The University of Toledo

The University of Toledo Digital Repository

Theses and Dissertations

2011

CFD investigation of mass transfer to crimped

hollow fiber membranes
Sricharan Nanduri
The University of Toledo

Follow this and additional works at: http://utdr.utoledo.edu/theses-dissertations

Recommended Citation
Nanduri, Sricharan, "CFD investigation of mass transfer to crimped hollow fiber membranes" (2011). Theses and Dissertations. Paper
657.

This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by The University of Toledo Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and
Dissertations by an authorized administrator of The University of Toledo Digital Repository. For more information, please see the repository's About
page.
 A Thesis

entitled

CFD investigation of Mass Transfer to Crimped Hollow Fiber Membranes

by

Sricharan Nanduri

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty as partial fulfillment of

the requirements for The Master of Science in Chemical Engineering

_____________________________
Dr. Glenn Lipscomb, Committee Chair

______________________________
Dr. Sasidhar Varanasi, Committee Member

______________________________
Dong-Shik Kim, Committee Member

______________________________
Dr. Patricia Komuniecki, Dean
College of Graduate Studies

The University of Toledo

August 2011
 An Abstract of

CFD investigation of Mass Transfer to Crimped Hollow Fiber Membranes

by

Sricharan Nanduri

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the Master of Science in Chemical Engineering

The University of Toledo

August 2011

Membranes in the form of fine hollow fibers are used to perform a wide range of

separations from hemodialysis to dehydration. The fibers commonly are fabricated into

large bundles or modules for use in a separation process to facilitate handling and scale-

up.

Module performance depends strongly on membrane transport properties but

other factors may be equally important including concentration and thermal boundary

layers adjacent to the fiber surface as well as uniformity of the flow through a module.

The introduction of a cross-flow component to the shell flow through a module

can reduce the impact of shell concentration boundary layers. This can be done by

placing baffles within the fiber bundle or other bundle structural features. Alternatively,

one may crimp the fiber. Crimping transforms a straight fiber into a wavy fiber much like

a permanent creates curly hair.

iii
 Fiber bundles manufactured from crimped fibers intrinsically introduce a cross-

flow component in the shell as fluid flows through it. The effect of crimping on shell side

mass transfer coefficients is investigated here using computational fluid dynamics.

iv
This work is dedicated to my parents, sister & brother-in-law and to my best friends for

their tremendous support and encouragement throughout.

v
Acknowledgements

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Dr. Glenn Lipscomb. I would

also like to thank Dr. Sasidhar Varanasi and Dr. Dong-Shik Kim for their guidance and

useful suggestions.

I would like to thank Dr. Glenn Lipscomb for giving me admission in University

of Toledo. I am grateful to the Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering

for financial assistantship throughout my course of study.

I would really like to thank my labmates and friends Rahul Patil, Ashkan Iranshai,

Xi Du for their help, support and encouragement.

vi
Table of Contents

Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii

Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................. vi

Table of Contents .............................................................................................................. vii

List of Tables .......................................................................................................................x

List of Figures .................................................................................................................... xi

Introduction ..........................................................................................................................1

Chapter 1 - Crimped Hollow Fiber Membranes ................................................................10

1.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................10

1.2 Introduction to crimped hollow fiber membranes ................................................10

1.3 Production of crimped hollow fiber membranes ..................................................12

1.4 Advantages ...........................................................................................................14

1.5 Related Work.........................................................................................................16

Chapter 2 - Numerical Analysis .........................................................................................19

2.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................19

2.2 Mesh Construction and computational model ......................................................19

2.3 Boundary conditions ............................................................................................21

2.4 Solution of conservation equations ......................................................................22

2.4.1 Momentum equation .................................................................................22

vii
 2.4.2 Energy equation ........................................................................................23

2.5 Heat and Mass transfer analogy .............................................................................24

2.6 Mass transfer coefficient calculation ......................................................................26

2.7 Discretization schemes ...........................................................................................28

2.7.1 Spatial Discretization ................................................................................29

2.7.2 Second-Order Upwind Scheme.................................................................29

Chapter 3 - Validation ........................................................................................................31

3.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................31

3.2 Geometry and Mesh ..............................................................................................31

3.2.1 Boundary Conditions ................................................................................33

3.3 Analytical Solution ................................................................................................34

3.3.1 Well Developed Limit...............................................................................34

3.3.2 Entry Level Limit ......................................................................................39

3.4 Grid Independence Test .......................................................................................43

3.5 Comparison of Analytical and simulates results ..................................................44

Chapter 4 - Simulation of Crimped hollow fiber membranes............................................46

4.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................46

4.2 Boundary conditions .............................................................................................46

4.3 Grid independence test ..........................................................................................47

4.4 Dependence on surrounding fibers .......................................................................47

viii
 4.5 Parameters to study the results .............................................................................48

4.5.1 Independent of diameter ............................................................................49

4.5.2 Amplitude and wave length .......................................................................50

4.6 Comparison of contours .......................................................................................51

Chapter 5 - Results and conclusions ..................................................................................55

5.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................55

5.2 Initial results ..........................................................................................................55

5.3 Mass transfer limits ...............................................................................................56

5.4 Optimal parameters ...............................................................................................57

5.5 Comparison with cross flow ..................................................................................61

5.6 Conclusion and future work ..................................................................................62

References ..........................................................................................................................64

ix
List of Tables

I-1 Historical development of membrane separation process ..........................................2

1-1 Properties of modules illustrated in Figure 1-2 .......................................................14

2-1 Properties of fluids used in the simulation ...............................................................22

5-1 Front factor and well developed limit for different wave length and diameter ......58

5-2 Front factor and well developed limit for different L*,a* and k .............................58

x
List of Figures

I-1 Characterization of membrane separation processes by length scale of separation ...3

I-2 Spirally wound membrane with spacers.....................................................................5

I-3 Schematic of a typical hollow fiber membrane module and the case that holds it ....7

1-1 Concentration boundary layer development in different flow conditions ............... 11

1-2 Comparison of commercially available hemodialyzers............................................12

1-3 Cross sectional view of the module holding crimped hollow fiber membranes ......13

1-4 Fabrication of twisted and braided hollow fiber bundles……………………....16

1-5 Performance of the braided and twisted module configurations .............................17

1-6 Module flux obtained with different design configurations ....................................18

2-1 Typical computational domains of straight and crimped fiber .................................20

2-2 Variation in heat transfer across a membrane surface with changing viscosity .......26

2-3 Single crimped hollow fiber membrane module ......................................................27

3-1 Meshed concentric cylindrical geometry (different views). .....................................32

3-2 Straight hollow fiber membrane boundary conditions .............................................33

3-3 Cross section of the concentric cylinders .................................................................34

3-4 Algorithm to determine λ .........................................................................................37

3-5 Measured heat flux versus number of elements used in the domain ........................43

