ES184 First Year Laboratory

Strain Gauge

Name: Mubin Al-Manaf

University ID: 1621594

School of Engineering
University of Warwick

Laboratory completed: 17/10/2016

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Summary (Abstract)

The aim of this experiment was to investigate the theory behind how a strain
gauge works. Experiments were carried out with all three configurations offered
by the Strain Gauge Trainer (SM1009 from TecQuipment) - tensile, torsion and a
bending test system. The results were then tabulated and graphs were sketched
using the displayed and calculated values. Theoretical values and displayed
values were often compared in order to make a judgment of how a strain gauge
worked.

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Table of Contents

Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………1
Introduction…………………….…………….…………….…………….…………….………………..2
Theory…………….…………….…………….…………….…………….…………….…………….…….3
Apparatus & Method.………….…………….…………….…………….…………….……………..4
Results and Data…………..…………….…………….…………….…………….…………….……..5
Analysis and Discussion of Results…………….…………….…………….…………….…….6
Conclusions…………….…………….…………….…………….…………….…………….……………7
Reference…………….…………….…………….…………….…………….…………….………………8
Appendices…………….…………….…………….…………….…………….…………….……………9

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Introduction

Strain gauges are used in many branches of engineering, as stress and strain are
major aspects to consider when designing a product to ensure the product meets
safety requirements and maximum longevity. Experiments were carried out with
all three configurations offered by the Strain Gauge Trainer (SM1009 from
TecQuipment) - tensile, torsion and a bending test system. Different
combinations of strain gauges and resistors are connected in the form of a
Wheatstone Bridge circuit, with the strain gauges attached to the object of
interest. Due to its design, the strain bridge circuit is able to detect very small
changes in resistance, suitable for this purpose. The calculated strains for each
experiment were tabulated and compared to the displayed strain on the machine,
to compare theoretical and experimental values for the different conditions
offered by the three systems. The three different types of strain gauge
configurations were explored - quarter bridge types, half bridge types and full
bridge type. Another aim of this experiment was to get better at calculating and
manipulating numbers of different orders of magnitude.

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 Theory

The theory used for this experiment can be roughly divided into 2 sections:
Strain gauge and the Wheatstone Bridge circuit. The theory behind the strain
gauge can be demonstrated by the fundamental equation:
L
R= ρ (1)
A
Where R is the resistance, ρ is the resistivity unique to the material, L the length
of the wire and A, the cross-sectional area of the wire. The length of the wire
increases as it is stretched, whilst its cross-sectional area decreases due to a
phenomenon called the Poisson effect. [ CITATION Bil14 \l 1033 ] The wire is
shaped in a zigzag pattern in order to maximize the change in length of wire, as
more wire will be stretched, given a finite area. As the wire stretches in tension, L
increases whilst A decreases, resulting in an increase in resistance. Similarly,
compression will result in a decrease in resistance.

The relationship between the change in resistance and the strain can be defined
by the Gauge Factor, which is expressed by:
ΔR /R
GF= (2)
ϵ
Where ΔR is change in resistance, R is resistance and ϵ is strain.

The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is a circuit comprised of two pairs of resistors in

series, which are then connected in parallel as shown below:
In a strain bridge circuit, strain gauges will take
the place of resistors in some cases in order to
measure strain. Depending on what strain
Vin gauge configuration is in use, the potential
difference between points C and D (Vout) in the

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 diagram will fluctuate depending on the ratios of the resistors. When Vout =0, it

R 1 R3
must mean = =1
R 2 R4

Figure 1

The relationship between Vin and Vout is shown by the equation below:

(3)

A change in any one of the resistors will cause a roughly linear change in output
voltage. [ CITATION Sch16 \l 1033 ]
Apparatus

1) Strain Gauge Trainer SM1009

2) Strain Display
3) Vernier Calipers
4) Set of heavy weights (1kg-5kg)
5) Set of light weights (10g)
6) Meter rule

Figure 2: Strain Gauge Trainer SM1009 (reproduced from SM1009 user manual, ©
TecQuipment)

