General remarks 145

Hardenability is the ability of the steel to harden by the formation of

martensite on quenching. The hardenability determines the depth of
hardening obtained on quenching, which is usually specified as the distance
below the surface where the amount of martensite has been reduced to
50%, or more precisely to 50% martensite and bainite. The characteristic
property of a steel possessing high hardenability is that it shows a large
depth of hardening or that it hardens through entirely in heavy sections.
Without electron microscopy it may be difficult to distinguish martensite
from lower bainite.
Since the depth of hardening is of great importance to tools and
constructional parts it is customary to indiciate this property by means of
diagrams of the type shown in Figure 4.2. When the depth of hardening is
measured in this way the cooling medium must also be stated. In this
instance the plain carbon steel, W 1, was quenched in water and the other
steels in oil. The heavier the section to be hardened the smaller is the depth
of hardening and the lower is the core hardness, which is illustrated in
Figure 4.3. The reason why a steel is harder at the surface than at the
centre is explained by referring to a continuous-cooling-transformation
(CCT) diagram. By studying the schematic CCT diagram in Figure 4.4 it
is obvious that since the surface cools at a considerably faster rate than the
centre, the cooling curve representing the surface will pass in front of the
ferrite and bainite noses and as a result only martensite is formed. At the
centre which cools more slowly some bainite will be formed, as may be
inferred from thefigure,and this will result in a lower hardness in the core.
Hardness
HRC
70

h_ AISI D2

60

50 H
AISI 01

40

AISI W1
30

20 1 1 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 mm
0 1/2 1 1 1 / 2 2 in
Depth below surface
Figure 4.2 Depth of hardening for various grades of steel. Bars 100 mm
diameter. Steel Wl water quenched, the rest oil quenched
146 Hardenability

Hardness
HRC

k
65 *25

60 ; > V
\ £50
\ ^
55

50

45
V 5s*. am
40

35

30 —♦— —*—
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 mm
0 1/2 1 11/2 2 in
Depth below surface
Figure 4.3 Depth of hardening in different dimensions after oil
quenching (A IS 101). Test-piece 25 mm diameter hardened from
800°C in oil. Test-piece 50 mm diameter hardened from 820°C in oil.
Test-piece 100 mm diameter hardened from 840 °C in oil

Temperature

1832 1000

1472

1112

752

392

Time
Figure 4.4 Schemtic illustration of the cooling curves for the surface and
core, respectively, of an oil-quenched bar, 95 mm diameter. The surface is
wholly martensitic; the core contains some upper bainite
 The Grossmann hardenability test 147
As the dimensions of the steel increase, the rate of cooling decreases and
the core hardness will be still further reduced owing to the formation of
ferrite and pearlite. The hardness will also decrease when the cooling curve
is so displaced as to be to the right of the critical cooling curve.
Fundamental hardenability data are of considerable use to the steel
consumer and heat treater and therefore a number of simple methods have
been developed whereby hardenability can be determined. Some of the
best known methods are described below.

4.2 The Grossmann hardenability test

To determine hardenability according to Grossmann's method1, a number
of cylindrical steel bars of different diameters are hardened in a given
cooling medium. By means of metallographic examination the bar that has
50% martensite at its centre is singled out and the diameter of this bar is
designated as the critical diameter (D0), the unit generally being inches.
The cooling intensités of the different cooling media have been
determined and are called the //-factors. The values of H are given in
Table 4.1. Using the approdate value of the //-coefficient of the cooling
medium under consideration, the Do-value can be converted to the ideal
diameter Di which is defined as the bar diameter which, when the surface is
cooled at an infinitely rapid rate (// = <»), will yield a structure, at the
centre, containing 50% martensite. The diagrams correlating D 0 and ϋλ
are shown in Figure 4.5.

Table 4.1

Coefficient of severity of quench H

Agitation Cooling medium
Oil Water Brine

None 0-25-0-30 0-9-1-0 2-0

Mild 0-30-0-35 l-O-l-l 2-0-2-2
Moderate 0-35-0-40 1-2-1-3
Good 0-4 -0-5 1-4-1-5
Strong 0-5 -0-8 1-6-2-0
Violent 0-8 -1-1 4-0 50

The value of Dx obtained is hence a measure of the hardenability of the

steel and is independent of the cooling medium. In practice the Devalues
are used to determine the values of D() for bars quenched in various cooling
media, using the diagrams in Figure 4.5.