3-6 Comparison of the simulated with analytical results ................................................44

4-1 Boundary conditions for crimped hollow fiber membrane simulations ...................47

4-2 Variation in heat flow with increase in amplitude ....................................................48

4-3 Sine wave along which the center of the circle moves .............................................49

xi
4-4 The wavelength and amplitude of crimped membrane. ...........................................50

4-5 Temperature maps for: straight and crimped hollow fiber membranes. ...................52

4-6 The wavelength and amplitude of crimped membrane. ...........................................53

4-7 Velocity vectors (axial direction) at the crimp region ..............................................54

5-1 Sherwood number versus Graetz number for given L*=20 and varying a* ............56

5-2 Dependence of α on a* for given L*. .......................................................................59

5-3 Dependence of β on a* for given L* ........................................................................59

5-4 Dependence of α on k for a given L* .......................................................................60

5-5 Dependence of β on k for a given L* .......................................................................61

5-6 Comparison of crimped fiber flow with cross flow ..................................................62

xii
Introduction

Separation processes transform a mixture of substances into two or more products

in which each substance is present at higher concentration. Separation is an indispensable

part of downstream operations in chemical, petrochemical, biochemical, food and other

process industries. It is needed to isolate and purify a desired product from a mixture.

Separation processes exploit the differences in size, shape, vapor pressure, solubility and

diffusivity that may exist between components of a mixture.

This thesis addresses separation processes involving hollow fiber membranes. In

particular, the effect of crimping on the performance of the hollow fiber membrane

modules is studied. Crimping has been known to increase mass transfer coefficients but

the effect of crimp geometry is poorly understood. This thesis presents a fundamental

analysis of crimp geometry on mass transfer enhancement.

Membrane Separation

The study of membranes dates back to the mid eighteenth century and the osmotic

diffusion studies of Abbe Nollet. Rapid growth of the membrane industry occurred nearly

two hundred years later with the discovery of the asymmetric membrane structure by

Loeb and Sourirajan and the development of the first flat sheet reverse osmosis

membranes. The history of membrane development is summarized in Table 1-1.

A membrane can be defined as a selective barrier, which separates two phases and

allows selective transport of one or more species across the barrier. Biological

1
membranes are critical to plant and animal life. Synthetic membranes of industrial

interest are the focus of the research reported here.

Table I-1. Historical development of membrane separation processes [1].

Year Important Development

1748 Abbe Nollet- water diffuses from dilute concentrated solution
1846 The first synthetic polymer studied by Schoenbein and
produced commercially in 1869
1855 Fick employed cellulose nitrate membrane in his classic study
Ueber Diffusion
1866 Fick, Traube, Artificial membranes(nitrocellulose)

1907 Bechhold, pore size control, "ultra filtration"

1927 Sartarius Company, membranes available commercially

1945 German Scientists, methods for bacterial culturing

1957 USOH, officially accepts membrane procedure

1958 Sourirajan, first success in desalinating water

A membrane separation process separates a feed stream into permeate and

concentrate stream. The permeate is the portion which passes across the semi permeable

barrier. The concentrate is the part which is rejected by the membrane.

Growth of the membrane industry arose primarily from two factors: 1) the ability

to separate labile components at temperatures and pressures that do not adversely affect

the product and 2) significant opportunities for energy conservation. More than 200

trillion Btu/y of energy savings have been identified in industrial separation processes

[2]. A dramatic example of this is the desalination of seawater to produce potable water

with reverse osmosis. Reverse osmosis processes have the potential to produce drinking

water with one-tenth the energy consumption of conventional thermal processes (multi-

2
effect distillation or multi-stage flash) and reduce water production costs by more nearly

50% [3]. An area of emerging interest is the production of ethanol from cellulosic

biomass. The most energy intensive part of the process is the purification of ethanol from

the aqueous mixtures produced by fermentation. Membrane processes offer the potential

to reduce energy consumption by nearly 50% [4] relative to distillation.

Figure I-1. Characterization of membranes separation processes by length scale of

separation [5].

The Figure I-1 illustrates the different types of membrane processes as classified by the

relative size of the species that are rejected. Microfiltration membranes have the largest

pore sizes and therefore reject only the largest species while reverse osmosis membranes

posses the smallest pores and reject the smallest species. Gas separation membranes are

3
like reverse osmosis membranes and are able to selectively permeate one small molecule

relative to another, e.g., selectively permeate oxygen relative to nitrogen.

Reverse osmosis can remove dissolved solids, bacteria and other germs contained in

water. It is a pressure driven membrane process for separating dissolved solutes. It

involves no phase change and is a relatively low energy process. Nanofiltration

membranes posses pores that are slightly larger than reverse osmosis membranes.

Consequently nanofiltration processes operate at much lower pressures but selectively

reject only larger ionic species.

The driving force for ultrafiltration is a pressure difference across the membrane.

The throughput depends on the physical properties of the membrane such as

permeability, thickness etc. Ultrafiltration membrane pore sizes range from 0.01 to 0.1

μm while microfiltration membranes possess pore sizes up to 1-10 microns and are

capable of removing only the largest species such as yeast bacteria and colloids.

Membrane Forms

Membranes are produced in two primary shapes:

1. Sheets

2. Hollow cylinders

These shapes are combined together to form a module that allows the introduction of one

or more feed streams and the removal of one or more reject and/or permeate streams. The

module is designed to provide a low cost compact device to perform the separation.

Sheet membranes are used to form plate and frame and spiral wound modules.

Plate and frame modules layer the membranes to form a stack which is coupled with flow

4
manifolds to introduce and remove streams. Plate and frame modules provide the least

membrane area per unit module volume and are the most expensive to fabricate.

Spiral wound modules wrap the membrane sheets around a central tube to form a

compact structure. However individual sheets are not wrapped. Two sheets are glued

together to form a leaf which is then wrapped around the central tube. A spacer is placed

between the sheets before gluing to create a flow channel inside the leaf. A spacer also is

placed on top of the leaf before it is rolled to create a second flow channel as illustrated in

Figure I-2 . In operation, the feed flows outside the leaf under pressure. The permeate is

forced to flow within the leaf to a permeate collection tube from which it is withdrawn.

Figure I-2. Spirally wound membrane with spacers [6].

Hollow membrane cylinders often are referred to as either tubes or fine fibers

depending on the size of the cylinder. Cylinders less than 1mm are referred to as fibers

5
while larger cylinders are referred to as tubes. The cylinders are gathered together to form

a module that is the mass transfer equivalent of a shell and tube heat exchanger. Hollow

cylinder modules typically are cheaper to manufacture and contain more area per volume

than sheet modules. Consequently, they are preferred if membranes can be produced in

cylinder form.

