaust valve allows burnt gases to go
out of the engine cylinder. Each valve is opened and closed once during each cylinder. A
strong spring with the help of retainer and a key holds of valve tightly against the seat and
thus prevents leakage on the compression and power stroke. The common face and seat
angle of valve is 45 deg but 30 deg angle is also used for intake valve.
The most common type of valve is called poppet valve. The arrangement of the valve on the
engine is of two types:
1. L-head type and
2. Over- head type.
‘L- head’ arrangement is used quite extensively on tractor engines and automobile engines.
In ‘over head’ arrangement, the valve stem is surrounded by a removable guide and a spring
which holds the valves tight in its seat.
Valve head. It is made of special alloy which can withstand high temperature and
hammering action due to expending gases.
Valve stem. It is a round steel rod attached with the valve head.
Valve seat. It is the place in the cylinder head where the valve head sits well. It may be
made in cylinder head or in the engine block. Sometimes removable valve seats are also
used.
Valve stem guide. It is a small guide, which fits into cylinder block. It is usually made of cast
iron. In some cases, a reamed hole in the block also serves as valve guide.
Valve operating mechanism. Valve operating mechanism consists of several components
such as :
a) Crank shaft gear
b) Cam gear
c) Cam shaft
d) Push rod
e) Tappet and
f) Rocker arm.
The crankshaft gear operates the cam gear which is fixed at one end of the cam shaft.
Consequently, cam shaft rotates and moves the tappet, which pushes the push rod in proper
time. Thus push rod opens or closes the valve at predetermined intervals. The cam shaft
gear is double the size of the crankshaft gear, so there is one revolution of the camshaft for
every two revolution of the crankshaft in case of four stroke engine.
Crankshaft gear. A gear fixed at the end of the crankshaft which meshes with the gear of
the camshaft is called crankshaft gear.
Cam gear. A gear fixed at the end of the camshaft to mesh with the crankshaft gear is called
cam gear.
Tappet. Tappet is also called valve lifter. Tapper raises or lowers the valves. It receives
motion from the cams, mounted on the camshaft. It opens or closes the valves at proper
time. It is usually made of hardened steel.
Valve lifter guide. It guides the tappet in motion.
Rocker arm. It is an arm used to change upward motion of push rod to downward motion
for opening an engine valve. It is a small rod, one end of which touches the end of the valve
stem and the other end touches the upper end of the tappet rod.
Construction of valves: The valves used in tractor engine are of the poppet or mushroom
type. The poppet valve consists of a valve head and a valve stem. The face ground at an
angle of 30 or 45 degree at the outer edge to match the valve seat in the cylinder block.
The valve stem has a container groove machined in the lower end which receives the split
valve locks or wedges that hold the valve spring retainer and valve spring in place. A few
valve have a tapered end on the lower end of the valve stem to support a slotted type of
valve spring retainer.

Camshaft and timing gear: The camshaft is driven through crankshaft entire by gears or
chain and sprockets at half the speed of crankshaft. This is because we know that in a 4
stroke cycle engine the inlet valve opens once and exhaust valve also opens once in a
complete cycle of two revolution of the crankshaft. Therefore the cam gear and the cam
must operate these valves only the once in the cycle and that is possible only when
camshaft rotates at half the speed of crankshaft. Camshaft is made of drop forging or
casting. It is usually made of alloy steel or chilled cast iron which is heat treated to resist
wear. The shaft has a no. of bearing journals which support the shaft in bearing in the
engine crankcase.
Tappet clearance of tractor: The valve clearance is the clearance between the valve and
rocker arm in “overhead” engines and between the tappet and valve in “side valve” engines.
When the valves are fully closed It varies between o.oo6 and 0.020” in different makes and
models. It may be equal for both the inlet and exhaust valves or less in the inlet and more in
the exhaust. As the exhaust is subjected to more heat and hence will expand more e.g, jeep
engine, the tappet clearance is more in the case of the inlet and less in the exhaust. Tappet
clearance is must for the smooth and efficient running of any engine.

Need to adjust clearance: Proper clearance plays a major role in engine performance. A
number of troubles may occur due to insufficient valve clearance. Both less as well as more
clearance is harmful.

When to adjust clearance: Normally, once in a month (250 working hours) or whenever
the cylinder head is dismantled or when faulty valve performance occurs, the valves should
be adjusted.

Adjustment of valve: At the time of tappet adjustment, the valve should be fully closed and
the tappet should be at the heal of the cam. This condition is achieved when the piston of
that particular cylinder is at TDC compression.

Valve timing diagramme:

Valve timing diagramme shows the timing (in degrees of crankshaft rotation) of
opening and closing of inlet and exhaust valve during one working cycle of an engine. The
valve timing diagramme of 4 stroke engine is given in Fig. 1

Inlet valve:
The inlet valve is supposed to open when the piston reaches BDC of suction stroke.
This will create suction of fresh air due to vacuum created in side the cylinder. But in
practical the inlet valve is opened even before the exhaust stroke is completed i.e. 100 to 120
before TDC so that it is opened fully as the piston reaches TDC as the valve takes place
some time for opening. The inlet valve remains open during the entire suction stroke, i.e. for
1800 Further, during the compression stroke also, the inlet valve is kept open
instantaneously for about 30 to 350 to increase the volumetric efficiency (to induct more air
inside the engine). The upward movement of piston does not flush air through the open inlet
valve, as the pressure inside the cylinder has not reached at par with atmospheric pressure.
Thus theoretically the inlet valve opens for 1800 , but practically it opens for 2200 to 2270 .
This increase in the timing of opening of inlet valve is one of the reason for higher thermal
efficiency in a 4 stroke engine as more air is available for better combustion.

Exhaust valve:
The exhaust valve is supposed to open when the piston is at TDC and should close
when the piston reaches BDC of exhaust staroke. This will expel the burnt out gases formed
during the combustion of fuel. But pratctically the exhaust valve is opened, even before the
power stoke is completed,i.e. 40 to 450 before BDC. The exhaust valve remains open during
entire exhaust stroke i.e. 1800 . further during suction strioke also the exhaust valve is kept
opens for 2350 to 2400 . This increases in the timing of opening of exhaust valve is one of
the reason for higher thermal efficiency in as four stroke engine as more burnt out gases are
flushed out, paving the way for induction of more fresh air.

Firing order:
 The order in which the power stroke in each cylinder of an engione occurs is called
firing order. If there are 4 cylinders, it is not thepratioce to fire all the cylinders instaneouly or
to fire in the sequence, 1-2*-3-4 as instaneous fining will need a larger crankshaft and fly
wheel to absorb the power. Firing in a sequence like 1-2-3-4 wil tend to oiverload one side of
the crankshaft.
To overcome this heavy crankshaft has to be provided. Therefore in a common practice to
follow some firing orders so that loading on the crankshaft is dynamically balanced.
The amount of crankpin on the crankshaft and the degree of the crankshaft determine the
firing order of the engine
 Firing order of 2 cylinder engine: 1-2
 Firing order of 3 cylinder engine: 1-2-3
 Firing order of 4 cylinder engine: 1-3-4-2, 1-2-4-3
 Firing order of 6 cylinder engine: 1-5-3-6-2-4, 1-4-2-6-3-5
 Firing order of 8 cylinder engine: 1-7-3-5-8-2-6-4, 1-5-3-7-8-4-6-2

Firing interval
The interval between the successive power stroke in different cylinder of the engine
is called firing order
Firing Interval = 7200 / no. of cylinder (for 4 stroke engine)
0
Firing Interval = 360 / no. of cylinder (for 2 stroke engine)

Power flow chart:

It is a sheet showing the different strokes happening inside the different cylinder of an
engine. This chart gives an idea about what is happening in respective cylinder.
The knowledge of this chart helps to easily set the tappet clearance (the clearance between
the rocker arm and the valve). The clearance is adjusted when a particular cylinder is at
compression stroke, as at this stroke both the valve remain closed.