Method

Bending system
 Connect the respective cables to the bending system

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  Connect the gauges for different types of Wheatstone Bridge circuit setup
(Quarter types, Half types and Full)
 Turn on the strain display and adjust configurations to the required values
 Move the hanger to the required position
 Measure the dimensions of the beam using meter rule and vernier caliper
 Record the bridge connection, position of the hanger and dimensions
 Wait 60 seconds for the equipment to stabilize, reset display readings to
zero
 Add weights in increments of 50g (add 40g for the first as the hanger is
10g), tabulate the strain readings alongside output voltage
 Repeat the experiment for half bridge types (Opposite and adjacent arms)
and full bridge
Torsion system
 Use full bridge connection for torsion system, and connect the pair of
strain gauge measuring the same sign at the opposite side of the bridge
 Measure the dimensions of the beam using meter rule and vernier caliper
 Wait 60 seconds for the equipment to stabilize, reset display readings to
zero
 Suspend the hanger with weight (250g) at the end of the torque arm,
tabulate the strain readings alongside output voltage
 Repeat for 500g and tabulate the result
Tension system
 Connect the cable to the tension system and note a change in value for
gauge factor
 Use Yellow and Red gauges to measure tensile strain only
 Connect the two strain gauges in a half bridge (opposite arm)
configuration, and set the arms dial to 2
 Measure the dimensions of the beam using a meter rule and vernier
caliper
 Wait 60 seconds for the equipment to stabilize, reset display readings to
zero
 Place the hanger and add weights, starting with the larger holder of 0.5kg,
then add a 0.5kg weight, followed by increments of 1kg weights till 10kg is
reached. Tabulate the strain reading alongside the voltage output
 Carefully remove the weight when done with the experiment
[ CITATION Sch16 \l 1033 ]

Results and Data

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Refer to the appendix

Analysis and Discussion of Results

After obtaining the results from the different systems, theoretical strain was
calculated manually using the voltage output, gauge factor, voltage input and
number of active arms using this equation:

(4)

Uncertainty can be calculated using basic error analysis as the

percentage difference can be calculated between the displayed strain and
calculated strain. The source of error can then be detected and rectified, in order
to have a more successful attempt at the experiment in the future. From the
process of deduction, the cause of the uncertainty in this experiment is highly
likely due to the accuracy of the equipment itself, as the dimensions used in the
calculations were taken from the briefing sheet. The calculated values for
theoretical strain are very similar to the displayed strain. The magnitude of the
measured strain miniscule, in the order of 10-6, therefore it is highly unlikely for
the displayed strain to be the same as the calculated strain.

To compare the different types of Wheatstone bridge configurations using the

bending system, a graph of output voltage against load has been plotted (Graph
1). The graph shows a linear relationship between output voltage and load for all
four of the bridge configurations, which was expected. The graphs confirm that
the half bridge is twice as sensitive as the quarter bridge, in the same way that
full bridge is twice as sensitive as the half bridge by comparing output voltages.
For the full bridge setup, two types of calculated strain were compared. The two
equations involved were:

Bending moment at test point (5)

(6)
Stress at test point

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As the Young’s Modulus of the beam material of the bending system has been
given in the briefing sheet, theoretical strain can be calculated using a
combination of equations (5) and (6), then ultimately using the Young’s Modulus
equation to find stress. Refer to ‘Graph 2’ to see the relationship between stress
and strain. The calculated strain (refer to Table 4) is slightly larger than the
displayed strain, and this may be due to any systematic error or human error
when using the vernier calipers (+5mm/-5mm) to calculate the dimensions.
These errors will be exaggerated when used in the equation that calculates the
Moment of Area as it involves powers.

(7)

(8)
(9)

(10)

The value of direct strain for the torsion system is calculated using the equations
stated above. The first step is to calculate the polar moment of inertia using (7)
along with torque at the test point. Using these values, we can then input them
into (8) find the value for shear stress. The values for shear stress and modulus
of rigidity are then used to calculate the direct strain. As shown in table 7, the
calculated strain values and the displayed strain values are very similar, which
gives us a good lead to how the strain gauge display works.

As the beam is stretched, the beam experiences tensile longitudinal strain and
compressive transverse strain. The ratio between these two strains is called the
Poisson’s ratio. The ratio is theoretically meant to be 0.3, however the values
calculated using the equations stated earlier averaged to be around 0.35. This
may be due to systematic errors or human error when using the apparatus, and
possibly even random error, as the experiment was not repeated.