Hollow Fiber Membranes

Membranes in the form of fine hollow fibers are the preferred form to provide the

greatest surface area per unit module volume. The largest hollow fiber membrane

markets (in terms of sales) are dialysis, filtration (microfiltration and ultrafiltration) and

gas separation. The market for hollow fiber dialyzers is ~$1.3 billion [7] while that for

gas separation modules is an order of magnitude less [8]. BCC Research projects a

compound annual growth rate of ~8% for membrane bioreactors and for gas and liquid

separation applications through 2013 [9] [10]. Gas and liquid separations include a wide

range of applications that utilize hollow fiber membrane modules as gas-liquid or liquid-

liquid contactors.

A typical hollow fiber module consisting of a fiber bundle placed within a case is

illustrated in Figure I-3. The case possesses external connections for introducing and

removing fluid streams. The most common configurations permit introduction of two

streams and removal of two streams. Additionally the case may serve as a pressure

vessel. In contrast to spiral modules, hollow fiber designs readily allow the introduction

and removal of two feeds which is critical to membrane contacting applications.

6
 Fiber-free distribution
Fiber Bundle Shell access port collar for shell fluid Bolts to
attach header
to case
Fiber ends
open along
tubesheet
face Fiber Bundle
Tubesheet
Lumen
access
port Lumen
Tubesheet Case header

Figure I-3. Schematic of a typical hollow fiber membrane module (left) and the case that

holds it [11].

The ends of the bundle are enclosed in tube sheets that when sealed to the case

physically separate the fluid flow in the fiber lumens from that in the space external to the

fibers (the shell space). The fibers in the bundle may be gathered together in a random,

axially aligned fashion or woven together in a fabric. Individual fibers or small groups of

fibers (i.e., a tow) may be woven to form the fabric.

In operation, a fluid is introduced to the fiber lumens from a header on one end of

the module and removed from the header on the opposite end. Likewise, a fluid is

introduced to and removed from the shell from headers on the periphery of the case. The

shell headers typically consist of a fiber-free collar that extends around the module and

possess a single access port as illustrated in the Figure I-3.

Performance expectations for such devices are commonly based on the assumptions of:

1. Uniform fiber properties: size and transport properties

2. Uniform flow channels in the shell, i.e., fibers are uniformly packed

3. No radial dependence on pressure in the lumen and shell regions, i.e., the flows in

the lumen and shell are purely axial and the pressure difference between inlet and

outlet does not vary within either region

7
Module performance is controlled by membrane properties and mass transfer boundary

layers that develop in the fluid adjacent to the membrane surface in the lumen and the

shell. Boundary layer resistances are significant in many processes including liquid

contacting, dialysis, filtration, and gas separation of highly permeable components (such

as water vapor [12]).

Most researchers correlate lumen side boundary layer resistances using the well-

known Graetz solution [13]. Much less agreement exists on the shell side mass transfer

coefficient. Lipnizki and Field [14] provide an excellent summary and discussion of the

literature. Commonly, experimental results are given as expressions for Sherwood (Sh)

number as a function of Graetz (Gz) number; here, Sh=2Rk/D, where 2R is the fiber

outer diameter, k the shell-side mass transfer coefficient, and D the solute diffusion

coefficient while Gz=Re Sc (R/2L) (1/-1) where Re = 2RVb/ is the Reynolds number,

Sc = /D the Schmidt number,  the kinematic viscosity, Vb the bulk fluid velocity in the

shell, L the fiber length, and the fiber packing fraction.

Hollow fiber modules may be made from fibers that do not selectively transport a

species but rather permit contacting of two fluid streams, e.g. a gas and liquid stream.

Unlike the other membrane applications the driving force for separation is a

concentration rather than a pressure gradient; indeed only a very small pressure drop

across the membrane is allowed to prevent convective flow between the lumen and shell

regions of the module. Membrane contactors offer significant advantages relative to

conventional contactors [15]:

8
 1. Fluid flow rate can be varied over wide ranges without flooding or blow out. This

is useful in applications where the required solvent/feed ratio is very high or very

low.

2. Emulsion formation does not occur because there is no fluid/fluid dispersion.

3. Unlike traditional contactors, no density difference is required to separate the

fluids. The membrane keeps the fluid separate.

4. Scale up is more straightforward and modular design allows a membrane plant to

operate over a wide range of capacities.

5. Interfacial area is know and is constant, which allows performance to be predicted

more easily than with conventional dispersed phase contactors.

6. Membrane contactors can offer substantially higher efficiency.

7. Solvent holdup is low which is needed when using expensive solvents.

Disadvantages of using membrane contactors module:

1. The membrane introduces another resistance to mass transfer not found in

conventional operations: the resistance of the membrane itself.

2. Fluid distribution in the shell may be poor and subject to bypassing. This problem

may become more significant when the contactor is scaled up.

3. Membranes are subject to fouling and have finite life.

4. The achievable number of equilibrium stages is limited by pressure drop

constraints.

9
Chapter 1

Crimped Hollow Fiber Membranes

1.1 Introduction

Membranes in the form of fine hollow fibers are used to perform a wide range of

separations from hemodialysis to dehydration. The fibers commonly are fabricated into

large bundles or modules for use in a separation process. This thesis investigates the

performance of crimped hollow fiber membranes. In this chapter we introduce crimped

hollow fiber membranes, discuss their production, advantages and related work.

1.2 Introduction to crimped hollow fiber membranes

Module performance depends strongly on membrane transport properties but

other factors may be equally important including concentration and thermal boundary

layers adjacent to the fiber surface as well as uniformity of flow through the module.

The introduction of a cross-flow component to the shell flow can reduce the

impact of shell concentration boundary layers. This can be done by placing baffles within

the fiber bundle or other bundle structural features. Alternatively, one may crimp the

fiber. Fiber bundles manufactured from crimped fiber intrinsically introduce a cross-flow

component in the shell as fluid flows through it.

10
 In membrane separation processes, solutes that are rejected by the membrane

accumulate at the membrane surface. The solute concentration at the membrane surface is

always higher than that of the bulk solution and a concentration boundary layer develops

adjacent to the fiber outer surface as illustrated in Figure 1-1 for co, counter and cross

flow conditions. Within the concentration boundary layer the solute concentration is

higher than in the bulk fluid outside the transfer rates to the membrane surface.

Figure 1-1. Concentration boundary layer development in co, counter and cross flow

conditions. The solid line denotes the extent of the concentration boundary layer.

In co or counter flow the boundary layer grows continuously along the length of the fiber.

However in cross flow, the boundary layer grows as fluid flows around a fiber but

decreases (relaxes) in between fibers due to diffusion from within the boundary layer to

the bulk.

Crimped hollow fiber membranes, as illustrated in Figure 1-2, intrinsically

possess co/counter and cross flow components to mass transfer. These fibers are used

11
commercially in hemodialyzers manufactured by Fresenius to enhance mass transfer

rates. Note that Fresenius offers modules with different degree of crimping.