Example
By subjecting a steel whose Drvalue is 2-0 in to an oil quench, the
//-coefficient of which is 0-4, it would yield a D(rvalue of 0-8 in. Familiarity
with concept of hardenability enables a good indication of the
hardenability of a steel to be obtained from its Dj-value since this is a useful
figure for comparison purposes.
148

JJh
D 0 -values, in
H-values

10 12 14
Dj-values, in

D 0 -values, in
H-values
« < » # ■» «3
2.0

VA 7A7/
0.80

ν
φΦ
1.6
vy
0,40

X/ Ά
z\
1.2
y^ < ^ 0.20

0.8
js <?'^ y \
^
^ ^
SM<

É Û
^ 0.10
$ ^
0.4
0,01

0 0,4 0.8 1,2 1.6 2.0 2,4 2t8

Dj-values, In
Figure 4.5 Charts showing the correlation between critical diameter D 0 ,
ideal diameter Dx and //-value. The lower diagram is an enlargement of the
lower, left-hand portion of the upper diagram (after Grossmann, Asimow
and Urban1)
 The Grossmann hardenability test 149
4.2.1 Calculation of Drvalues from the chemical composition
The hardenability may be calculated from the composition of low-alloy and
medium-alloy steels, taking into account only the amount of each element
in solution at the austenitizing temperature. The austenite grain size must
also be taken into consideration. The smaller the grain size the lower is the
hardenability. This is due to the fact that the total surface area of the grain
boundaries increases as the grain size decreases, thereby in turn giving rise
to an increasing number of nuclei which serve as inititating points for
pearlite formation.
The computation starts from the C content and the grain size. By means
of Figure 4.6 a 'base' hardenability characteristic for Dx is obtained. For
the other alloying elements the curves in Figure 4.7 indicate the
multiplying factor that corresponds to each alloy content. The factors given
in this diagram have been selected from a number of test results obtained
by different research workers and approved by the American Iron and
Steel Institute.
Figure 4.6 is applicable to C contents above 0-8%, but only on the
assumption that all carbides are in solution at the austenitizing
temperature. However, this is generally not the case since an unnecessarily
high temperature would then have to be employed. Further, complete
dissolution of the carbides might result in deleterious grain growth effects
and high retained austenite content in the steel. Consequently if
conventional hardening temperatures are used for low-alloy steels lying in
the higher C ranges of the equilibrium diagram, a falling-off in the
hardenability must be expected when the C exceeds 0-8%. This is because
the 'excess carbon' combines with carbide and hardenability-inducing
elements such as Cr and Mo. In spite of this reduction in hardenability,
steels are still alloyed with about 1%C and more, but under these
circumstances the carbides are beneficial in increasing the wear resistance
of the steel.
D} in Dj mm

0,40 1 1 10.0
Grain size
0.38 9,5
ASTM
0,36 9.0
0,34 .8,5
0,32
V
8.0

0,30 5/
7,5
%
0,28
/ / 7.0

0.26 / 6.5

0,2 A // 6,0
/
k V
0,22 5,5

0,20 // f 5,8

0,18 /> /
f/
4.5
n is Figure 4.6 The ideal diameter as a function of
0 0.1 0£ 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9% the carbon content and austenite grain size
Carbon content for plain carbon steels (after Grossmann)
150 Hardenability
Multiplying factor Multiplying factor

0 0,4 0,8 1,2 1,6 2,0 2,4 2.8 3,2 3,6 4,0"/·
Alloy content
Figure 4.7 Multiplying factors for different alloying elements for
hardenability calculations (after AIS I)

Examples of hardenability calculations y

1. Steel SS 2225, A S TM grain size 7, has the following composition:

C Si Mn Cr Mo
0-25 0-3 0-7 1-1 0-2 %
From Figure 4.6 the base value of DA is 0-17 in. On multiplying this value
with the appropriate factors we obtain:
A = 047 x 1-2 x 3-3 x 3 4 x 1-6 = 3-7 in
2. Steel SS 2541 (BS 816M40), ASTM grain size 6, the following
composition:
C Si Mn Cr Ni Mo
0-35 0-3 0-7 1-4 1-4 0-2 %
Di = 0-22 x 1-2 x 3-3 x 4-0 xl-5 xl-6 = 8-4 in
The Dj-values obtained may be converted to D 0 by means of diagrams in
Figure 4.5 as described above. For example, by quenching in oil with
moderate agitation (H = 0-40) the critical diameter of steel SS 2225 is
D0 = 2 in and of steel SS 2541, D 0 = 6-4 in. These values are marked in
the diagram, Figure 4.5.
In order to calculate Dx slide rules are obtainable which have scales
graduated according to the different multiplying factors. Values of Di9
calculated as above, are only approximate but they are useful as a means of
comparing the hardenability of different grades or heats.
The hardenability factors proposed by Grossman have been re-examined
 The Grossmann hardenability test 151
2
by Moser and Legat and a more precise relationship between grain size
and C content has been obtained and this is presented in Figure 4.8. The
revised multiplying factors by Moser and Legat are shown in Figure 4.9.

