PHYSICS OF CHERENKOV RADIATIONS

SUBMITTED

BY

Farman Ullah
Muhammad Nadeem
Sayed Azeem Shah
Hamza Gul

SUPERVISED

BY

Mr. Usman khan

Thesis submitted to the Department of Applied physical and Material sciences, University of
Swat for Fulfillment of Requirement for the Degree of MSC in Physics.

APPLIED PHYSICAL AND MATERIAL SCIENCES

UNIVERSITY OF SWAT KPK PAKISTAN
SESSION 2017-2019
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICAL AND MATERIAL SCIENCES

UNIVERSITY OF SWAT

i
 Final Approval
This MSc research report titled

Physics of Cherenkov radiations.

BY

Farman Ullah (UOS15640208)

Muhammad Nadeem (UOS176012004)

Sayed Azeem Shah (UOS176012020)

Hamza Gul (UOS176012003)

Has been approved

For the award of M.Sc. Physics degree from University of Swat

Final Project Evaluation Committee

External Examiner:

Name: Designation:

Institute: Signature:

Internal Examiner:

Name: Designation:

Institute: Signature:

Supervisor:

Name: Designation:

Institute: Signature:

ii
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that we have produced the work presented in this thesis, during the
scheduled period of study. We also declare that we have not taken any material from any source
except referred to wherever due that amount of plagiarism within acceptable range. If a
violation of HEC rules on the research has occurred in this research, we will be liable to
punishable action under the plagiarism rules of the HEC.

Date:

Signature of the students:

Farman Ullah

Muhammad Nadeem

Sayed Azeem Shah

Hamza Gul

iii
iv
 Certificate
It is certified that the work related to this MSc research report has been carried out under my supervision
at the Department of Applied Physical & Material Sciences, University of Swat and the work fulfills
the requirement for award of MSc-Physics degree.

Date:

Supervisor:

Mr. Usman khan

Serf lecturer, Department of Applied

Physical and Material Sciences, University of Swat

Submitted through:

Head of Department:

Dr. Amin-ur-Rashid
In-Charge/Assistant professor, Department of Applied Physical
& Material Sciences, University of Swat.

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 DEDICATION

We dedicate this thesis to our family who always inspire us,

To the faculty members of our department,

And particular to our supervisor Mr. Usman khan who helps us a lot

Throughout our thesis and made our thesis happen,

And most especially to our almighty Allah,

This research is dedicated to you all.

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It would be quite unfair not to mention those people who provided me the opportunity to achieve
my goal through their consistent support and prayers. I would like to express thanks to my
supervisor Mr. Usman Khan, Department of Applied Physical & Material Sciences, University of
Swat, for his continues guidance, encouragement and support during this research work and helped
me all the time when I needed. He is the most sincere and cooperative person who is possessed
with enthusiasm about science, humility, humanity, socialism and a great depth of understanding.
I am also thankful to all the faculty members of the Department of Applied Physical & Material
Sciences, all my friends and my MSc fellows. Thanks, of course, to my loving and caring parents,
family members. They always supported me throughout my life and I have no appropriate words
to express my feelings about their love.

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Contents

1 Introduction 6

1.1 Definition of Cherenkov radiation 6

1.2 Discovery of Cherenkov radiations 6

1.3 Light matter interaction 7

1.3.1 Photoelectric Absorption 7
1.3.2 Campton scattering 8
1.3.3 Pair Production 8
1.4 Interaction of electrons in matter 8
2 Cherenkov radiations in different media 10
2.1 Cherenkov radiation in air 10
2.2 Cherenkov effects 12
2.2.1 Forward Cherenkov Effect 13
2.2.2 Reverse Cherenkov Effect 14
2.2.2.1 Meta-material design for reversed Cherenkov radiation
16
2.2.3 Quantum effect of Cherenkov radiations 18
2.2.4 Causes of the color of Cherenkov radiations 19
2.3 Moderator 19
2.3.1 Cherenkov radiation in water moderated reactor 19
2.4 Cherenkov radiation in medical field 19

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 2.4.1 Tomography 20
2.4.1.1 Cherenkov luminance tomography (CLT) 20
2.4.1.2 Positron emission tomography 20
2.4.2 Cancer therapy monitoring 21
2.4.3 Cherenkov luminance imaging guided surgical resection 22

2.4.4 The external beam radiotherapy and imaging of radiotherapy

22
2.5 Geometry of Cherenkov radiations 23
2.5.1 Radiation angle for water 24
2.5.2 Radiation angle for air 24
2.6 Cherenkov radiations detector 25
2.6.1 Babar detector 25
2.6.2 Working 25
2.6.3 Design and layout of detector 26
2.6.4 Babar detector components 27

3 Conclusion 29

4 References 30

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Introduction Chapter 1

1.1 Definition of Cherenkov radiation

A charge particle moving in a medium with a velocity which is greater than light’s phase
velocity in that medium, the radiation (light) is emitted along the path of moving charge in the
form of concentric cone. This phenomenon was first experimentally detected by PA Cherenkov
[1].