Figure 1-2. Comparison of commercially hemodialyzers using straight and crimped

hollow fibers. From top to bottom: Althin Altrex, Fresenius Optiflux, Fresenius F80. The

cartoons to the left illustrate the relative crimping of the fibers.

1.3 Production of Crimped Hollow Fiber Membranes

In this section we summarize the patented technologies available for production

of crimped hollow fiber membranes. We start with the materials being used. The

preferred material depends on the separation to be achieved [16]. For instance

1. Hydrophilic materials are preferred for desalination and water purification. e.g.

Esters and ethers of cellulose such as acetate, polyvinyl alcohol etc.

2. Hydrophobic materials are preferred for the separation of mixtures of organic

chemicals or separation of gaseous mixtures. e.g. polyamides, acrylic ester

polymers, polypropylene etc.

12
A variety of crimping (or bulking, as it is sometimes called) procedures have been

patented including the following:

1. Hollow fibers, especially polyamide fibers, are crimped in a hot air jet followed

by exposure to boiling water or steam to relax the fibers [17].

2. Hollow fibers may be coated with a sheath or film of a second polymer having the

same permeation properties as the hollow fibers, followed by fusing, super

cooling and stretching [18].

3. Highly crystalline hollow fibers may be crimped by heating one surface to make it

more amorphous than adjacent surfaces, followed by stretching and relaxing [19].

4. Polyefin hollow fibers may be crimped by asymmetric cooling of hot, freshly melt

spun fibers [20].

5. Other crimping techniques which may be employed include passing the fibers

between heated gears or embossed rolls, as in gear box crimping, or passing the

fibers through heated chambers, as in stuffer box crimping.

Crimped hollow fibers may be assembled into membrane module simply by using

them in place of uncrimped fibers. Figure 1-3 provides a cross sectional view of one such

module.

Figure 1-3. Cross sectional view of the hollow fiber module holding crimped hollow fiber

membranes [16].
13
1.4 Advantages

Table 1-1. Properties of the modules illustrated in Figure 1-2 and experimentally

determined overall mass transfer coefficients.

Althin Altrex Fresenius Optiflux Fresenius F80

Fiber # 10,000 13,824 12,288

Fiber bundle length 21 22.6 22.6

L (cm)

Fiber bundle 3.9 5.17 5.17

diameter D (cm)

Outer diameter 255 250 285

fiber OD (µm)

Inner diameter fiber 195 180 205

ID (µm)

Packing fraction ø 0.43 0.32 0.37

Surface area A (m2) 1.3 1.8 1.8

Overall mass 0.026 0.038 0.028

transfer coefficient

K (cm/min)

Crimped hollow fiber membranes offer a number of advantages over conventional

straight hollow fiber membranes. As discussed previously, crimped hollow fiber

membranes introduce a cross flow component in the flow which can relax the

14
concentration boundary layer and enhance mass transfer. Experimental measurements

using commercial hemodialyzers, Table 1-1, indicate crimping can increase shell mass

transfer coefficients dramatically.

In addition to enhanced mass transfer crimping can alleviate problems with fiber

packing inefficinecies [16]:

1. Decrease longitudinal fiber contact which can reduce the fiber sureface area

available for mass transfer

2. Improve uniformity of flow around and between the fibers which improves

efficiency of feed contact

3. Reduce bundle assembly difficulty with the fiber associated with long, thin walled

hollow fibers which are flexible and difficult to assemble in stable uniform

bundles.

To overcome these problems yarns may be used as spacer between hollow fiber

membranes thereby reducing fiber adherence, improving packing uniformity and

facilitating bundle formation. Introducing yarn is complicated and the packing density of

the hollow fiber membranes is reduced.

Crimped fibers overcome these problems by reducing longitudinal side to side

contact between adjacent fibers thereby improving flow uniformity and access to

membrane area. Additionally, crimping increases fiber rigidity making them easier to

handle and assemble.

15
1.5 Related Work

Although crimped hollow fiber membranes are available commercially, the

literature contains little analysis of their performance. One related work investigates the

performance of different hollow fiber configurations with wavy geometries (twisted or

braided). Figure 1-4 illustrates the fabrication of braided and twisted hollow fiber

bundles.

Figure 1-4. Fabrication of twisted (top) and braided (bottom) hollow fiber bundles [21].

Figure 1-5 illustrates the effect of braiding and twisting on membrane flux in

comparison to straight, parallel hollow fiber bundles. A considerable flux increase, as

high as above 36%, was obtained for both the braided and twisted configurations. This

increase was attributed to the new configurations acting like a static mixer for the shell-

side flow which can increase shell mass-transfer coefficients.

16
 In addition, as can be observed in Figure 1-4, the braided and twisted

arrangements can prevent fibers from sticking together hence they may efficiently

increase the effective membrane area. The twisted bundle also may perform better

because of more uniform feed flow resulting from allowance for membrane thermal

expansion [22] and avoidance of stagnation regions [23]. Moreover, the introduction of a

helical baffle into the braided module, increased flux 11% due to an induced radial swirl

flow that possessed a higher mass-transfer coefficient.

Figure 1-5. Performance comparision of the braided and twisted module configurations

[21].

17
Figure 1-6 Module flux obtained for different design configurations [21].

Finally a comparison of overall performance, in terms of the total permeation flux, for

different module designs and hollow fiber geometries with the original unaltered module

is summarized in Figure 1-6.

18
Chapter 2

Numerical Analysis

2.1 Introduction

To evaluate the effect of fiber crimping on momentum and mass transfer the

governing conservation equations must be solved for velocity and concentration fields

within and outside each fiber. To obtain a numerical approximation to the solution of the

governing partial differential equations, the finite volume method is used to transform (i.e

discretize) the differential equations into non-linear algebraic equations which then are

solved numerically. To perform the discretization and solving the discreticized equations

the commercially available code FLUENT is used. FLUENT is a state-of-the-art

computer program, written in the C computer language for modeling fluid flow, heat and

mass transfer in complex geometries.

To use the program, one must create and mesh the solutions domain, specify

proper boundary conditions and physical properties for the fluid, and select a solution

method. Hence, in this chapter each of these steps is discussed.

2.2 Mesh construction and computational model

19
 The first step in a simulation is to create the solution domain by specifying its

boundaries. This can be done using a computer aided design program (CAD), such as

AutoCAD or SolidWorks, or using the Gambit module (V.2.2.30) provided by FLUENT.

Figure 2-1. Typical computational domains used to simulate mass transfer to a straight

(left) and crimped fiber (right).