Base hardenability
D i r mm in

1.03
Grain size

0.88

0.71

0.55

0.39
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0%
Carbon content
Figure 4.8 Relationship between base hardenability, carbon
content and grain size as obtaining in actual practice (after Moser
and Legat2)

Multiplying factor

Alloy content
Figure 4.9 Multiplying factors for calculating the hardenability as
influenced by Mo, Mn, Cr, Si and Ni (after Moser and Legat2)
152 Hardenability

Using the results obtained by Moser and Legat the hardenability may be
calculated from the following expression:
% Mn % Si % Cr % Mo %Ni
A = DiC x 2-21 x 1-40 x 2-13 x 3-275 x 1-47
Recalculated values of Dx for the steels in the examples are as follows.
(Grossmann's values are given in brackets.)
SS 2225 A = 2-5 in (3-7 in)
SS 2541 Di = 8-0 in (8-4 in)
The agreement is not very good for the first steel but is acceptable for the
second.
Kramer, Siegel and Brooks3 have also examined Grossmann's equations
and have published a diagram that is practically identical with the one in
Figure 4.8. Jatczak4 has extended this âiagram by adding multiplying
factors for other alloying elements. Fairly close agreement with the values
of Moser and Legat were obtained in the casé of low- and medium-carbon
steels. Jatczak has also published multiplying factors for steels containing C
between 0-90% and 1-10% and which take account of the hardening
temperatures. For these cases calculations can proceed straight from the
composition of the steel without the necessity of applying any corrections
for such alloying elements as are not in solution in the austenite. A
comparison beteen the diagrams in Figures 4.10 and 4.11 shows the effect
of raising the hardening temperature.

Multiplying factor

0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2,50%
Alloying element
Figure 4.10 This chart is used for determining the multiplying factors for
high-carbon steels austenitized at 830°C (1525°F) (base Dx is 1-13) (after
Jatczak4)
 The Jominy end-quench hardenability test 153

Multiplying factor

0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50%

Alloying element
Figure 4.11 This chart is used for determining the multiplying factors for
high-carbon steels austenitized at 860°C (1575°F) (base D, is 1-35) (after
Jatczak4)

As a practical example illustrating the effect produced by the C content

in the range mentioned, it was found that the depth of hardening in
grindingmill rods, made from a shallow-hardening steel, increased from 11
to 15 mm as the C content was reduced from 0-90% to 0-85%.
Jatczak's factors for Si, however, are not in agreement with the results
obtained at Bofors where it has been shown beyond question that the
hardenability of steels containing about 1% Cfirstfalls as the Si content
increases to about 1% and then rises as the Si increases to about 2%. The
changing influence of Si in this range of composition is illustrated in
Figure 4.12 which shows the hardenability, denoted by the Jominy distance
to 500 H V, as a function of the Si content. As the Mn content increases,
the troughs of the curves are displaced towards higher Si contents.

4.3 The Jominy end-quench hardenability test

On account of the high cost of Grossmann's method it is used nowadays
only to a very small extent, albeit it must be regarded as the most exact
test. The most commonly used method at present has been developed by
Jominy5. For this test a round bar specimen is used, 25 mm in diameter and
100 mm in length. The specimen is heated to the hardening temperature of
the steel with a holding time of usually 20 min. One end-face of the
specimen is quenched by spraying it with a jet of water, as illustrated in
154 Hardenability
Jominy distance
to 500 HV

30

Hardening
temperature*^
0 890
^. K 870

o 85C)

15
"**^^_J:

1.00 1.25 1.50 2.00 '/.

Si - content

Figure 4.12 Variations of hardenability with Si content in a steel with

nominal composition 0-90% C, 0-75% Mn and 1 0% Cr

Figure 4.13. Hereby the rate of cooling decreases progressively from the
quenched end along the length of the bar. When it is cool, two
diametrically opposite flats, 0-4 mm deep and parallel to the axis of the bar
are ground and the hardness is measured along the flats. The hardness
values are plotted in a diagram against their distances from the quenched
end. Jominy curves for some steel grades are shown in Figures 4.14 to 4.23.
The upper curve represents the maximum hardness values corresponding
to the upper composition limit of the steel and the lower curve the
minimum hardness values corresponding to the lower limit of the
composition range. Together the curves form what is called a Jominy or
hardenability band.

4.3.1 Calculation of Jominy curves from the chemical composition

Using regression analysis and proceeding from the chemical composition,
Just6 has derived expressions that enable the hardness at different Jominy
distances to be calculated direct. It is found that all alloying elements have

jssssssssss'a 1 gy's\ss\sss\\!
Jominy specimen
V

/y ' / ' ' ' '"/

'/
// / Λ
" \ ^
Figure 4.13 Hardening of Jominy end-quench
, Water inlet specimen