1.2 Discovery of Cherenkov radiations

The discovery that are called ‘Cherenkov radiation’ was founded by Pavel Cherenkov
experimentally, but theoretically by Igor Tamm and II’ JA Frank [2]. Tamm, Frank and
Cherenkov were awarded with Nobel Prize for this discovery in 1958. Cherenkov was started
this experiment in Leningrad under the direction of S.I. Vavilov [3]. This was the evident from
Pierre and Marie Curie, in beginning of 20th century when they were discovered the ‘bluish
glow’ in dark from glass vessel having radium salts [4].

The first attempt of studying this phenomenon was done by Mallet [5]. He observed that light
emitted from various transparent objects by placing it to radioactive source always gives the
same bluish-white quality and gives continuous spectrum. He firstly described that this bluish-
white radiations were very different from fluorescence and other familiar states of luminescence.
But unfortunately mallet did not make explanation for origin of light. So this subject remained
close till 1934. Then Cherenkov did a series of experiments. These experiments lead him for a
magnificent result [6]. The other contribution was of Ginsburg who introduce a quantum theory
of this phenomenon which was forwarded by Cherenkov and established ‘Cherenkov radiations’
[7].

Kaiser was pointed in [8] that Heaviside [9] had predicted that the electromagnetic wave was
associated with motion of point charge greater in speed from that of light. Jelley [10] has
suggested that Heaviside-Mallet radiation can be justified. Summerfield made a suggestion like
Heaviside but seem to be unaware of Heaviside’s insight [11].

6
This was augured, that quantum effect can be seen by considering shaping or recoil electron
wave function [12]. As long as time passed the CR detection regularly open the door to new
inventions like a heavy ion jet [13-18], hybridization of CR by moving dipole and Doppler effect
[28-30], nonlinear phase matched system (NPMS), [19-25], moving vortices in Josephson
junctions [26,27].

The explanation of threshold velocity for Cherenkov radiation are uncovered in landau damping
of confine plasma and super fluidity theory [31-32]. The new physics of Cherenkov Effect,
which is backward Cherenkov radiation [33], was unveiled with free electron spreading in
complex Nano-photonic system, photonic system [34], meta-materials [35-37], Plasmonic-
systems [38], and Graphene [39]. These infinite works in describing of the theory of Cherenkov
increase the demand of these radiation, from characterization of high energy particles [40] to
imaging system in biomedical [41].

1.3 Light matter interaction

Photon and matter interact with each other through several mechanisms for specific energies.
There are three possible ways for this interaction Photo-electric absorption, Compton scattering,
Pair production. When photon interacts with matter it imparts change in momentum and
direction [42].

1.3.1 Photoelectric Absorption

When an atom absorbs the photon completely the incident photon energy is given to the
orbital electron so the photon undergoes photoelectric absorption. The electron having
greater energy (referred to as the photoelectron) is bound to the atom prior to photoelectric
absorption. To make an electron free from its orbital is required energy which is the
binding energy “Eb” a photon having energy 'Hν’ which is greater than binding energy
gives kinetic energy T to the photoelectron.

T = Hν – Eb

The absorber atom remains ionized and reactive due to the not presented of photoelectron in the
orbital structure. The electron which is most tightly bound will be easy to release. The remaining
orbital electrons rearrange themselves to fill the vacancy created by photoelectron however there

7
still a vacancy in another shell unless a free electron is trapped. Some characteristics “X-rays” are
released due to the arrangement of bound electrons. The emission of “X-rays” transfer energy from
interaction site [43].

1.3.2 Compton Scattering

When a photon interacts through Compton scattering is recoil by orbital electron in the absorbing
object. The angle through which photon scattered is termed as scattering angle and define as the
angle between momentum of scattered photon and incident photon. Some energy of the photon is
transferred to electron is dependent on scattering angle. The electron which strikes by photon is
assumed to be in rest before interaction and deflected after absorbing energy from photon. During
this collision the energy and momentum remain constant during the deflection of electron at such
angle. The Compton scattering per atom cross section rises uniformly with the amount of electrons
per atom present therefore it is increased linearly with increasing atomic number. The damage
caused by deflected electron interactions takes place near to the path followed by electron.
According to experiment a 6 M e v energetic photon interacting through Compton scatter
interaction can cause an energetic deflection electron with almost 3 cm maximum range in water.

1.3.3 Pair Production

This type of interaction occurs when an atom absorbs a photon having energy higher than 1.022
Mev. A pair is produced by the excited atom of electron-positron the remaining energy is not used
to produce pair production but used as a kinetic energy. In the absorber medium positron will
annihilate with electron during the collision. The collision will produce two photons with energy
5.11 Mev which is called annihilation photons.