If the domain is created outside Gambit, it then must be imported into Gambit for the

next step – meshing. Meshing divides the solution domain into a number of small volume

elements within which the solution variables are assigned specific functional forms (e.g.

constant).Meshing is a critical step in the simulation because mesh quality determines

solution accuracy. A finer mesh is required in regions where gradients are high to resolve

the changes in field variables that occur. There is no formal way of estimating the errors

introduced by inadequate grid for a general flow. Good initial grid design relies largely

on an insight into the expected properties of the flow. The only way to estimate the errors

due to the coarseness of a grid is to perform a grid refinement study where solutions are

obtained for increasingly refined meshes until the change in the solution is sufficiently

small, i.e., simulation becomes grid independent. A systematic search for grid

20
independent results is an essential part of a high quality CFD study. Grid independence

was established for the results presented here.

Figure 2-1 illustrates the two domains simulated. The first domain is used to

validate the simulation while, the second domain is used for the simulation of crimped

hollow fiber membranes. Both the domains require grid refinement near the fiber surface

to capture concentration changes especially in the entry mass transfer limit. The quad

scheme was used to mesh the boundaries of the solution domain using a varying size grid.

This surface mesh was used to create volumetric mesh for the entire solution domain.

Gambit's robust, automated algorithms save preprocessing time and generate high quality

meshes for CFD analysis in FLUENT.

This mesh generation procedure yields what is called a structured mesh.

Structured meshes are preferred to obtain high fidelity solutions. The wavy nature of the

geometry complicated mesh generation due to skewness of elements adjacent to the

fibers. Meshes consisting of tetrahedral and quadrilateral elements were exported to the

flow solver, FLUENT for the next simulation step: specification of boundary conditions.

2.3 Boundary conditions

Boundary conditions must be specified to solve the conservation equations. A

velocity boundary condition was specified for the inlet and constant pressure for the

outlet of the domain. The external surfaces of the domain were assigned symmetry

boundary conditions since the simulation intended to be for a single isolated fiber. The

effect of the size of the domain is examined to establish the validity of the results for an

isolated fiber. The surface of the fiber is specified to be a stationary wall of given

21
temperature or concentration. The boundary conditions are explained in detail in later

chapter. The working fluid was designated as “Water-Liquid". Table 2-1 lists the

properties of the fluid which is used in the simulations.

Table 2-1. Properties of fluid used in the simulation.

Property Liquid (water)

Density [kg/m3] 998.2

Viscosity [kg/m-s] 1

Thermal Conductivity[w/m-k] 0.6

2.4 Solution of conservation equations

The governing continuum conservation equations are solved using Fluent v.6.3 [Fluent

Inc.] using the mesh and boundary conditions described in the previous sections. Fluent

uses the finite volume method to transform the governing differential equations into a set

of non linear algebraic equations. The grid is held fixed in this work although Fluent

allows for moving grids. The 3ddp (3-Dimensional double precision) solver was used to

obtain solutions for robustness. The equations solved are described next.

2.4.1 Momentum Equation

Conservation of momentum in an inertial (non-accelerating) reference frame is described

by [24]:

(1)

Where

22
 = the static pressure

= the stress tensor (described below)

= gravitational body force

= external body forces

may also contains other model-dependent source terms such as those that arise in flow

through porous-media

For a Newtonian fluid,

The stress tensor is given by

(2)

Where

= molecular viscosity

= unit tensor

The second term on the right hand side is the effect of volume dilation.

2.4.2 Energy Equation

FLUENT solves the energy equation in the following form [25]:

(3)

23
Where

= effective conductivity ( , where is the turbulent thermal conductivity,

defined according to the turbulence model being used)

= the diffusion flux of species

The first three terms on the right-hand side of Equation (3) represent energy transfer due

to thermal conduction, species diffusion, and viscous dissipation,

respectively. includes the heat of chemical reaction, and any other volumetric heat

sources that may be present.

In Equation (3),

(4)

Where sensible enthalpy is defined for incompressible flows as

(5)

is the mass fraction of species and

(6)

where is 298.15 K.

2.5 Heat and Mass transfer analogy

FLUENT supports solution of species conservation of mass equation but does not

provide the built in capability to calculate the mass transfer flux across a surface. To

calculate the mass transfer flux, a user defined function must be created which is tedious

24
and might be prone to error. Hence, to circumvent this problem, the analogy existing

between heat and mass transfer is used.

Since our simulations are, steady state, setting and equal to zero in Equation

(3) and the simulation yields:

(7)

The viscous term in Equation (7) also may be neglected since viscous heating is

negligible in the simulations reported here. To prove this, the viscosity was increased

tenfold and calculated heat transfer rates compared. Figure 2-2 illustrates the results and

clearly indicates that viscosity heating has negligible effect on heat transfer.

Eliminating the viscous heating term from Equation (7) and assuming is constant and

equal to k yields:

(8)

The species conservation of mass equation at steady state without reaction is given by

(9)

Where

CA = is the concentration of species A

D = Diffusion coefficient

25
Equation (8) is transformed into Equation (9) upon substituting D for k/(ρCp) and CA for

T.

650

640

630

620
Heat Transfer(w)

610

600

590

580

570

560

550
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Viscosity (Kg/m-s)

Figure 2-2. Variation in heat transfer across a membrane surface with changing viscosity.

Hence, the heat transfer coefficient calculated for a heat transfer problem can be

converted into a mass transfer coefficient. The geometry used in the above simulation is

that of a crimped hollow fiber membrane which is explained in a later chapter.

2.6 Mass transfer coefficient calculation

26
 In this section the process of calculating the Sherwood number from heat transfer

fluxes is described. The Domain is shown in Figure 2-3. Note that the fluid entering the

zone has fully developed velocity profile. The procedure consists of the following steps:

1 Calculate heat transfer rate (u) to fiber.

2 Calculate the log mean temperature (Tlog) of inlet and outlet temperatures of the

domain.

3 Calculate the fiber surface area (a).

Figure 2-3. Single crimped hollow fiber membrane module.

4 Heat transfer Coefficient is

(10)

Where To is the fiber temperature

5 Nusselt number (Nu) is

(11)

Where

L = length of the fiber

kf = conductive heat transfer coefficient

27
 6 Calculate the Sherwood number (Sh) from

(12)

Where

k = mass transfer coefficient

D = mass diffusivity

Here k is replaced with h by using the heat and mass transfer analogy, D is

replaced with to maintain the analogy. This analogy is purely based on mathematical

equality. After the calculation, Sherwood number is plotted against Graetz number.

2.7 Discretization schemes

All calculations were performed using Fluent 6.3 and the finite volume approach

for discretization of the conservation equations on structured computational meshes. A

second order upwinding scheme was used to calculate convective terms in the equations.

The liquid phase was treated as incompressible and the SIMPLE algorithm used for

pressure-velocity coupling.

The continuity and conservation of momentum equations were solved using a

second-order implicit method in space. Pressure interpolation was performed using the

PRESTO (PREssure STaggering Option) scheme to avoid the “zero normal pressure

gradient” assumption adjacent to the wall. It uses the discrete continuity balance for a

“staggered” control volume about the face of a volume element to compute the pressure

on the face.