Procedure for power flow chart

1. Determine the firing order of the engine. (i.e. for 6 cylinder 4 stroke is 1-5-3-6-2-4)
2. Determine the firing interval. (7200 / 6 = 1200)
3. Determine the crankshaft rotation for one stroke. (i.e. 1800 for 4 stroke engine)
4. Since the firing interval as well as different strokes has to be represented find the
Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) between firing interval and one stroke. (i.e. GCD of
firing interval i.e. 1200 and stroke i.e 1800 is 600)
5. Choose the scale of crankshaft rotation as per GCD (it is chosen as 0-60 0, 600-1200
as so on)

The power flow chart of a six cylinder 4 stoke engine

Crankshaft No. of cylinders as per firing order
rotation
1 5 3 6 2 4
(in degrees)
0-600 Suction Exhaust Power Power Compression Suction
Compres
600- 1200 Suction Exhaust Exhaust Power Compression
sion
 Compres
1200- 1800 Suction Suction Exhaust Power Power
sion
Compres
1800- 2400 Compression Suction Exhaust Exhaust Power
sion
2400- 3000 Compression Suction Suction Exhaust Power Power
0 0
300 -360 Compression Compression Suction Exhaust Exhaust Power
0 0
360 - 420 Power Compression Suction Suction Exhaust Power
4200- 4800 Power Compression Compression Suction Exhaust Exhaust
4800- 5400 Power Power Compression Suction Suction Exhaust
0 0
540 - 600 Exhaust Power Compression Compression Suction Exhaust
0 0
600 -660 Exhaust Power Power Compression Suction Suction
6600- 7200 Exhaust Exhaust Power Compression Compression Suction

Exercise: Make a power flow chart of 3 cylinder 4 stroke cycle engine.

OBSERVATION:

Name of parts Function Material

Poppet valve
Valve seat
Valve stem guide
Valve spring
Spring retainer lock
Rocker arm
Rocker arm bush
Rocker arm shaft
Clearance adjusting screw
Push rod
Packing sleev
Tapper guide
cam
Cam shaft gear
Cam shaft bearing
Experiment.4. Determination of Engine Power

BORE AND STROKE:

The diameter of the cylinder is known as bore and the displacement of the piston, i.e. its
travel from top dead centre (TDC) to bottom dead centre (BDC) is called stroke. In old
engines, the stroke was always greater than the bore but the recent trend is towards a
shorter piston stroke. This is because in the short piston stroke, the less of power due to
friction is minimized. Also, the inertia and centrifugal load on the bearings are reduced. In the
square engine, which is the latest in technology, the bore and strokes are equal.

Piston Displacement: This is the volume that

the piston displaces during its movement from
BDC to TDC. It is also called swept volume.
Pd = AL

Pd = Piston
displacement, cm3
A = Area , cm2
L = Length of the
stroke, cm

Displacement Volume: Volume displaced in one

stroke (L) of the piston. It is also called SWEPT
VOLUME

Vd = AL n

Vd = Displacement volume, cm3

A = Area , cm2
L = Piston stroke, cm
n = Number of power strokes per minute for all the cylinders

Volume Of The Cylinder: It is the sum of the clearance volume and the swept volume.
V = Vs + Vc
where
V = Total cylinder Volume, cm3
Vs = Swept volume, cm3
Vc = Clearance volume, cm3
Piston Speed: of an engine is the total travel of the piston in a cylinder during a period of
one minute. It may be expressed as:
Sp= 2 L N
Where
Sp= Piston speed, m/minute
L = Piston stroke, m
N = Engine rpm

Piston speeds of the high speed tractor engine range between 300 to 500 m/min.
Compression Ratio
The compression ratio (CR) of an engine is a measure of how much the air/air-fuel
mixture is compressed in the cylinder. It is the volume of air when the piston is at BDC
divided by its volume of air when the piston is at TDC. The volume above the piston is
called clearance volume. The CR of an engine is an important factor in its
performance. By increasing only the compression ratio, the engine power increases,
the other factors remaining unchanged.
Compression Ratio = [Total cylinder Volume] /[Clearance volume]
= [Swept volume +clearance volume]/[clearance volume]
The compression ratio of the diesel engine varies between 14:1 to 22:1 and that of the
petrol engine(spark plug engines) 4:1 to 8:1
Horsepower
Power is the rate at which work is done. The rate at which the engine can do work
is measured in horsepower (HP). One HP is equivalent to 4500 kg m per min. The
various methods of defining horsepower are described below.
Indicated Horsepower(IHP)
The power that is actually developed in the cylinder is called indicated horsepower
and is given by:
IP (hp) = PLANn / Ip (kW) = PLANn / 60 x 10 12
4500 where
where P = means effective pressure in Pa (N/m 2
P = means effective pressure in )
kg/cm2 L - stroke length in mm
L - stroke length in m A - area of cylinder in mm 2
2
A - area of cylinder in cm N- revolutions per minute
N- revolutions per minute n – No. of cylinders
n – No of cylinders (for a four stroke engine N = rpm/2 and for
(for a four stroke engine N = rpm/2 and a two-stroke engine N = rpm)
for a two-stroke engine N = rpm)

The amount of power that can be measured on the flywheel is always less than the
power generated in the engine on account of expansion of the combusted fuel.

Belt horsepower
It is the power of the engine measured at the end of the suitable belt drive from
the PTO shaft of the tractor.
Power Takeoff Horsepower(PTO HP)
 It is the power delivered by a tractor through its PTO shaft.. In general the belt
and PTO horsepower of a tractor will approximately be the same and is measured by
either a hydraulic or an electrical dynamometer.
Drawbar Horsepower(DBHP)
It is the power of a tractor measured at the end of the drawbar. It is that power
which is available to pull loads.
Frictional Horsepower(FHP)
It is the power required to run the an engine at a given speed without producing
any useful work. It represent the friction and pumping losses of an engine
IHP = BHP+FHP
Maximum Horsepower and Net Horsepower
The maximum HP is measured at the engine flywheel without any of the power
consuming accessories being attached. This is not a practical rating as it does not
represent "usable" HP. Net HP is measured at the engine flywheel in the same manner
as the maximum HP. The difference in the two is because the engine is equipped with
accessories. Net HP is the basis for rating the HP of industrial and farm tractors.
Brake Horsepower : It is the horsepower available on the crankshaft and is measured
by a suitable dynamometer.
Mean Effective Pressure :The mean effective pressure (MEP) is the average pressure
during the power stroke, minus the average pressure during the other three strokes. In
fact, the MEP is the pressure that actually forces the piston down during the power
stroke
Mechanical Efficiency: It is the ratio of the brake horsepower to the indicated horse
power and is expressed as
Mechanical efficiency = [BHP/IHP]*100 ~ 72 to 92 %
Volumetric Efficiency : The amount of air entering the cylinder due to the vacuum
created by the downward motion of the piston is always less than the actual dis -
placement of the piston because of the constriction of the air intake system. Therefore,
the actual air taken into the cylinder divided by the swept volume is known as
volumetric efficiency. Diesel engine ~ 85 to 90 % and petrol Engine ~ 75 to 80 %
Specific Fuel Consumption: It is the mass of the fuel consumed by an engine on the
basis of per kW hour
Thermal Efficiency : It is the ratio of the horsepower output of an engine to the fuel
horse power. Efficiency is determined from the following
Most of the power generated by an IC engine gets lost before it can be used. According to
one estimate
Experiment 5. Study of Oil & Fuel system

In I. C. engine, all the liquid fuel must be converted into vapour fuel before burning.
High-speed diesel oil is most difficult to vaporise. Vaporising temperature of high-speed
diesel oil is higher than that of the petrol, hence the petrol vaporises quicker than diesel. This
helps in easy starting of petrol engines. A fuel having more volatility has got more ignition
chances, so there are chances of vapour lock in the fuel system. Quickness in vaporising the
fuel helps in producing more power swiftly, which accelerates the engine. The oil that
vaporises quickly can be distributed well in different cylinders of the engine hence
distribution of fuel in different cylinders is better in petrol engine than that of diesel engine.
Fuel System Of Diesel Engine
The main components of the fuel system in diesel engine are:
(1) Fuel filter
(2) Fuel lift pump
(3) Fuel injection pump
(4) Atomisers and
(5) High pressure pipe.