1.4 Interactions of Electrons in Matter

Three types of electron interaction occur in matter, soft collision, hard collision and
bremsstrahlung process [44]. By coulomb interaction electrons give energy in matter. Between
high energy electron and orbital electron interaction in matter produces orbital electron excitation
(soft type collision) has the potential for ionization (hard type collision) provided the energy
transfer is sufficient. When highly energetic electrons interact with atomic nucleus causes
deceleration of the electron and energy released as a bremsstrahlung photon. A parameter B,

8
defined as the probable perpendicular distance between an incident electron and nucleus [45],
tells us what type of interaction takes place for an incident electron with an atom nucleus in
matter. Consider the radius of an atom be A.
1. When “b” is much greater than “a” soft collision occurs. A small amount of energy is
transferred due to the large gap b/w two interacting electrons.
2. When “B” is approximately equal to “a” hard collision occurs. An enough amount of energy is
transferred due to the little gap b/w two interacting electrons as a result the emission of orbital
electron occurs.
3. When “b” is much less then “a” bremsstrahlung phenomena is observed. The acceleration of
electron decreases when “b” decreases. This will emit a photon from the interaction site.
These types of collisions resulting excitation or ionization contributing in energy absorption.
When an energetic electrons passes through matter it will interact with a large number of atoms
which is referred to as multiple scattering theory [46]. The energy deposition in matter from
photon beams is primarily arising from the electrons which take part in collision and secondary
electron interactions with matter [47].

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Cherenkov radiations in different medium Chapter 2
________________________________________________________________
2.1 Cherenkov radiation in air

The Blackett 1948 was the first to point out that the Cerenkov affect should be observable in
gases, 5 years later the radiation from a single particle passing through gasses was detected [48].
The refractive index appear different from those in solids and liquids. The first experiment for
the detection of radiation from gaseous substances were made by Ascoli Balzanelli and Ascoli
1953 [49]. He took high energetic rays (cosmic rays) to pass through tri-chloromethane (CHCl3)
vapors. It obtained by dispelling 0.4 to 0.8 ml of liquid CHCl3 per liter of air [50]. By doing so
they obtained a refractive index in the region 1.01 to 1.02. Photomultiplier (the instrument which
is used to amplify and detect light from a source) used to detect the light pulses in the vapors
[51]. It run along with Geiger counter telescope for particles’ selection.

They observed coincidence first without and then with a shutter placed actually Cerenkov
radiations [52]. The Ascoli Balzanelli and Ascoli 1954, Barclay and Jelley (1955) [53]. Same
workers used an apparatus for the detection of Cerenkov radiations in pure air.

M → Mirror.

FM →Photo-multiplier.

Photo-tube →80cm.

Figure: Apparatus used for detection of Cherenkov radiations in air.

This was the first apparatus which is used for the successful experiment to detect Cerenkov
radiations from single particles in air [54]. It consists of 80 cm long tube T (silvered on inside)
was reflected by mirror P (concave mirror) to the cathode of the photo multiplier. In this manner

10
the photo tube is displaced to the side of particle beam the apparatus is rotatable about mid- point
C and the shutter S inserted when it require[55]. The following results are obtained by using the
apparatus.

(*)Apparatus the right way up, without S 1.56 ± 0.20 C/h r

(*) Apparatus the right way up, with S 0.57 ± 0.20 C/h r
(*) Apparatus upside down, without S 0.765 ± 0.15 C/h r

When the difference between a, and b, I-e a-b = 0.99 ± 0.28/h r, Then the selected
particle produce light while the difference between and c, I-e a-c = 0.80 ± 0.25/h r then it was
suggested that this light in fact due to Cerenkov radiations. The extension form of their work has
been published in [56]

Apparatus used for detection of Cherenkov radiations in air.

General type of experiment was carried out by [57], they used an apparatus shown in figure.

They took many readings using the apparatus in different manner. The length of track was 6 m
and the particles were confined by counter telescope AB, almost all the Cerenkov rays would be
deflected by the concave mirror M then the light was focused on the cathode of the
photomultiplier which was screened by the counter G to distinguish the result from those initial

11
particles in the phototube [58]. The micro mesons were selected throughout, by inserting a 20 cm
lead (P b) filter above counter tray B. these method permit only single particles were counted at
the same time which give some protection against electron showers and eject on electron[59].

The results of this experiment are showed in figure below.

Pulse height distribution per no of events.

2.2 Cherenkov effects:

When a particle having charge traveling in a medium with a greater velocity ‘v’ than the phase
velocity of light in that medium [60]. A different type of coherent radiations is emitted, is known
as Cherenkov effects. Firstly this effect was observed by Vavilov and Cherenkov in liquid
medium and later developed by Frank and Tamm [61] [62] [63].