28
 The pressure implicit splitting operator (PISO) was used for pressure velocity

coupling in the momentum equation. One of the limitations of the SIMPLE and

SIMPLEC algorithms available in Fluent is that new velocities and corresponding fluxes

do not satisfy the momentum equation after the pressure-correction equation is solved. As

a result, the calculation must be repeated until the balance is satisfied.

2.7.1 Spatial Discretization

By default, Fluent stores discrete values of transport scalar quantities ( at the

centers of the volume elements. However, face values is value of convected

through face ) are required for the convection terms in discretized transport equations

and must be interpolated from the cell center values. This is accomplished using an

upwind scheme. Upwinding schemes calculate that the face value from quantities in

the cell upstream, or "upwind,'' relative to the direction of the normal velocity . Fluent

offers several upwind schemes: first-order upwind, second-order upwind, power law and

QUICK. The diffusion terms in the discritized transport equations are central-differenced

and are always second-order accurate.

For most of the simulations reported here, second-order upwind schemes were

used because they are the most efficient. The power law and QUICK schemes are only

pseudo second order schemes. The second-order upwind scheme is explained in the next

section.

2.7.2 Second-order upwind scheme

29
 When second-order accuracy is desired, quantities at cell faces are computed

using multidimensional linear reconstruction. In this approach, higher-order accuracy is

achieved at cell faces through a Taylor series expansion of the solution about the cell

centroid. When second-order upwinding is selected, the face value is computed using

the following expression [26]:

(13)

where and are the cell-centered value and its gradient in the upstream cell, and is

the displacement vector from the upstream cell centroid to the face centroid. This

formulation requires the determination of the gradient in each cell. Finally, the

gradient is limited so that no new maxima or minima are introduced. The second-

order upwind is scheme available in the pressure-based and density-based solvers.

30
Chapter 3

Validation

3.1 Introduction

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is used widely to simulate fluid flow in

various areas of research. The commercial code FLUENT is used in the present study.

FLUENT is considered one of the premier commercial CFD package. To demonstrate

proficiency with the package, new users commonly simulate a problem related to the one

of ultimate interest but for which an analytical solution or previous simulation result is

available. This is done here by considering mass transfer to the outer surface of a single,

straight fiber. After validation, FLUENT is used to simulate mass transfer to the outer

surface of the crimped fibers of interest.

The validation simulation is for mass transfer to the outer surface of a single

straight fiber. The fiber is enclosed in a cylinder as illustrated in Fig 3-1. The surface of

the outer cylinder assumed to be symmetric so the shear stresses and normal mass fluxes

are zero along the surface. Such a geometry is an approximation to a single fiber in a

large periodic bundle and is referred to as an equivalent annular region.

3.2 Geometry and Mesh

As described in Chapter 2, Gambit is used to build, mesh and assign zone types to

the model. After the geometry is created and meshed it is exported to FLUENT as a mesh

file. FLUENT then is used to solve the conservation equations.

31
Figure 3-1. Meshed concentric cylindrical geometry. inlet and outlet with structured mesh

(Top), concentric cylinders with structured mesh (Bottom).

Figure 3-1 illustrates a typical meshed solution domain. The solution domain is meshed

using a structured grid to improve solution accuracy and increase convergence rate. The

number of cells varies from 2 million to 4 million, with the density of cells decreasing

along the radial direction from the fiber to get accurate results near the fiber where the

concentration gradients are greatest.

32
3.2.1 Boundary Conditions

The boundary conditions specified for the solution domain are:

1. Inner cylinder - no slip wall at constant temperature of 300K

2. Outer cylinder- symmetry

3. Inlet- velocity inlet at temperature of 310K

4. Outlet- pressure outlet

Inlet Inner Cylinder Outer Cylinder Outlet

Figure 3-2. Straight hollow fiber membrane boundary conditions.

The inlet temperature is set to 310K and the temperature on the inner cylinder,

which is the fiber, is set to 300K. Thus there will be temperature difference of 10K,

which is required for the heat transfer from the liquid to the fiber. The outlet is set as a

pressure outlet which allows establishment of a well developed velocity field.

The final boundary condition is the symmetry condition for the exterior cylinder.

We considered only one fiber which is enclosed in a finite volume defined by the exterior

cylinder. The exterior cylinder is a surface of symmetry as assumed for an equivalent

annular region.

33
3.3 Analytical solution

In this section an analytical solution for the heat or mass transfer to the hollow fiber

membrane is derived. A solution is obtained for two limits:

1. Well developed limit - In the well developed limit the heat/mass transfer

coefficient approaches a constant value.

2. Entry level limit - In the entry limit a thin boundary layer exists near the fiber

surface which is much thin that annular gap. Heat and mass transfer coefficients

decrease dramatically with distance.

Analytical solutions are derived for both limits assuming a well developed velocity field.

The results will be used to validate the simulation procedure. Note that for validation

purposes the outer equivalent annulus is assumed to be twice the diameter of the fiber.

3.3.1 Well developed limit

Figure 3-3 Cross section of the concentric cylinders

The well developed axial velocity is determined by solving the z - component of

momentum equation assuming vr, vθ = 0

(14)

On integrating

(15)

34
From velocity boundary condition

(Inner radius)

(16)

From velocity boundary condition for flow in concentric cylinders

(Outer radius)

(17)

From (16) & (17)

(18)

Assuming the axial diffusion is negligible relative to radial diffusion and axial

convection, the species conservation of mass equation becomes:

(19)

(20)

Where the radial and azimuthal velocity component have been set equal to zero.

Assuming the concentration (c) can be written as the product of f(z) and g(r)

(21)

and substituting (21) in (20) gives

(22)

(23)

Where is an unknown constant and is largest Eigen value in a series solution of

Equation (19). Only the largest term must be determined in the well developed limit.

Substituting the axial velocity profile (18) in (23) gives:

35
 (24)

Letting,

(25)

and

(26)

(27)

Where

Letting,

(28)

Equation (27) may be written as

(29)

or

(30)

The boundary conditions for h and g are

The boundary conditions at w = 2 give,

(31)

36
Expand g and h using Taylor series

(32)

(33)

From Equation (30)

(34)

From Equation (29) and (30)

(35)

Guess at w = 2

Find the value of g at w=1 by

extrapolation using Equations (31) to (35)
for particular step size of ( )

Is g = 0 at w = 1?

YES

STOP

Figure 3-4. Algorithm to determine .

The algorithm to determine is illustrated in Figure 3-4.