During engine operation, the fuel is supplied by gravity from fuel tank to the primary
filter where coarse impurities are removed. From the primary filter, the fuel is drawn by fuel
transfer pump and is delivered to
fuel injection pump through
secondary fuel filter. The fuel lift
pump lifts the fuel from the tank
to the fuel injection pump. The
fuel injection pump supplies fuel
under high pressure to the
injectors through high-pressure
pipes. The injectors (atomisers)
atomise the fuel and inject it into
the combustion chamber of the
engine. The fuel injection pump
is fed with fuel in abundance.
On some tractors and
industrial engines, the fuel
system is by gravity and hence
no fuel lift pump is provided.

Fuel Injection System

Diesel fuel is injected in diesel engine through injectors with the help of fuel injection
pump. The system using injectors, fuel injection pump, fuel filter, and fuel lines is called fuel
injection system. The main functions of fuel injection system are:
(i) To measure the correct amount of fuel required by engine speed and load,
(ii) To maintain correct timing for beginning and end of injection,
 (iii) To inject the fuel into the combustion space against high compression pressure.
(iv) To atomise the fuel for quick ignition.
Process of fuel injection in diesel engine is of two
types:
(i) Air injection
(ii) Solid injection.
Air injection: In this process, the engine uses com-
pressed air to force the fuel into the cylinder. It is a
bulky system and hence it is not considered very
suitable for vehicles and tractors. It is mostly used on
heavy-duty stationary engines.
(ii) Solid injection: A high-pressure pump is used for
forcing the fuel into the combustion chamber.
These common methods are: Air injection system
(a) Common rail system
(b) Individual pump system
(c) Distributary system.

Common rail system: This system utilizes one pump

only. Fuel is sucked from the fuel tank and is supplied to Common rail system
the combustion chamber. One injector is fitted for each
cylinder. The pump delivers the fuel under high pressure to the common rail from where it is
supplied to every injector.
Individual pump system: There is a separate pump for each cylinder. The fuel tank
supplies fuel to different pumps from where it goes to different cylinders.
Distributary system: This system consists of a distributary unit along with the pump.
The pump supplies fuel to the distributary unit from
where the fuel is distributed to every cylinder separately.
Combustion chamber: A combustion chamber is a
space inside the engine, where the combustion of fuel
takes place. In diesel engine, the fuel is atomised,
vaporised and burnt inside combustion chamber,
whereas in spark ignition engine, atomisation of fuel
takes place in the carburettor and vaporisation occurs in
carburettor as well as the inlet manifold. Combustion
chamber is classified as : Direct injection chamber and
Indirect injection chamber
Direct injection chamber: Fuel is injected directly in Individual pump system
the compressed air of the cylinder. The entire fuel is not
burnt quickly. Only a part of the fuel comes in contact with the heated air of the engine,
which gets ignited
immediately. Starting
of engine is easy in
this case.

Indirect Injection
Chamber
Pre-combustion
chamber: There is

(a) Direct Injection chamber (b) Indirect injection

small chamber above the cylinder of the engine, which may be spherical or cylindrical in
shape. Fuel is injected directly in this small chamber. At the time of fuel injection, the upward
movement of the piston disturbs the air of the chamber. As the combustion takes place, very
high pressure is produced inside the small chamber which forces the burnt fuel with high
velocity into the main chamber. Starting of the engine is not very easy due to relatively low
temperature of the cylinder.

Fuel Filter
It is a device to remove dirt from fuel oil. Solid
particles and dust in diesel fuel are very harmful for
giving a fine degree of filtration. Fuel injection
equipment in diesel engine is extremely sensitive to
dirt and solid particles present in fuel. A filter is used to
remove the dirt and solid particles from the fuel to
ensure trouble free fuel supply. It consists of a hollow
cylindrical element contained in a shell, an annular
space being left between the shell and the element.
The filtering element consists of metal gauge in
conjunction with various media such as packed fibres,
woven cloth, felt, paper etc. These filters are replaced
at certain intervals, specified by the manufacturer.
Usually there are two filters in diesel engine: (1)
Primary filter and (2) Secondary filter. Fuel filter for diesel engine
The primary filter removes water and coarse
particle of dirt from the fuel. The secondary filter removes fine sediments from the fuel.
Usually the primary filter is placed between the tank and the transfer pump.

Care and maintenance of Fuel Injection system

1. The fuel oil should be clean, free from water, suspended dirt, sand or other foreign
matter,
2. The fuel injection pump should create proper pressure, so that diesel fuel may be
perfectly atomised by injectors and be injected in proper time and in proper quantity
in the engine cylinder.
3. Fuel should be filtered before filling the tank also
4. Avoid handling of diesel oil by pouring by hand
5. Clean and change the primary and secondary filter at specified time
6. Keep the foundation and coupling bolts tight
7. Never allow the engine to get over-raced or overheated failing which injector needle
will stick
8. Keep breather of governor always clean

Troubles and Shooting in Injection system

1. Engine difficult to start or not start
a. Fuel not reaching injector or in short supply
b. Blockage of vent hole in diesel tank cap
c. Leaky diesel pipe from diesel tank to feed pump
d. Chocked filter
e. Defective feed pump plunger
 f. Defective inlet or outlet valve of feed pump
g. Sticking of control rod of injection pump
h. Sticky or leaky delivery valve
i. Worn out coupling of injection drive
j. Sticky or jammed linkage of governor

Study of function of various components of fuel supply system.

S.NO NAME OF COMPONENT FUNCTION

1 FUEL TANK

2 FUEL FEED PUMP

3 SEDIMENT BOWL

4 FUEL FILTER

5 SECONDARY FUEL FILTER

6 CARBURATTOR

7 GOVERNOR
Experiment.6. Study of Air cleaning system
Air Intake System

(i) air cleaner,

(ii) intake manifold,
(iii) intake port and
(iv) intake valve.

Air Cleaner
The operating efficiency, good performance and durability of an engine depend
mainly upon its cleaner. It is a device, which cleans and filters the air before entering the
combustion chamber of an engine.
An IC engine uses large quantities of air for combustion, the ratio being 6.5-6.8 kg of
air for every 0.4536 kg of fuel bursts. Unfiltered air may contain millions of particles of
abrasive dust and other matter, which could cause rapid wear.
The principal cause of wear in an engine is dust formation. The effect of dust mixed
with lubricating oil is similar to valve-grinding paste. The rapid wear of sleeves, pistons and
piston rings, valves, valve guides and valve seats arc evidences of dust entering the engine.
Sometimes, the air leaks during compression in the chamber and mixes with the oil. This
dusty oil affects the crank and crankshaft bearings and, therefore, early engine overhauling
becomes essential. The air cleaner must be highly efficient at all times, especially when
working in dusty conditions especially threshing, etc.
There are many types of air cleaners but the types commonly used in tractors are:
(i) Oil wetted mesh type,
(ii) Dry air type and
(iii) Wet type or oil bath air cleaners
Oil Wetted Mesh Air Cleaner
It consists of a copper mesh or nylon wire wetted with oil to catch the dust particles
from the air, which are made to pass through it. This type, however, gets clogged with dust
quickly, thus, seriously affecting the air flow through it and rendering it inefficient in removing
the fine particles of dust from the air.

Dry Air Cleaner

This type of air cleaners contains three main parts, viz. pre-cleaner, main housing
and cleaning element. These are sealed into one unit. The main housing contains the clean-
ing element, usually of multi-wire netting, but some are made of nylon hair or paper. The air
from the atmosphere enters from the pie-cleaner, passes through the cleaning element and
goes to the inlet manifold. The paper filter element is cleaned after 50-100 hours of service.
Dry air cleaners are mounted
(i) Vertically in front of the tractor radiator and
(ii) Horizontally on the overhead engine.