Further this effect is extended to other materials. Some material emitted radiations in
the direction of moving charged particles which is called forward Cherenkov effects [64]. While
some materials emitted the radiation opposite to the direction of moving charged particles is
called reverse Cherenkov effects [65, 66, 67, 68, 69].

12
2.2.1 Forward Cherenkov effects

As particles having charge moving in a medium faster than light that emit Cherenkov radiation
[70, 71]. Conventionally the positive index of refraction travel forward, while the negative
indices of refraction emit the radiation backward direction, here in the mention topic we are
going to explain about the reverse Cherenkov radiation and by discussing various types of
devices such as PIC (a device called pierce invisibility cloak, which use to make an object
invisible) [72].

A charge particle traveling in a dielectric material at a velocity greater than the phase velocity of
light in that dielectric medium then it emits radiation (electromagnetic radiation) in the form of
photons as a Cherenkov cone, the best example is the blue glow seen in the water of nuclear
reactor [73]. Cherenkov waves emitted only when a particles are travelling faster than the
velocity of light in a medium and it only emitted from particles having high energies. Here we
are interesting in Reverse Cherenkov radiation or flip photon backward. The material, an
artificial composite material that has properties that are no found in natural materials, especially
a negative refractive index.

Meta-materials offer reverse Cherenkov radiation in which the photons and charge particles
naturally separated in opposite direction [74]. To understand why these materials flip the
direction of Cherenkov radiation, for this we must know the background of radiation. Basically it
is a shockwave such that the supersonic boom of a jet plan. The Cherenkov radiation in right
handed materials poses three key characteristics.

(1) This effect is show only when the velocity of the charge particle is greater than the
velocity of light in medium [75].
(2) From the cone the constant phase of the radiation which propagates in forward direction
[76].
(3) The polarization of E field vector lies in the plane determined by the charge and the
direction vector of the emitted radiation.

For forward Cherenkov radiation, we have a figure.

13
In figure the E2 (electric field) of the radiated wave from a charge particle with velocity V>c/n
along the two direction where N is the refractive index (real part) of the medium and C is the
speed of light. The momentum of particles generate forward Cherenkov cone. At a time T the
particle reach at position O to drives the medium to radiate a wave outward. After the passage of
short time ∆𝑡 the particle travel a distance V∆𝑇. During this time the radiated wave which is
denoted by dashed line in the figure travel a distance of C∆𝑡/𝑛.

A shocked wave is formed alongside the particle with the group of waves they are at
an angle 90 to the energy flux, that are represented by pointing vectors. (That represents the
directional energy flux of an electromagnetic field). 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 The angle between the direction of flow
of energy and the velocity of the particle, and can be determined by

𝜃 = cos − 1[𝑐/(𝑛𝑣)].

So the wave (shockwave) form forward Cherenkov radiation cone with 2𝜃 angle.

The Figure represents the photonic shockwave in a conventional medium, red arrow represent
the wave vector while blue arrow represent energy flow or radiation. In forward direction the
radiation travel parallel to the wave vector.

2.2.2 Reverse Cherenkov effects

For reversed Cherenkov radiation the figure is given. The figure shows reverse Cherenkov
radiation in left handed material with negative of the refractive index. The particle moves along

14
the Z direction, the emitted waves have the energy flowing outward direction (blue arrow in fig)
with angle 𝜃 such that

𝑐
𝜃 = cos − 1 [ ]
𝑛𝑣

For, ( n< -1) then the angle is obtuse mean pointing backward. The red arrow represent the
wave vector which is opposite to the direction of flow of energy. Here the energy is carried by
the groups and not by the phase velocity.

Left handed materials are dispersive, in the above figure the particle moves a
∆𝑇
distance of V∆𝑇 and the phase front travels a distance of c 𝑛 and the energy travel the distance
∆𝑇
of, c .
𝑛𝑔

Where n g is the group velocity. In reverse Cherenkov radiation the group of waves is
not perpendicular (at 90 angle) to the group velocity. The cone angle of the group wave ∅ is

180° – tan–1{[(n/n g) sin Ɵ c o s Ɵ]/[1 – (n/ng)cos2Ɵ]}.

So in this situation the group propagation is perpendicular to the pointing vector and the shock
wave is always in the back side of the moving particle.

The figure represents the photonic shockwave in an artificial left handed materials, in left
handed materials the radiation travels opposite to the wave vector.

15
2.2.2.1 Meta-material design for reversed Cherenkov radiation:

For reverse Cherenkov radiation first we review the meta-material. The material which possess
the property that are not usually found in naturally occurring materials, they are form from
different elements to be assembled [77].

The word meta-material is combination of two words. Meta is Greek word and its meaning is
beyond while materia a Latin word which means matter or material. These are modern artificial
material with some unique electromagnetic properties such as negative electric permittivity,
negative magnetic permeability and negative refractive index [78, 79].