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Conclusions

In conclusion, the theory behind the strain gauge is evidently true as shown by
the results of the experiment. The Wheatstone bridge circuit is the most efficient
way of finding strain as it is able to detect very small changes in resistance, which
is crucial in a strain gauge. As the experiment was not repeated, it is not possible
to detect any anomalies, which would have a negative impact on the result. The
theory behind the new concepts involved in the experiment were interesting to
learn, for example the Wheatstone bridge circuit and it was satisfying to see a
useful application of theory learnt at A-level.

Bibliography

1)Dunmon, B. (2014). Strain Gauges. Retrieved January 2017, from Continuum

Mechanics: http://www.continuummechanics.org/straingauges.html
2)School of Engineering, University of Warwick. (2016). ES184 Mechanics,
Structure and Thermodynamics Strain Gauge Laboratory. Retrieved January 2017

Appendices

Bending System
Quarter bridge connection Active arms: 1
Load position: 420mm Gauge factor: 2.16
Beam dimension: 20mmx5mm Gauge position: 15mm
Load (g) Strain reading(µε) Output(µV) Calculated Strain(µε)
0 0 0 0
50 10 29 10.74
100 18 73 27.04
150 23 109 40.37
200 53 144 53.33
250 67 183 67.78
300 79 216 80
350 95 258 95.56
400 110 299 110.74
450 123 334 123.7
500 138 375 138.89
Half(Opposite) Bridge Connection Active
Figurearms:
1 2
Load position: 420mm Gauge factor: 2.16
Beam dimension: 20mmx5mm Gauge position: 15mm

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Load (g) Strain reading(µε) Output(µV) Calculated Strain(µε)
0 0 0 0
50 13 75 13.89
100 27 151 27.96
150 41 225 41.67
200 55 299 55.37
250 68 373 69.07
300 85 453 83.89
350 96 520 96.3
400 111 603 111.67
450 124 672 124.44
500 137 742 137.41
Half(Adjacent) Bridge Connection Table
Active 2 2
arms:
Load position: 420mm Gauge factor: 2.16
Beam dimension: 20mmx5mm Gauge position: 15mm
Load (g) Strain reading(µε) Output(µV) Calculated Strain(µε)
0 0 0 0
50 13 74 13.7
100 27 149 27.59
150 41 224 41.48
200 54 296 54.81
250 69 375 69.44
300 81 441 81.67
350 97 527 97.59
400 110 596 110.37
450 122 663 122.78
500 135 734 135.93
Full Bridge Connection Table 3arms: 4
Active
Load position: 420mm Gauge factor: 2.16
Beam dimension: 20mmx5mm Gauge position: 15mm
Load (g) Strain reading(µε) Output(µV) Calculated Strain(µε)
0 0 0 0
50 13 147 13.61
100 27 294 27.22
150 41 450 41.67
200 54 590 54.63
250 67 740 68.52
300 81 883 81.76
350 95 1031 95.46
400 108 1180 109.26
450 124 1342 124.26
500 136 1490 137.96
Table 4

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 Graph 1

Output Voltage vs Load

Table 5
Table 6

Shear Strains

Full Bridge Setup (Bending)

Load(g Bending moment (Nm) Stress (Nm2) Strain(ε x10-5)
)
0 0 0 0
50 0.1986 2383015.95 1.15
100 0.3972 4766031.9 2.3
150 0.5958 7149047.85 3.45
200 0.7943 9532063.8 4.6
250 0.9929 11915079.75 5.76
300 1.1915 14298095.7 6.91
350 1.3901 16681111.65 8.06
400 1.5887 19064127.6 9.21
450 1.7873 21447143.55 1.04
500 1.9858 23830159.5 1.15

Load(g
) Strain reading(µε) Stress (MNm2)
0 0 0
50 13 2.38
100 27 4.77
150 41 7.15
200 54 9.53
250 67 11.92
300 81 14.3
350 95 16.68
400 108 19.06 12
450 124 21.45
500 136 23.83
Full Bridge Active arms: 4
Connection
Torque arm Gauge factor: 2.05
length: 150mm
Shaft diameter: 10mm
Load( Force( Torque(N Strain Output(µ Calc. Shear Calc.
g) N) m) Reading(µ V) Stress(MN Direct
ε) m-2) Strain(µ
ε)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
250 2.452 0.368 12 126 1.874 11.77
500 4.903 0.735 24 Table 7 254 3.743 23.51

Graph 2

Stress vs Theoretical Strain

30

25

20

15

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

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