The following are the advantages of the dry air cleaner:

1. Easy to service.
2. Good performance in gradient and in rough fields.
3. More efficient at high speeds.
4. Straw and chaff cause less restriction to air passage.
Its main disadvantages are:
1. It is costlier to maintain than an oil bath because the filter elements require replacements
very often.
2. Sometimes, dust particles enter the cylinder

Oil Bath Air Cleaners

The main difference between a dry and oil bath
cleaner is that in the latter type, oil is used for cleaning air.
This type of cleaner operates on the principle of having the
air laden with dust enter the intake stack, pass down the
inlet passage over the oil surface, where some of the oil is
picked up, atomized and carried up into a separating
screen. As the air passes through a screen (filter) most of
the remaining dirt is attached to the oil wetted surfaces and
drains back into the sump.
The air outlet is on the side through which the clean
air enters the cylinders. In the bottom a removable cup is
fitted for convenient cleaning and servicing. Oil bath air
cleaners are always mounted vertically to the engine, thus
the oil remains in the cup at the bottom of the cleaner. It is
often mounted either in front of the radiator or by the side of
the engine.
Tractor engine: Tractors always work in dusty conditions.
In order to prolong the engine life, pre-cleaners are fitted in
the upper portion of the main cleaner. When the engine is running, the air is drawn through
the pre-cleaner to the inlet tube of the main cleaner. Here large dust particles are removed
from the air stream, thus reducing much of the load on the main cleaner.
The pre-cleaner functions on the centrifugal principle. By means of vanes and baffles
it gives a rotary motion to the air, thus causing the heavier dust particles to be thrown out
due to centrifugal force and the pre-cleaned air passing to the cleaner.

Inlet Manifold
The inlet manifold is required to deliver into the cylinders cither a mixture of fuel and
air from the carburetor or only air from air-cleaners. The inlet manifolds are made in one or
two pieces either from cast iron or aluminum alloy. They are also bolted from separate
castings into a single unit. The manifold flanges are connected to the cylinder block or
cylinder head by means of asbestos-copper gaskets, studs and nuts.

Exhaust System
The exhaust system collects exhaust gases from the engine and expels them out.
The system consists of:
(i) exhaust valve,
(ii) exhaust port
(iii) exhaust manifold,
(iv) turbo charger (auxiliary unit) and
(v) muffler
Exhaust Manifold
The exhaust manifold collects exhaust gases from the exhaust ports of various
cylinders and conducts them from each end to a central exhaust passage. It is usually made
of cast iron. The exhaust manifolds are designed to avoid the overlapping of exhaust strokes
as much as possible, thus keeping the back pressure to a minimum. This is often done by
dividing the exhaust manifold into two or more branches so that no two cylinders will exhaust
into the same branch at the same time.
Muffler
The muffler reduces the noise of the exhaust gases by reducing the pressure of the
used gases by slow expansion and cooling. On the other hand, the muffler must not cause
any appreciable restriction to the flow of oil that could raise the backpressure excessively.
The muffler contains a number of chambers through which the gas flows. The gas is
allowed to expand from the first passage into a much larger second one and then to a
still larger third one and so on, to the final and largest passage which is connected to the tail
(outlet) pipe of muffler.

Care and maintenance of the inlet and exhaust system.

1. The inlet and exhaust manifolds should be checked for air leaks and the nuts and con-
nections tightened at regular intervals.
2. Never try to remove the oil cap of air cleaner when the engine is running.
3. A clogged muffler exhaust pipe or tail pipe will cause a backpressure on the pistons and
a loss of power. Therefore, it must be cleaned every time during service. Sometimes, the
engine overheats due to excessive carbon deposit.
4. Before each days work or every 5-8 hours, if the dirty condition of operating at maximum
load, the oil sediments cup at base of the filter should be detached and the condition of
the oil checked. If the oil is thick with suspended dirt or if there is more than ½ inches of
dirt in the bottom of the sediment cup, the air cleaner should be survived. If the oil level is
low but oil appears clean and oil of the proper weight to bring it up to the oil level.
5. Under normal operating conditions the air cleaner should be serviced at least every 30
hours
6. The dirt filled oil should be emptied, removed dirt and entire cup washed in the distiollate
or kerosene to remove all the sediment.
7. Inspect bottom screen of the cleaner body and remove any accumulation of chaff and
dirt.
8. The cup should then be refilled to the mark with new engine oil.
Experiment. 7. Study of Cooling system

Types of Cooling System

A system, which controls the engine temperature, is known as a cooling system. There are
two types of cooling systems:
(i) Air cooling system and
(ii) Water-cooling system.
Air Cooling System
In this type of cooling system, the heat, which is conducted to the outer parts of the
engine, is radiated and conducted away by the stream of air, which is obtained from the
atmosphere. In order to have efficient cooling by means of air, providing fins around the
cylinder and cylinder head increases the contact area. The fins are metallic ridges, which are
formed during the casting of the cylinder and cylinder head
The amount of heat carried off by the air-cooling depends upon the following factors:
(i) The total area of the fin surfaces,
(ii) The velocity and amount of the cooling air and
(iii) The temperature of the fins and of the cooling air.
Air-cooling is mostly tractors of less horsepower, motorcycles, scooters, small cars and small
aircraft engines where the forward motion of the machine gives good velocity to cool the
engine. Air-cooling is also provided in some small industrial engines. In this system,
individual cylinders are generally employed to provide ample cooling area by providing fins.
A blower is used to provide air.
Water Cooling System
It serves two purposes in the working of an engine:
a) It takes away the excessive heat generated in the engine and saves it from over
heating.
b) It keeps the engine at working temperature for efficient and economical working.
This cooling system has four types of systems:
(i) Direct or non-return system,
(ii) Thermo-Siphon system,
(iii) Hopper system and
(iv) Pump/forced circulation system.

Pump or Force Circulation Water Cooling System

In this system centrifugal pump is used to circulate the water throughout the water
jackets and radiator.

The water flows from the lower portion of the radiator to the water jacket of the
engine through the centrifugal pump. After the circulation water comes back to the radiator, it
loses its heat by the process of radiation. This system is employed in cars, trucks, tractors,
etc.
Parts of Liquid Cooling System
The main parts in the water-cooling system are:
(i) Water pump,
 (ii) Fan,
(iii) Radiator and pressure cap,
(iv) Fan belt
(v) Water jacket,
(vi) Thermostat valve,
(vii) Temperature gauge and
(viii) Hose pipes.

Water Pump
This is a centrifugal type pump. It is centrally mounted at the front of the cylinder
block and is usually driven by means of a belt. This type of pump consists of the following
parts:
(i) body or casing,
(ii) impeller (rotor),
(iii) shaft,
(iv) bearings, or bush,
(v) water pump seal and
(vi) pulley.
The bottom of the radiator is connected to the suction side of the pump. The power is
transmitted to the pump spindle from a pulley mounted at the end of the crankshaft. Seals of
various designs are incorporated in the pump to prevent loss of coolant from the system.
Water pumps are often designed with a by-pass opening, which permits the circulation of
water within the cylinder block and cylinder head only when the engine is cold and the
thermostatic valve is closed. The rate of circulation of the pump should not be less than 0.5
lit/BHP/min.
Fan
The fan is generally mounted on the water pump pulley, although on some engines it is
attached directly to the crankshaft. It serves two purposes in the cooling system of a engine.
(a) It draws atmospheric air through the radiator and thus increases the efficiency of
the radiator in cooling hot water.
(b) It throws fresh air over the outer surface of the engine, which takes away the heat
conducted by the engine parts and thus increases the
efficiency of the entire cooling system.
Radiator
The purpose of the radiator is to cool down the water
received from the engine. The radiator consists of three main parts:
(i) upper tank, (ii) lower tank and (iii) tubes.
Hot water from the upper tank, which comes from the engine,
flows downwards through the tubes. The heat contained in the
hot water is conducted to the copper fins provided around the
tubes. An overflow pipe, connected to the upper tank, permits
excess water or steam to escape.