These materials are used to make wireless communication devices and defense industries. In
optics every lens is limited by the wavelength of light it is used to focus the features. From meta-
materials it is possible to make a super lens which can focus the features that are smaller
wavelength than light itself. The possibility opens up doors to the magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) to image small cancer cells [80]. The study of meta-materials open a new door to the
invisible cloak. [81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86,87].

In meta-materials the electric permittivity (response to the electric field), and the magnetic
permeability (response to the magnetic field), both the parameters are negative [88], and its
refractive index is equal to

n = -√εµ

Where ∈ is electric permittivity and ∪ is magnetic permeability. When the

electromagnetic wave illuminated on metamaterials the light bends in opposite direction due to
these negative parameters.

Without meta-material the detection of reverse Cherenkov radiation is difficult so for the
detection of such radiation a left handed meta-material has recently been fabricated [89] [90].

16
In above figure the meta-material is synthesized of many substrate layer repeated after one
another along the P direction, and every layer consist of metallic wires and split ring resonators.
Each layer of orthogonal copper wire is coated on both sides of the thin dielectric sheet. It
provides isotropic negative permittivity in (PZ) direction where two L shaped metal strips on the
upper side couple with two on the down side to form an equivalent capacitor resonator that
provides negative permeability effect along the ∅ direction.

In second figure the negative refractive index of the fabricated material has been proved by the
PNSM (proton-neutron symplectic model) experiment [105]. The refractive index of the material
is negative (8.1 to 9.5 GHz). In material the size of the unite cell is 3mm which is less than one
tenth of the wavelength at the negative refraction region from 31mm to about 37mm. the recent
fabrication technology it is possible to get much higher frequencies by scaling down the
corresponding meta-materials lengths.

To fabricate the possible meta-material design for reversed Cherenkov radiation the given three
points should be noted.

(*) The real parts of the components µ∅∅ , ∈zz and ∈pp need to be negative

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 (*)As Cherenkov radiation is dull, a meta-material with less loss is very important for
detection

(*)A material for reversed Cherenkov radiation must have some sort of symmetry like
rotational symmetry or others.

2.2.3 Quantum effect of ‘Cherenkov radiations’

After the classical effect of Cherenkov radiation the quantum effect of Cherenkov radiations
ware first discovered by Ginzburg and Frank on the basis of law of conservation of energy and
conservation of momentum during in which the classical electrons and electromagnetic waves
interact in medium[91,92] used to precede an idea which is completely different from the
previous [93,94].They give cite evidence in support of an idea ,the idea was that when an atom or
object arise from inertia and produces some glow i.e. whose speed is much higher than the phase
speed of light ( C ) in that medium and emits photons spontaneously ,for the following revise by
Gingzburg [95,96].

This is the phenomenon which is related to highly glowing light, which was first discovered by
zel'dovich [97].In the sentiment of QM, the spread in the length of electron wave packets
correspond to some defects in the classical behavior of the electron position. The quantum
mechanical behavior are displayed when the length of electron spreading become similar to the
wavelength of the electromagnetic wave, then our quantum mechanical model should be apply
on the optical wave length range. In this quantum model we will be used the Schrodinger's
equation to find the wave form of an electron and also find out the collision of electrons and his
effects and the time taken known as electrons relaxation time. The relaxation time describe the
distinctive nature and the damping phenomenon of electrons wave taken on time. By using the
semi classical formulation we will be obtain the gain power in the operation CFEL.so due to the
absence of collision will be shows that the dispersion function of the power gain which is
equivalent to the same as compared to classical theory.

In 2nd part, we use the Schrodinger equation for the wave function which is monochromatic in
nature will be propagate in the direction of electrons beam. In the 3rd part, the classical and
quantum differences are given [98].

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2.2.4 Causes of the color of “Cherenkov radiations”

Cherenkov radiation consist of continuous spectrum from ultraviolet to visible. The Cherenkov
radiation gives us blue color in water. When the particles passes through the water is excites the
electrons, after de- excitation it emits light which is in blue color. Another reason for this blue
color is that, the Cherenkov radiation emit radiation with high frequency. And high frequency
have small wavelength, in the result it gives us blue light on the spectrum [99].

2.3 Moderator :
A material used in the nuclear reactor to slow down the neutrons obtained from nuclear fission
refers as moderator. This slow neutrons causing fission chain reaction [100]. The moderator are
made up of materials which have very light nuclei which have no ability to absorb neutrons
however it slow down them due to collision [101]. The graphite (allotropic form of carbon) is
used mostly as moderator. And in some cases the deuterium oxide (heavy water) is also used as
moderating material [102].