From the algorithm, is found to be:

(36)

37
To determine the value of the Sherwood number the concentration profile must be

determined. Solving Equation (23) for f and substituting into Equation (21) gives

(37)

Where

m = constant

The mixing cup average velocity is given by

(38)

and a macroscopic mass balance for the solute is given by

(39)

Where Q = Volumetric flow rate

Substituting (37) in the right hand side of (39)

(40)

Substituting (37) in the left hand side of (39)

(41)

Non-dimensionalizing (40) and (41) with Ri and equating gives

(42)

Equation (38) can be written as

(43)

Where

(44)

Defining the Sherwood number as

38
 (45)

and substituting (42), (43), and (44) gives:

(46)

or

(47)

Substituting the value of from (36) yields the find result for the Sherwood number in

the well developed limit

(48)

3.3.2 Entry mass transfer limit

The fully developed axial velocity profile will be used to evaluate mass transfer in the

entry limit

(49)

The velocity gradient along the fiber surface will be needed later and is given by

(50)

Setting vr = vθ =0 in the species conservation of mass equation and assuming the

concentration field is axisymmetric gives:

(51)

Neglecting axial diffusion relative to axial convection and radial diffusion simplifies

Equation (51) to:

39
 (52)

Let

(53)

Then

(54)

Substituting and neglecting curvature effects since the concentration boundary layer is

thin, Equation (49) becomes

(55)

expanding vz in a Taylor series along the fiber surface

(56)

and keeping only the first non - zero term in the entry limit gives:

(57)

Define ŋ as follows

(58)

Then

(59)

(60)

Differentiating Equation (60) with y

(61)

Substituting (61) and (59) in (57)

40
 (62)

(63)

or

(64)

or

(65)

The boundary conditions for CA for flow in concentric cylinders

Integrating Equation (65) gives

(66)

or

(67)

(68)

The boundary condition for implies C3 =0 while boundary condition gives

(69)

or

(70)

Hence

(71)

The radial concentration gradient along the fiber surface is given by

41
 (72)

(73)

The total mass transfer to a length L of the fiber is given by

(74)

Where k is the average mass transfer coefficient

Substituting Equation (73) into Equation (74) gives

(75)

or

(76)

(77)

So

(78)

or

(79)

or

(80)

This is the average Sherwood number.

42
3.4 Grid independence

Grid convergence is the term used to describe how the results depend the mesh used.

Finer meshes should provide a more accurate solution. The normal technique is to start

with a coarse mesh and gradually refine it until the changes observed in the results are

smaller than a pre-defined acceptable error. The problem with this approach of refining a

mesh is that it will increase the required computational effort. For instance, if the average

element size is reduced by a factor of two the required computational effort increases by

a factor of eight. Nonetheless, this is the only method to demonstrate the solution in

independent of the mesh and numerical approximation error is negligible.

1170
1

1160
Difference = 2.2%

1150
Heat Flux(w/m2)

2
1140

Difference = 2.1%

1130

1120
Difference = 0.5%
3
4
1110
4.0E+05 6.0E+05 8.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.2E+06 1.4E+06 1.6E+06 1.8E+06 2.0E+06

Number of Elements

Figure 3-5. Measured heat flux versus number of elements used in the domain.

Figure 3-5 illustrates the results of a mesh refinement study. The numbers 1-4 designate

the four meshes used of increasing refinement. The difference indicted is the percent

43
difference in the computed heat flux between two meshes of increasing refinement. For

example, the heat flux computed with mesh 3 is 2.1% smaller than that computed with

mesh 2. Clearly the difference decreases as the mesh is refined and an approximation

error less than 1% is anticipated for a mesh that possesses the refinement of mesh 3 and

the coarsest mesh possesses an error of 0.5%.

3.5 Comparison of analytical and simulated results

50
Sh

Simulated

Well Developed
Entry Level
5
1 10 Gz 100 1000 10000

Figure 3-6. Comparison of the simulated with analytical results.

Figure 3-6 compares the simulated results and the analytical results. The Graetz number

was varied from 1 to 10000. Analytical results are in two parts 1) Entry limit (red line) 2)

Well developed limit (green line). The simulations results are represented by the blue

44
line. Figure 3-6 indicates the simulated results are in good agreement with the analytical

results and helps validate the simulation procedure.

45
Chapter 4

Simulation of crimped hollow fiber membranes

4.1 Introduction

As we have already discussed in the previous chapters simulations are performed

using FLUENT 6.3 and the geometry is constructed using GAMBIT 2.4. In this chapter

the mesh, boundary conditions, and parameters used to study the performance of crimped

hollow fiber membranes are described. Preliminary results of the simulations are

presented.

4.2 Boundary conditions

Boundary conditions specified for the solution domain are:

1. Crimped hollow fiber - no slip wall at temperature of 300K.

2. Outer boundary- symmetry

3. Inlet- velocity inlet at temperature of 310K.

4. Outlet- pressure outlet

The boundary conditions are similar to those used in the validation case. The fiber is

treated as a no - slip, constant temperature surface as in the validation case. Each face of

the cuboid structure surrounding the crimped fiber is treated as a plane of symmetry

46
similar to the cylinder surrounding the straight fiber. Inlet and outlet conditions remain

same. The boundary conditions are illustrated in Figure 4-1.

Inlet Symmetry Crimped fiber Outlet

Figure 4-1. Boundary conditions for crimped hollow fiber membrane simulations.

4.3 Grid independence test

The grid convergence method described in Section 3.4. is used here to determine

the optimal grid for the crimped hollow fiber membranes. The optimal mesh varied for

each fiber configuration, since the number of elements required to resolve the solution

varied with fiber amplitude and wavelength. Before each model was simulated, its

optimal grid was determined using the grid convergence method. The number of

elements varied between 1.5 and 2.5 million.

4.4 Dependence on surrounding fibers

The objective of this work is to evaluate the mass transfer coefficient for an

isolated crimped fiber. Ultimately the effect of fiber packing will be studied but this is

beyond the scope of the current work. To approximate on infinite surrounding fluid the

fiber is placed inside a symmetry box. The symmetry boundary conditions on the faces of

box approximate the presence of an infinite domain. However, to simulate an isolated

47
fiber, the height and width (the two are equal) of the box must be sufficiently large

relative to the fiber amplitude. The effect of box dimensions can be determined through a

series of simulations using progressively larger boxes. The results of such simulations are

presented in Figure 4-2.

620

615

610

605
Heat Flow (w)

600

595

590

585

580
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Number of times the Amplitude

Figure 4-2. Heat flow versus number of times the amplitude.

Figure 4-2. indicates the simulation results are independent of box size for dimensions

that are greater that approximately 1.5 times and provide a good approximation of an

isolated fiber.

4.5 Parameters to study the results

The parameters used to characterize the crimped fiber are described in this

section.

48
4.5.1 Independent of diameter

Three parameters are used to study the performance of crimped hollow fiber

membranes: 1) amplitude, 2) wavelength and 3) diameter of the crimped membrane. Non

dimensionalizing the parameters with diameter reduces the number of independent

parameters to two and reduces the number of simulations required to study the entire

space of design parameters. Hence we non dimensionalize amplitude and wavelength

with diameter. The procedure is explained in detail in this section

The crimped hollow fiber can be created by translating the center of a circle along

a sine wave as illustrated in Figure 4-3.