Thermostat Valve Radiator

It is a kind of check valve, which opens and closes with the effect of temperature. It is
fitted in the water outlet of the engine. During the warm-up period, the thermostat is closed
and the water pump circulates the water only throughout the cylinder block and cylinder
head. When the normal operating temperature is reached, the thermostat valve opens and
allows hot water to flow towards the radiator (see Fig). Standard thermostats are designed to
start opening at 70 to 75°C and they fully open at 82°C. High temperature thermostats, with
permanent anti-freeze solutions (Prestine, Zerex, etc.), start opening at 80 to 90°C and fully
open at 92°C.

Pressure Cooling System

In the case of the ordinary water-cooling system where the cooling water is subjected
to atmospheric pressure, the water boils at 100°C. When water is boiled in a closed radiator
under high pressure, the boiling temperature of water increases. The higher water
temperature gives more efficient engine performance and affords additional protection under
high altitude and tropical conditions for long hard driving periods. The pressure type radiator
cap has two types of valves are there namely pressure relief valve and vacuum valve.
Therefore, a pressure-type radiator cap is used with the forced circulation cooling system
(Fig. a). The cap is fitted on the radiator neck with an airtight seal. The pressure-release
valve is set to open at a pressure between 0.28 and 0.92 kg f/cm2. With this increase in
pressure, the boiling temperature of water increases to 117°C (at 0.28 kg f/cm2 boiling tap
107°C and 0.92 kgf/cm2 boiling temperature 117°C). The pressure release valve to the
atmosphere releases any increase in pressure. On cooling, the vapours will condense and
a partial vacuum will be created which will result in the collapse of the hoses and tubes. To
overcome this problem the pressure release valve is associated with a vacuum valve, which
opens the radiator to the atmosphere (Fig. b).
Rust : It is caused by oxidation of ferrous parts of the cooling system. It clog water passage
and to insulate the iron part from cooling liquid. It can be prevented by the use of suitable
protective.
Scale: It is a hard deposit inside the water passage. It acts as a barrier to the flow of heat
from the cylinder to the water.

Troubles in cooling system

1. Engine running too hot
a. Leakage of water
b. Loss of water
c. Leakage in radiator
d. Chocked or leaky hose pipe (defective)
e. Head gasket Leakage
f. Water pump leakage
2. Accumulation of rust and scale in radiator and water jacket
3. Defective thermostat valve
4. Loose or slippage of fan belt.
5. Chocked radiator core
6. Chocked hose pipe
7. Rusty water jackets
8. Changed fan angle
Care and Maintenance of Cooling System
1. Never run the tractor without water up to the desired level.
2. In radiator if water is dirty then flush the system, for flushing proceed as under:
 a. Fix up car washer gun and air pressure pipe in the hose connecting lower
tank release water and air pressure.
3. Check up V belts, if loose, tension it properly
4. Check for water leakage from hose pipe, clips, radiator core radiator and engine
drain cock-plug the leakage.
5. Check up leakage of water from water pump
6. Check up water pump shaft play by loosening V belt, do not forget to tension it again
7. Clean up for any blockage of air before radiator
8. Lime free clean and fresh water should be filled in the radiator to prevent the scale
formation.
9. Rotten/ soft hose pipe should be used in the system
10. The tension of the belt should be checked to prevent overheating, reduce charging
current and high wear of belt. The maximum permissible V belt sag should be 15 mm
when applying average finger pressure.
11. Oil and Grease should always be kept away from the belt
12. The bearing of the water pump should be lubricated regularly.
13. Never fill water when the engine is hot, the cold water should not be filled, it may
fracture in the cylinder wall or head.
14. Never remove the radiator cap abruptly when the engine is running.
15. Radiator and water jackets should be flushed out with special air pressure guns to
remove bugs leaves and dirt from the radiator.

Procedure for cleaning the cooling system

1. Make a solution of 10 kg water with one kg of washing soda and 0.5 kg of kerosene
oil
2. Filled this solution in radiator and be allowed to remain there from 8-10 hours.
3. Start the engine and run on medium speed for 15-20minutes
4. Drain the solution and flushed the radiator with clean water

Intake and exhaust system

The intake and exhaust system deals with the inflow of fresh air and the outflow of used
gases in the engine.
Write the functions of the main parts of water cooling system

Component Function

Radiator

Pressure cap

Fan & fan belt

Thermostat valve

Hoses

Water pump

water
 Experiment. 8. Study of Governor system

Governor is a mechanical device designed to control the speed of a n engine with in

specified limit used on tractor or stationary engine for :
1. Maintaining a nearly constant speed of engine under different load conditions
2. Protecting the engine and the attached equipments against high speeds, when the
load is reduced or removed.

In tractor engines: the fuel supply is controlled by the governor, the operator changes
the engine speed by moving governor control lever. In tractor the governor is
essential; the tractor is subjected to rapid change of speed without any automatic
device. A governor automatically regulates the engine speed on varying load
condition by regulating the intake of fuel or injection of fuel so that engine speed is
maintained at the desired level under all loading conditions.

In motor cars: the fuel supply is directe4d controlled by the accelerator pedal

Types of governors:
1. Hit and miss system
2. Throttle system
3. Mechanical or centrifugal governor
a. Constant speed governor
b. Variable speed governor
4. Pneumatic type governor
5. Hydraulic governor

1. Hit and miss system: in this system the frequency of power stroke of engine are
regulated. When engine speed exceeds the rated speed the exhaust valves get
opens, ehich prevebnts fresh air fuel mixture or fuel to enter in to the engine cylinder
during suction stroke. The inlet valve remains closed as long as exhaust valve is held
open. It is found that explosions are missed intermittently, but every charge is of
normal strength.
2. Throttle system: The system consists in controlling the amount of fuel mixture or
fuel during suction stroke and then charging the explosions intensity in the cylinder.
In this system no. of power strokes are not reduced, only the intensity of strokes is
changed. Butterfly valve is provided in the air passage between inlet manifold and
carburetor. If speed decreases, the throttle remains open and more charge will goes
to cylinder. If speed increases the throttle valves nearly closed, less charge will goes
to cylinder resulting in reduced speed.
3. Mechanical or centrifugal governor: It works on the principle of centrifugal . Two
weights are hinged to the crankshaft of pump, both weights are hinged with crank
lever. When the speed increases through accelerator the crankshaft revolves at high
speed. The weights fly due to Centrifugal force taking along with it the control rod to
the stop position. At low load engine speed tends to go high. Weights tend to fly,
close the throttle valve and reduces the entry of charge in the engine. Similarly at
high load speed tends to slower the weight comes closer due to spring tension.
 Throttle near open and allowing more fuel to the cylinder, which increases the speed.
Commonly used in tyrctaors and stationary engines.
4. Pneumatic type governor: The governor covers the complete range of engine
speed, i.e. from idling speed to maximum speed. Mostly used in petrol engine
5. Hydraulic governor: very popular in foreign countries. Being hydraulically, there are
very moving parts and very light resulting runs without vibration and don’t put
excessive load on cam shaft bearing.
Governor regulation : Percentage of Difference in speed divided by the average speed
of engine at load and no load condition.
R= 100 x 2 (N1- N2) / N1+ N2,
where R= Percentage regulation or speed drop
N1=Engine speed at no load
N2 =Engine speed at load

Governor Hunting: is the erratic variation of the speed of governor when it covers
compensates for speed changes. Hunting may be done due to governor being too stiff or
due to some obstruction in free movement of governor components.

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Open the governor system of the tractor/ engine. Write whole procedure.

2. Draw its sketch and label its different parts.

 3. Experiment. 8. Study of Lubrication System

The lubricating system of an engine is an arrangement of mechanism and devices

which maintains supply of lubricating oil to the rubbing surface of an engine at correct
pressure and temperature. The parts which require lubrication are :
(i) cylinder walls and piston
(ii) piston pin
(iii) crankshaft and connecting rod bearings
(iv) camshaft bearings
(v) valves and valve operating mechanism
(vi) cooling fan
(vii) water pump and
(viii) Ignition mechanism.

There are three common systems of lubrication used on stationary engines, tractor
engines and automobiles:
(i) Splash system
(ii) Forced feed system and
(iii) Combination of splash and forced feed system.