2.3.1 Cherenkov radiations in water moderated reactor

A water-moderated reactor running at a power offers a unique opportunity for seeing Cerenkov
radiation [103]. The intensity is such that it is easy to obtain a direct photograph of the glow in
the water surrounding the core of the reactor, These unique circumstances are presented by the
combination of an exceptionally high local intensity of nuclear radiations, the good transparency
of the great depth of water and, above all, the ample screening of the nuclear radiations provided
by the water [104]. The radiation one observes arises mainly from the secondary electrons
(mostly Compton-scattered electrons) produced by the absorption of y-rays emitted from the
core. U238 is used in this reactor. A possible use of a Cerenkov detector is as a monitor of the
power variation during an abrupt increase [105].

2.4 Cherenkov radiations in medical field:

There are many uses of “Cherenkov radiations” in medical field a few are discussed below:

19
2.4.1 Tomography:

The technique used to expose the internal parts of human body or other solid objects with the
help of radiation, like Cherenkov radiations, or x-rays etc. [106]. There are many types of
tomography which are discussed below.

2.4.1.1 Cherenkov luminance tomography; (CLT)

It is an imaging method of internal parts of the living bodies in three dimensional (3D) and two
dimensional (2D) [107]. The optical tomography in 3-dimensions provides better information of
disease [108]. Detailed study shows that the Cherenkov radiations plays very important role in 3-
D tomography, which is referred as Cherenkov luminance tomography [109]. Firstly suggested
that ‘in vivo’ (with in a living cell) the Cherenkov luminance tomography can use to probe the
radioactive tracer by irradiating Cherenkov radiation [110].

By using diffusion equation and an inverse algorithm the ‘‘Cherenkov luminance tomography’’
was reformed, which use for ‘’bio luminance optical tomography’’ [111]. The study of an
animal using radioactive tracer that was placed between mirrors within a sensitive optical
imaging system [112]. The camera used for capturing images and obtained images 695-770nm
narrow band from 2 surfaces and also from top of animal. After that the images were obtained by
positron emission tomography and then both are compared [113]. Both the images were almost
similar [114]. But the resolution of ‘’positron emission tomography’’ was much better than that
of ‘’Cherenkov luminance tomography’’. The lower resolution of CLT is due to photon
dispersion from mirrors, the number of measurement, and the spectral information affect the
quality of image in the CLT [115].

2.4.1.2 Positron emission tomography. (PET)

The imaging test that is used to show the function of organs and tissues within in living bodies.
This phenomenon was introduced for imaging of preclinical radioactive ‘’positron emission
tomography’’ (PET) tracers using sensitive optical imaging systems [116].Cerenkov emission
intensity increases when high energies are used, so for high energetic radiations a linear
accelerator is used, to quantify the induced Cerenkov emission in biological media [117]. In

20
radiation therapy the electrons and x-rays produce Cherenkov photons, but still this phenomena
is not discussed quantitatively [118].

The general names for diagnostic medical imaging technology using nuclear medicines, like
‘’Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography’’ and ‘’Positron Emission Tomography’’, in
which these medicines are injected to the human body, and by using radiations obtained from
radioactive medicines the different internal parts of that body are investigated [119]. The
‘’Positron emission tomography’’ is based on the number of pairs of annihilating gamma rays,
therefore the pet have high sensitivity and high ratio of signal to noise [120]. PET is used to
image the human heart, brain & metabolism of glucose, which cannot be obtained by using MRI
and x-rays computer tomography. So that is why the ‘’positron emission tomography is
continuously demanded and much needed tool for diagnosing [121].

2.4.2 Cancer therapy monitoring;

The (PET) and (SPET) are used to monitor cancer therapy, radionuclides are used in this imaging
system [122]. A proof for the conceptual study for monitoring therapy of cancer’s drugs with
CLI was introduced by Xu et al [123]. The two common radio tracer fluro-18-deoxy-glouse and
fluoro-3-deoxythymidine were used by them [124].

Sample of house hold mice was taken, which were infected with tumors. They treat a lung cancer
cell line H 460 and a walnut size glands located near the bladder (prostrate) cancer cell line PC3
with bevacizumab (its trade name Avastin, is a medication used to treat a number of types of
cancer) [125]. Bevacizumab was taken as therapeutic agent for treating mice which bears H460
xenografts, (the process of an organ, tissue or cells to an individual of another species). This
operation is performed in which CLI and PET was used with 18F-FLT (A radioactive substance
which is used to inject in blood and heal the cells which are dividing or cancerous), for
monitoring the effect of therapy [126]. During ‘’positron emission tomography’’ scan a clear
image of tumor is obtained with the help of radiation [127].

For the monitoring of cancer therapy a best correlation were found between CLI and PET [128].
The CLI and PET was used by Robertson et al to compare their potential [129]. Both the PET

21
and CLI’s data were correlated, which showed dynamic sensitivity [130]. So they concluded that
for tumor monitoring therapy in living bodies CLI can also be used [131]. After which those labs
were benefited that have no PET and SPET technology start tumor monitoring therapy with the
help of CLI [132].

2.4.3 Cherenkov luminance imaging guided surgical resection

One of the unique imaging properties of the ‘’Cherenkov luminance imaging’’ is that it have the
ability to guide the surgical resection. It is used to reveal and localize small tumor in a living
body [133]. To guide the surgical resection firstly by CLI were used by Holland et al [134].
After injecting 89Zr-DFO-trastuzumab injections many CLIs were noted in different manners
[135].

As the intensity of optical signals was increased the resolution of the images would also increase
significantly [136]. They had taken a mouse as a sample for surgery, so when the surgery
completed they saw that there was complete loss of optical signal from tumor locations [137].
Therefore that experiment increase the importance of Cherenkov luminance imaging in surgical
resection guidance [138].

Then lymph nodes of animals were taken by Theorek and his coworkers and injected 18F-FDG
to that sample. They also used CLI for guidance of surgical resection of lymph nodes [139]. The
collection and transport of 18F-FDG was useful to provide enough ‘’Cherenkov radiation’’ for
guiding surgical intercession of lymph nodes [140] [141]. 18F-FDG-injection was used to drain
lymph nodes and their respective lymph channels [142]. So inner part of lymph channel and
lymph nodes were revealed for surgical resection [143].

2.4.4 The external beam radiotherapy and imaging of radioisotopes

Now a days the Cherenkov radiations is used to provide the image of defected biomolecules in
the living bodies [144] [145] [146]. After discovery of Cherenkov light the new ideas developed
to use the Cherenkov light signals to diagnose and measure the defects inside the living bodies,
by internal sources (such as injected radio pharmaceutical). For the investigation of image in
living bodies the radio isotopes such F18, N13, and P32 etc. are used [147] [148]. The radiations
used in external therapy having energy of 6 mega electron volt to 18 mega electron volts. After
this the detected signals are displayed by imaging screen [149].

22
Figure

The image in the above figure shows the image of inner walls of chest of the patient by using
‘’Cherenkov radiation’’. The energy of the incident light in this case as 6 mega electron volts
given by a linear accelerator used in radio therapy.

2.5 Geometry of Cherenkov radiation:

To study the geometry of relativistic particles is a very complex problem. But by the help of
classical physics we can predict the geometry of emitted radiation [150]. In the figure we shown
below, shows the wave fronts produced by the particle. These wave fronts propagates slower
than the particle. The radiation will emit in a cone shape behind the particle. The radiation moves
with an angle 𝜃 perpendicular to the cone outwards. The angle is fixed by the cone geometry and
can be found by the distance covered by the wave fronts and particle. From the triangle shown in
the figure.

𝐿𝑀
cos 𝜃 =
𝐿𝑁
𝑐
. ∆𝑡⁄
cos 𝜃 = 𝑛
𝑣. ∆𝑡

23
 1
cos 𝜃 =
𝛽𝑛

𝜃 = cos −1 1/𝛽𝑛

𝛽 Is relativistic parameter and defined as

𝑣
𝛽=
𝑐

For Cherenkov radiation the condition for particle speed is

𝑐
<V<C
𝑛

The radiation propagation and direction is increase when the particle refractive index n and speed
is increased.

2.5.1 Radiation angle for water:

For water 𝛽 is approximately 1 and n= 1.33 [151].

So the angle will be

1
𝜃 = cos−1
1.33

𝜃 = 410

2.5.2 Radiation angle for air

For air the n= 1.0003 so the angle will be

1
𝜃 = cos −1 1.0003

𝜃 = 10

24
In air the Cherenkov radiation is travel parallel to the charge particle [152].

The particle is moving faster than the cone wave fronts. Radiations are confined
behind the charge particle is a cone shape.

2.6 Cherenkov radiation detector A

device that uses the threshold speed for light production, the output of light which depends on
speed or direction of Cherenkov radiations, is known as Cherenkov radiation detector.
[153][154][155]
There are many types of Cherenkov radiations detector, we discussed Babar detector:
2.6.1 BaBar
The Babar or Baber experiment was a combination of physicist who studied the subatomic
particles having energies of about 10 times the rest mass of a proton [156].

2.6.2 Working
The Babar detector works on charge conjugation parity (CP) at the SLAC (Stanford Linear
Accelerator Center) [157].

25
2.6.3 Design and layout of detector
A large group of scientists build up the Babar detector. The final design and explanation were
written in the technical report, but later on the performance and designing of the detector are
explained in next publication [158] [159].

Figure: Schematic diagram of Babar detector.