Splash System
In this system, there is an oil trough, provided below the connecting rod. Oil is
maintained at uniform level in the oil trough. This is obtained by maintaining a continuous
flow of oil from the oil sump or reservoir into a splash pan, which has a depression or a
trough like arrangement under each connecting rod. This pan receives its oil supply from the
oil sump either by means of a gear pump or by gravity. A dipper is provided at the lower end
of the connecting rod. This dipper dips into to oil trough and splashes oil out of the pan. The
splashing action of oil maintains a fog or mist of oil that drenches the inner parts of the
engine such as bearings, cylinder walls, pistons, piston pins, timing gears etc.
This system is usually used on single cylinder engine with closes crankcase. Effective
functioning of the engine proper level of oil should be maintained in the oil pan.
Lubrication depends largely upon the size of oil holes and clearances. This system is
very effective if the oil is clean and undiluted. Its disadvantages are that lubrication is not
very uniform and when the rings are worn, the oil passes the piston into combustion
chamber, causing carbon deposition, blue smoke and spoiling the plugs. There is every
possibility that oil may become very thin through crankcase dilution. The worn metal, dust
and carbon may be collected in the oil chamber and be carried to different parts of the
engine, causing wear and tear.
Forced Feed System

In this system, the oil is pumped directly lo the crankshaft, connecting rod, piston pin,
timing gears and camshaft of the engine through suitable paths of oil (Fig). Usually the oil
first enters the main gallery, which may be a pipe or a channel in the crankcase casting.
From this pipe, it goes to each of the main bearings through holes. From main bearings, it
goes to big end bearings of connecting rod through drilled holes in the crankshaft. From
there, it goes to lubricate the walls, pistons and rings.
There is separate oil gallery to lubricate timing gears. Lubricating oil pump is a
positive displacement pump, usually gear type or vane' type. The oil also goes to valve stem
and rocker arm shaft under pressure through an oil gallery. The excess oil comes back from
the cylinder head to the crankcase. The pump discharges oil into oil pipes, oil galleries or
ducts, leading different parts of the engine. This system is commonly used on high-speed
multi-cylinder engine in tractors, trucks and automobiles.

Combination of Splash And Forced Feed System

In this system, the engine component, which are subjected to very heavy load are
lubricated under forced pressure, such as main bearing connecting rod bearing and
camshaft bearing. The rest of the parts like cylinder liners, cams, tappets etc are lubricated
by splashed oil.
Oil pump
Oil pump is usually a gear type pump, used to force oil into the oil pipe. The camshaft
of the engine drives the pump. The lower end of the pump extends down into the crankcase,
which is covered with a screen to check foreign particles. A portion of the oil forced to the oil
filter and the remaining oil goes to lubricate various parts of the engine. An oil pressure
gauge fitted in the line, indicates the oil pressure in the lubricating system. About 3 kg/sq cm
(45 psi) pressure is developed in the lubrication system of a tractor engine, [f the oil pressure
gauge indicates no pressure in the line, there is some defect in the system which must be
checked immediately. Lubricating oil pump is a positive displacement pump.

Oil Filters and Other Accessories

Oil filter
Lubricating oil in an engine becomes contaminated with various material such as dirt,
metal particles and carbon. Oil filler removes the dirty elements of the oil in an effective way.
It is a type of strainer using cloth, paper, felt, wire screen or similar elements. Some oil filter
can be cleaned by washing, but in general old filters are re1placed by new filters at specified
interval of time prescribed by manufacturers. Wearing of parts, oil consumption and
operating cost of an engine can be considerably reduced by proper maintenance of oil filters.

Oil pressure gauge

Oil pressure gauge is used to indicate the oil pressure in the oil lines. It serves to
warn the operator of any irregularity in the system.

Crankcase breather
The engine crankcase is always fitted with some kind of breather, connecting the
space above the oil level with the outside atmosphere. The purpose of the breather is to
prevent building up pressure in the crankcase. During operation of the engine, the crankcase
oil reaches a temperature of 70 to 80°C or even more and simultaneously the air above it
gets heated up. Consequently the air is likely to expand and cause pressure rise if unable to
escape. The breather serves as ventilating passage of air. It prevents excessive
accumulation of volatile fuel or un-burnt fuel. It also reduces the corrosion and fuel dilution.
The simplest type of breather consists of a pipe from the upper part of the crankcase to the
outside atmosphere. In practice, an air filter is mounted for breathing purpose.

Relief valve
Relief valve is provided to control the quantity of oil circulation and to maintain correct
pressure in the lubricating system. The valve consists of a ball held in place over an opening
by an adjustable spring. This valve operates in such a way as to permit a certain amount of
oil to by-pass back to the reservoir as and when required. If the spring tension is decreased,
more oil will by-pass and less oil will be forced through the system. If the tension is
increased, less oil will go by the valve; and more will be forced through the system.

Grease
Grease is a semi fluid lubricant, used for slow moving parts. It is useful for those
parts, which are connected and are not easily accessible, such as universal joints, water
pumps, wheel and axle bearings. Grease is classified according to consistency of the fluid as
No. 0, No. 1, No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4 specifying the condition as fluid, very soft, soft, medium
and hard respectively.
Troubles in Lubrication System

There are a few common troubles in lubrication system such as:

1. Excessive oil consumption

a. More oil goes to combustion chamber and gets burnt
b. Some leakage occurs in some part of - the line
c. Loss of oil in form of vapour through ventilating system
d. Oil can enter the combustion chamber through rings and cylinder walls,
e. Worn piston rings and worn bearing
f. Incorrect ring size, ring gap or installation of rings
g. Faulty crankase breathing system

2. Low oil pressure

a. Less oil in crankase
b. Low viscocity oil or diluted oil in sump
c. Worn out main and big end bearing
d. Leaky filter, oil pipe or oil pump
e. Bypass valve spring defective
f. Defective oil pressure indicator

3. Excessive oil pressure

a. Stuck relief valve
b. Strong valve spring
c. Clogged oil line
d. Sticky regulating valve
e. Improper setting of regulating valve
f. Very heavy oil.
g. Defective oil pressure indicator
Study the various components of lubrication system and write their functions.

Name of component Functions

Splash lubrication system

Splash pan

Counter weight

Vent or filter

Crank case

Oil pump

Force-feed lubrication system

Oil pump

By pass relief valve

Oil filter element

Oil pressure gauge

Oil galleries

Lubrication oil coolants

Oil pressure gauge

Experiment. 9. Study of Electrical and Ignition system

Fuel mixture of I. C. engine must be ignited in the engine cylinder at proper time for
useful work. Arrangement of different components for providing such ignition at proper time
in the engine cylinder is called ignition system.
(a) Ignition by electric spark i.e. spark ignition
(b) Ignition by heat of compression i.e. compression ignition

There are two common types of ignition system: the principal difference in two system is the
primary source of electric current. In battery ignition, the necessary current is produced by
chemical action with in the battery, while in the magneto system the armature of the magneto
is rotated to provide current.

Battery Ignition
Principle of working:
Battery ignition system includes two circuits:
(i) Low voltage (primary circuit) and
(ii) high voltage (secondary circuit).

The low-voltage circuit consists of:

(i) battery
(ii) ignition switch
(iii) a series register
(iv) primary winding and
(v) contact breaker.
All are connected in series.

The high voltage circuit consists of:

(i) secondary winding
(ii) distributor rotor
(iii) high voltage wiring and
(iv) spark plugs. Battery ignition
system
They are also connected in series.

When the ignition switch is closed, current flows from the battery through the primary
winding of the ignition coil, provided contact breaker points arc closed. They produce
magnetic field around the winding (Fig). When the piston is at the end of compression
stroke, the contact breaker point opens. Thus the flow of current in primary winding causes
the magnetic field to collapse. As the field collapses, its lines of force cut the wire turnings of
the secondary winding. This increases the voltage across the secondary winding terminals to
a value of 20 to 24 thousand volts. The high-voltage surge is delivered to the centre terminal
of the distributor cap where it is picked up by the rotor and directed to the proper spark plug.
A spark jumps the plug gap and ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture.
Ignition Circuit
Ignition circuit gets electric current from the battery. When the distributor points are
closed, low voltage current flows through the
primary winding of the ignition coil to the
distributor terminal and through the breaker
points to the ground. A strong magnetic field is
built up during this period of operation. When the
distributor points are opened, the magnetic field
in the coil starts collapsing. Thus a current is
induced in the primary winding of the coil, which
tends to prevent break down of the magnetic
field. A very high voltage is produced in the
secondary winding due to sudden collapsing of
the magnetic field. This high voltage makes the
spark to jump across the gap of the spark plug.

Components Of Battery Ignition

This system consists of a number of components
such as:
(i) Spark plug (ii) Distributor (iii) Ignition coil (iv)
Condenser (v) Ignition switch (vi) Dynamo and
(vii) Storage battery.

Spark Plug
Spark plug
Spark plug ignites the fuel-air mixture in combustion chamber. It is a device for the
high voltage current to jump and ignite the charge (Fig ). It provides insulated and grounded
electrode within the cylinders of the engine to form a gap across which the spark jumps and
ignites the charge. Each spark plug consists of a threaded outer shell with an outside
electrode, insulator and a copper gasket. Usually spark gap settings are kept between 0.50
and 0.85 mm. If the clearance is too wide, it docs not give satisfactory result.

Distributor
It is a device for interrupting the low
voltage primary current and distributing the
resulting high voltage current to the engine
cylinder in proper sequence and in proper
time.
The main functions of distributor are:
(a) It closes and opens the primary circuit,
(b) It distributes the resulting high voltage
current from the secondary circuit to the spark
plugs.

Ignition coil
Ignition coil serves the purpose of a
small transformer. It steps up low voltage to a very high voltage (may be 20,000 volts)
necessary to jump the gap of the spark plug. The coil consists of primary winding and
secondary winding, wound round a soft iron core (Fig). Primary winding is made of copper
wire of about 0.8 mm diameter having less number of turns. Secondary winding consists of
thousands of turn of very fine insulated copper wire of about 0.1 mm diameter. The voltage
varies as the ratio of turns of wire of the primary to the secondary winding. If the battery is
connected in the primary circuit, current flows and forms an electromagnet. When the
electrical circuit is suddenly broken, the electromagnetism dies out very quickly and thereby
induces very high voltage in secondary winding.

Condenser
A condenser consists of a pair of flat metal plates, separated by air. The most
common type of condenser is of metal foil strips, separated by wax-impregnated paper. The
condenser in the distributor is connected across the contact breaker points. It is used to
produce a quick collapse of the magnetic field in the coil to obtain extremely high voltage. In
doing so, the condenser prevents sparking across the contact breaker points, thus
preventing the points from burning.

Ignition switch
A switch provided in the primary circuit for starting and stopping the engine is called
ignition switch. It may be push-pull type or key type.

Dynamo
The purpose of the dynamo is to keep the battery charged and to supply current for
ignition, light and other electrical accessories. The dynamo supplies direct current to the
battery and keeps it fully charged. It consists of a frame, soft iron pole shoes, field winding,
armature winding, commutator, brushes, brush holder, spring, terminals and drive pulley.

Storage Battery
Storage battery is a device for converting chemical energy into electrical energy.
There are several types of battery, but lead-acid battery is most common for I. C. engines,
used for tractors and automobiles.
A battery consists of: (i) Plates (ii) Separators (iii) Electrolyte (iv) Container and (v) Terminal
wire.
Positive plates are made of lead and antimony and negative plates are made of
spongy lead. Electrolyte is the chemical solution used in a battery for chemical reaction.
Usually this consists of about 35% sulphuric acid and 65% distilled water by weight with a
specific gravity of 1.280 in fully charged condition. The specific gravity is measured by
hydrometer. The electrolyte level should be 12 to 14 mm above the top edge of the plates.
Container is usually made of hard rubber. The tops are covered with rubber material and
sealed with a water proof compound. There are few openings on the top for refilling the cell
with electrolyte and for testing purpose.
The capacity of the battery: quantity of electricity that a fully charged battery can deliver
while being discharged at a constant rate (current) until its terminal voltage falls to a definite
value is called the capacity of the
battery. It is measured as ampere
hours (A.H.).

Magneto Ignition System

A magneto is used to
generate an electric current for
producing spark in I. C. engine. A

Magneto ignition
high-tension magneto generates very high voltage, needed for spark plug. The electrical
principle involved in magneto ignition is similar to battery ignition, the chief difference being
that the primary current is produced by magneto and not by battery. Magneto may be
considered as combination of a generator for producing low voltage current and a» ignition
coil for producing high voltage current.

Main Components of Magneto Ignition System

The main components of magneto ignition system are:
(i) Frame
(ii) Permanent magnet
(iii) Armature
(iv) Soft iron field
(v) Rotor
(vi) Primary and secondary winding
(vii) Breaker points and
(viii) Condenser.
The armature consists of an iron core on which there are two sets of winding :
Primary and secondary.
The engine drives the armature. As the armature rotates, primary windings cut the
lines of force of the magnetic field and an induced current flow in the primary circuit. As the
primary current reaches its maximum value in each direction, the primary circuit is suddenly
opened by a contact breaker and the current collapses. This action induces a very high
voltage in the secondary winding, which causes a momentary spark to jump at the spark
plug gap. A distributor is provided which carries current to the spark plug through high-
tension wires. The condenser is used to eliminate the arching at the breaker points and
intensifying the current in the secondary circuit. For multi-cylinder engines, a distributor and
a rotor are required to distribute the current to the different spark plugs. Some high-speed
engines have magneto built into the flywheel.

Preignition
It is unwanted process of ignition charge earlier than desired. The charge gets
burned in the combustion chamber in compression stroke before the piston is reaching Top
dead centre. Due to burning of charge and expansion of gases , it causes great thrust on
piston restricting it to remove up, resulting in production of sound.
Reasons for preignition:
1. Too much deposit of carbon in combustion chamber
2. Valve running too hot
3. Defective cooling system
4. Hot spots in the cylinder due to poor quality of piston rings

Detonation (Knocking):
It is violent noise heard in an engine, giving a pinging sound during the process of
combustion. It occurs during the process of combustion of mixture with in cylinder after the
ignition has taken place. It is an undesirable combustion and results in sudden rise in
pressure, a loss of power and overheating of the engine. It is caused by improper
combustion chamber, high fuel and inadequate cooling arrangement.

Care and Maintenance of Battery

1. Use only the battery as recommended by the manufacturer.
2. The top of the battery should be wiped off with a damp cloth at every 30-days or every
120 hours
3. The corrosion around the terminal connection should be loosened with a stiff bristle
brush
4. Apply a solution of 110 gm baking soda to one kg of water and flush the outside of
batteries with clean water
5. After cleaning and tightening the battery connections, coating of Vaseline on each
terminal connection will retarded to accumulation of corrosion.
6. The electrolyte and water level should be checked and at every 30-days or every 120
hours and refill up the desired level.
7. Never add water in the freezing weather until after the engine has started, water will not
mix the electrolyte until the generator passes a charging current in to the battery.
8. Never drive the tractor, if the dynamo is not functioning.
9. The specific gravity of electrolyte should be checked with a accurate hydrometer before
adding water. It should not below 1.212 which is half charge, and 1.250 to 1.270 when
fully charged depending on make of the battery.
10. Cold weather reduces the output of the battery even if it is fully charged.
11. Freezing weather may damage a battery beyond repair; therefore never allow a battery
to stand long in the winter time without hacking its condition and recharge if necessary.

Care and Maintenance of Dynamo

1. Dynamo pulley should be kept well aligned with the drive pulley of the engine
2. Dynamo drive belt should be kept under proper tension
3. Keep all the wire terminals properly tightened
4. Never allow oil or dust settle on wire connecting terminals
5. No routine lubrication for the ball bearings is necessary. However during major
overhaul of the engine, the bearings of both the ends must be inspected and if there
is play or noise it should be changed.
6. Clip up the dynamo wires with body, never allow to hang freely
7. Always keep dynamo wires foundation with bolts tight
8. After 2500 working hours, the brushes are to be removed and checked for wear, and
freedom of movement inside brush box.