The above figure shows us the principal dimensions on the detector center from the longitudinal
part.
The magnetic field of about 1.5 tesla is produced by a superconducting solenoid which surround
the detector. The instrument steel flux is used for the detection of neutral hadron [160].
For the high energetic beam the polar angle is 400 m radian in the backward direction and 350 m
radian in the forward direction [161].
From the figure the right coordinate system is bound up with the drift chamber, the main tracking
system, and coinciding with the z axis and principle axis [162]. The principle axis balances the
direction of electron beam with 20 m radian at plane horizontally [163]. The x axis which is
positive indicates away and the y axis which is also positive located upward from the ring of the
center.
A dipole magnet (B1) along with quadro-pole magnets (Q1) restrict the backward and forward
acceptance of tracking system. These magnets and the vertex detector placed inside a tube (inner

26
diameter = 0.434 m and length of tube = 4.5 m) which was supported from the backward end of
the detector and the line of the beam supported from the end forward [164].

The detector design is complex, and its perpendicular side is restricted to have three point five m
beam elevation. The radius which solenoid of the detector is selected according to the physical
need.

2.6.4 Babar Detector components:

The (DC) drift chamber and (SVT) silicone vertex tracker makes charge particle tracking system
[165]. The information from the pulse height of (SVT) and (DCH) are used for measuring
ionization loss of identification charge particles [166]. The silicone vertex tracker specially
design for measures the angles, positions of a charge particle outside of the light beams [167].
The (SVT) also made up of five layer 0f doubles side silicone strip [168]. Inner most three
layers give the information of angle and position for the vertex measurement. These 3 layers are
mount closely to cooled water beryllium to avoid the scattering of Cherenkov beam for the
precise measurement of vertex [169]. The other 2 layer which are placed at higher radius which
helps in angle measurement by links with silicone vertex tracker (SVT) and Drift chamber (DC)
track.
Drift chamber is used for the measurement of momentum of charged particle this is the main
work of the drift chamber. The DCH is made up of about forty, small layers of small, cells and
the shape of that cell is hexagonal [170]. The received information from longitudinal portion
which are obtained from wire which is place at a very small angle to principle axis. To minimize
the multiple scattering, Al- wires and the helium gas are used inside the (DCH) [171].
For minimizing the quantity of particles in the front of calorimeter (an apparatus for measuring
the amount of heat involved in a process), the read out electronics are firmed on the backward
end plate of the chamber [172].The Detector 0f Internally Reflected Cherenkov light is a unique
device used for the separation of cations (positive ions) and anions (negative ions) up to the
kinematic limit of about 4.5GeV/c (Giga, electron volt per coulomb) [173] [174]. Cherenkov
radiations are formed in the bar of (4.9 meter long) made of synthetic fused silica (SiO2) of
rectangular cross sections (W=1.7cm and L=3.5 cm), and transmitted by total internal reflection
,keeping the emission’s angle, to array in photo multiple tubes (PMT)[175]. That array in the

27
PMT, established the backward walls of the donut-shaped, water filled (SOB) standoff box,
which is placed behind the backward end of the magnets [176]. The Cherenkov image rings are
built from time arrival of the signals and from the cations (positron) of the (PMT) [177].
The EMC (electromagnetic calorimeter) was introduced to detect the accurate energy and
angular resolution over the energy ranging from (20 Mega electron volts, to 4 Giga electron
volts) [178]. The (EMC) is made of by doping thallium in cesium iodide. CsI-(Tl). For obtaining
the desire resolution amount of particles in the front and the crystals must to keep minimum
[179].
The crystals are read out by couple of silicon (PIN) diodes. The individual crystals were read out
by pairs of silicon PIN diodes [180] [181]. The (IFR) instrumented flux return, constructed to
clarify muon and to find out hardons which is neutral. [182]

28
Conclusion Chapter 3
_________________________________________________________________

This review deals with study of the light matter interaction such as photo electric absorption,
Compton scattering and pair production and radiations. Another type of radiation is “A charge
particle moving in a medium with a velocity which is greater than light’s phase velocity in that
medium, the radiation (light) is emitted” know as Cherenkov radiation. Given this name after the
Russian physicist PAVEL CHERENKOV. By using a specific apparatus and experimental setup
the Cherenkov radiation is detected in air from a single particle.

The conventional materials emit the Cherenkov radiation in forward direction while the meta-
materials (Those artificial materials which have negative permittivity, negative permeability and
negative refractive index) emit the Cherenkov radiation in backward direction. The emission
angle of Cherenkov radiation is different in different mediums such as in air the emission angle
is 10 while in water the emission angle is 410.

The Cherenkov radiations are used in different experiments to study the subatomic particles such
as BABAR experiment. Cherenkov radiations are used in water moderator to monitor the power
variation. In tomography the Cherenkov radiations is used for luminance imaging. The imaging
technologies which use Cherenkov radiations produce images of internal body parts of high
resolution than that of which use other type of radiations. In PET it is used for the study of tissue
and organs functioning and also for cancer therapy. Cherenkov radiations are also used to
visualize the image of a tumor for surgical resection and also for external beam therapy.

29
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