Troubles shooting of electrical System

1. Charging system (battery low in charge or discharge)

a. Loose drive belt of dynamo/ alternator
b. Less electrolyte
c. Excessive resistance due to loose connection
d. Faulty dynamo/ alternator
2. Charging system, dynamo/ alternator charging at high rate (battery consumes
more electrolyte)
a. Faulty voltage regulator
b. Loose connection or broken cable

3. Dynamo not producing current

a. Loose or broken wire connection
b. Short or burnt out field coil or armature winding
c. Sticky carbon brushes in the holder
d. Short circuit in the field winding
e. Loose wire connection on commutator
f. Defective switch
g. Broken or loose V belt
4. Charging of dynamo intermittently or charging less
a. Loose connection at dynamo terminal
b. Loose earth connection
c. Presence of oil on carbon brushes
d. Worn out or dirty commutator
e. Loose or defective ignition switch
f. Deposit of carbon dust on commutator segments
g. Weak battery
5. Alternator not producing current
a. Loose drive belt
b. Worn out brushes
c. Short circuit in charging circuit
d. Defective diodes
e. Starter wiring short.

6.
Identify the following components and sub components and give their functions:

S.NO NAME OF COMPONENT FUNCTION

1 BATTERY
Casing
Negative plates
Positive plates
Terminals
2 START MOTOR
Armarture with pinion drive
Carbon brushes
Solenoid switch/puller
3 Dynamo / generator
Armature with commutator
Carbon brushes
Field coil
4 Regulator cut-out
5 Electric cable
6 switch
7 Ammeter
8 Horn with push button
9 Head lights
10 Tail / back light
Experiment . 10. Determination of Tractor engine heat balance and
engine performance curves

Thermodynamic cycle
It is a series of event that repeat themselves in a regular sequence. The cycle consists of
events taking place between two successive explosions in a cylinder of the engine. There
are several types of cycles but thermodynamic cycle, used for internal combustion engine is
of two types.
1. Otto cycle and
2. Diesel cycle.

1. Otto cycle. In this cycle, the heat is taken in at one constant volume and rejected at
another constant volume of the cylinder. In the pressure volume diagram of the otto cycle.
V1 = total cylinder volume
V2 = clearance volume
V1-v2 = piston displacement.
The line MN represents atmospheric pressure level and AB represents the admission of the
charge at a pressure slightly below the atmospheric pressure. BGC represents the
compression of the charge in the cylinder, where the ignition occurs at the point c, The line
CD represents the pressure rise in the cylinder, which occurs at constant volume v2. DE
represents power stroke of the engine. Exhaust takes place at the point E and the pressure
reduces nearly to atmospheric pressure during the exhaust stroke FA.
Analysing the heat and the energy envolved in the cylinder, the thermal efficiency (n) of the
engine is given below.
N = 1 - (1/r)
Where
r = compression ratio = total cylinder volume / clearance volume = v1 / v2
m = air constant = Cp / Cv = 1.4
Cp = specific heat at constant pressure
Cv = specific heat at constant volume
Engine based upon this principle of otto cycle is called otto engines or spark ignition engine.

2. Diesel cycle: In diesel cycle, the heat is taken in at constant pressure and rejected
at constant volume. In the pressure volume diagram of diesel cycle, the line MN represents
atmospheric pressure, AB represents the admission of the air in the cylinder, BGC
represents the compression of gases in the cylinder. The injection of the fuel begins at C and
stops at D. combustion takes place during this interval and a condition of constant pressure
is assumed. The ratio of the volume of D and C i.e, vD / vC is known as cut off ratio. The
expansion of gas occurs from D to E with exhaust valve opening at E and exhaust stroke FA.
Analyzing the heat and energy evolve in the cylinder, the thermal efficiency of the engine is
given as:
The engine based upon the principle of diesel cycle is called diesel engine.

Tractor engine performance curves

Tractor is a slow moving machine compared to cars and trucks. The tractor has to be
versatile, so that it may give efficiency and economic service in different soils and climate.
The speed requirement for different agricultural operations varies from 0.5 km per hour to 25
km per hour. Operation such as ploughing, digging, ridging etc are heavy jobs, where as
sowing, cultivating etc are light jobs.

Performance characteristics of tractor engine.

It is noticed that tractor engine produces its transmission power at greatly reduced
speeds compared to a car engine. Transmission unit is heavier, larger and rugged in a
tractor. A variable speed governor is necessary on a tractor to maintain engine speed whwn
the load varies.
Basic requirements of a tractor are different from that of a car engine. It is estimated
that a tractor engine requires to be operated at full load approx 25 to 30 percent of the
operating time. Most of the time, the engine is required to be operated between 50 to 70
percent of the full load.
An increase in load, applied to a tractor by a hitched implement, demands for the
engine a corresponding increased torque. Usually the tractor is subjected to varying load
conditions and in order to enable engine to bear momentary overloads, it is designed to
produce its maximum torque at a much lower engine speed than at which maximum power is
developed. It may be seen that at the speed corresponding to maximum power at 1900 rpm,
the torque is 88% of the maximum torque. The maximum torque is produced at 1400 rpm.
The maximum torque is 110% of the torque at maximum power.

The shape of the torque speed curves is dependent upon the shape of volumetric
efficiency speed curve. In case of a diesel engine, two volumetric efficiencies are to be
considered, namely that of a fuel pump and that of the engine pistons and cylinders acting
as pumps.

The phenomenon tends to give a flatter torque curves as compared to a spark

ignition engine. Ie, the power in diesel engine decreases in much slower than that of petrol
engine. In diesel engine, the torque is considerably high at lower than rated speed. This
behavior of diesel engine is called slogging or lugging ability. Thus, it is said that diesel
engine slogs better than petrol engine.

A tractor has a variable speed governor for maintaining almost a constant speed at
different loads. Generally, governor so adjusted that maximum torque is obtained not at a
maximum BHP but at some lower BHP. If there is a difference of 500 rpm between maximum
BHP, it is said to be a good governor. Also if the difference is 100 rpm between no load and
maximum BHP, it is said to be a good governor. There is a difference of 500 rpm which is the
indication of a good governor setting. The difference between no load and maximum BHP is
also about 100 rpm, which is also an indication of a good governor.
A relation between specific fuel consumption and brake mean effective pressure. At
high loads, the specific fuel consumption curve is almost flat. For economic operations, the
load on the tractor should be such that engine may work on the flat portion of curve for
longer duration of time. Care has to be taken that fuel consumption curve may not rise
steeply as load is reduced.

A relation between drawbar pull and drawbar hp. There is one curve corresponding to
each gear of the tractor. The point of maximum drawbar hp of each gear can be joined by an
envelope by a dotted line. Gear spacing is the interval between two points of maximum
drawbar pull. Hence greater the number of gears, closer is the gear spacing and better is the
working of the tractor. It is always desirable to have large number of equally spaced gear on
a tractor engine.
The maximum specific fuel consumption occurs at speed of 1650 rpm. This condition
corresponds to the maximum efficiency. It is the most economical speed for the engine.
The specific fuel consumption per bhp-hr is a measure of overall efficiency of the
engine. The best speed of the engine is the speed at which the specific fuel consumption per
bhp-hr is minimum. Tractor engine is designed to produce their maximum efficiency at a
certain speed. It is observed that as the speed increases the efficiency increases till the
speed for maximum efficiency is reached. If the speed is further increased, the efficiency
goes down. The horse power of the engine also increases with the speed and continuous to
increase even after the speed for maximum efficiency is passed, but there is more rapid
increase in specific fuel consumption beyond this speed.
In short, it can be said that the speed of the engine crankshaft torque and gear
spacing are required to be so designed that the torque speed requirements of the tractor for
a variety of farm jobs are satisfied.