Figure 4-3. Sine wave along which the center of the circle moves.

The equation which describes a circle with its center moving along a sine wave is

(81)

Where

a = Amplitude of the sine wave

λ = Wave length of the sine wave

y, z = y and z coordinates of the circle respectively

r = radius of the circle

49
Divide Equation (81) with radius "r" gives:

(82)

Where

Equation (82) demonstrates that the crimped fiber geometry is independent of its

diameter, upon non-dimensionalizing each spatial coordinate with r.

Independence from diameter means reducing degrees of freedom for our

computational model, which in turn reduces the number of models which we have to

investigate. Independence from diameter would alleviate our computational effort by

almost half, the geometries with varying diameters which we had to investigate otherwise

can be avoided.

4.5.2 Amplitude and wave length

Figure 4-4. The wavelength and amplitude of crimped membrane.

50
Equation (82) indicates two dimensionless factors define the geometry of the crimped

hollow fiber membrane: 1) amplitude and 2) wave length of the crimp.

Thus we have two parameters

1. = Wavelength of the crimped hollow fiber membrane non-dimensionalized

with the diameter of the fiber.

2. = Amplitude of the crimped hollow fiber membrane non-dimensionalized with

the diameter of the fiber.

With the advantage of hindsight we define a third parameter which will be useful in

studying the behavior of the crimped hollow fiber membrane

3. k = ratio of the amplitude to wavelength of the crimped hollow fiber membrane.

4.6 Comparison of contours

To observe crimped fiber intrinsically introducing a cross-flow component in the

shell, as fluid flows through it, temperature contours of the crimped hollow fiber

membrane are compared to that for a straight hollow fiber membrane.

Figure 4-5 shows the temperature profiles for straight and crimped hollow fiber

membranes. Temperature polarization is evident for both as the thermal boundary layer is

present adjacent to the membrane surface. Figure 4-6. illustrates cross-sectional

temperature profiles along the length of straight and crimped fibers.

51
 Figure 4-5. Temperature maps for: straight (top) and crimped (bottom) hollow

fiber membranes.

A significant difference between the temperature profile in Figure 4-6 is the

asymmetry in the thermal boundary layer. The boundary is thicker above as below the

fiber depending on axial position. for example, at x=4.5mm, the boundary layer is thicker

below than above fiber which reflects the effect of thermal diffusion along the top where

the fiber is located at its highest point in y-z plane, above the fiber the boundary layer is

thinner as fiber extends further into the bulk fluid.

52
 x = 4mm x = 4.3mm x = 4.5mm x = 4.6mm x = 4.8mm x = 5mm

x = 4mm x = 5mm x = 6mm

Figure 4-6. Top: Cross sectional view of the mass transfer contours and their distance

from the entrance along the length of crimped fiber. Bottom: Cross sectional view of the

mass transfer contours and their distance from the entrance along the length of straight

fiber.

Figure 4-7. illustrate velocity vectors (axial direction) in the crimp region which shows

the cross flow along the crimp.

53
Figure 4-7. Velocity vectors ( axial direction) at the crimp region.

54
Chapter 5

Results and conclusions

5.1 Introduction

In this chapter simulation results for crimped hollow fiber membranes are presented and

discussed. Additionally, future lines of research are proposed.

5.2 Initial results

In Figure 5-1 Sherwood number (dimensionless number which represents the ratio

of convective to diffusive mass transfer coefficient) versus Graetz number (dimensionless

number that characterizes laminar flow in a conduit) is plotted for a constant L* (ratio of

wave length to diameter of fiber) of 20 and a* (ratio of amplitude to diameter of fiber)

values from 0 to 10. Figure 5-1 indicates that the mass transfer increases with increasing

a*. This increase is because as the crimp amplitude increases the cross flow component to

the flow increases. Greater cross flow near the crimped hollow fiber reduces

concentration polarization and increases the mass transfer coefficient. Additionally

Figure 5-1 indicates the entry limit extends to smaller values of Gz.

55
 50

a*=10
a*=8
Sh

a*=6
a*=2
Straight

5
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Gz

Figure 5-1. Sherwood number versus Graetz number for L* = 20 and varying a*.

As a* approaches 8 the mass transfer coefficient almost doubles. But after 8, the

mass transfer coefficient decreases. This suggests that there is an optimum value for the

crimp amplitude at which the mass transfer coefficient is maximized.

5.3 Mass transfer limits

Boundary layer mass transfer problems can be simplified by considering two limits: 1)

entry mass transfer and 2) well developed mass transfer. In the entry or short contact time

limit, the mass transfer coefficient is given by [27]:

(83)

where is α is called the front factor.

56
In the well developed or long contact time limit the Sherwood number is independent of

Graetz number and is constant and

(84)

Given these expressions for the entry and well developed limits, the following

expression may be used to interpolate between the two limits:

(85)

For large Graetz number, equation (85) reduces to the entry flow limit given by

equation (83). For small Graetz number, the Sherwood number reduces to the well

developed mass transfer limit is given by equation (84).

To find the optimum values of amplitude and wave length we calculate α and β

for a range of crimp geometries. The results may be used to identify the values of α and β

that give the best mass transfer performance.

5.4 Optimal parameters

To determine the optimal crimp geometry, geometries with a wide range of values for L*

and a* were simulated and the values of α and β determined for each combination of

values. The values of α and β for each combination of L, d and a are tabulated in Table 5-

3:

57
Table 5-3. Front factor and well developed limit for different wave length and diameter.

L(mm) d(mm) a α β
2 0.1 1 12.76 6.81
0.8 14.32 6.99
0.6 12.91 7.02
0.2 10.23 4.03
2 0.2 1.2 5.44 5.52
1 5.54 5.56
0.8 8.98 6.47
0.6 6.01 4.12
1 0.2 0.6 3.58 3.31
0.4 4.65 5.46
0.3 2.56 4.616

Non-dimensionalizing L and a with d gives the data in Table 5-4.

Table 5-4. Front factor and well developed limit for different L*, a* and k.

L* a* k = (a*/L*) α β
20 10 0.5 12.76 6.81
8 0.4 14.32 6.99
6 0.3 12.91 7.02
2 0.1 10.23 4.03
10 6 0.6 5.44 5.52
5 0.5 5.54 5.56
4 0.4 8.98 6.47
3 0.3 6.01 4.12
5 3 0.6 3.58 3.31
2 0.4 4.65 5.46
1.5 0.3 2.56 4.616

The data in Table 5-4 are plotted in Figure 5-2.

58
 16
14
12
10

α
8 L*=20
6 L*=10
4 L*=5
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
a*

Figure 5-2. Dependence of α on a* for given L*.

Figure 5-2 indicates there is significant increase in the mass transfer coefficient in the

entry limit flow with increasing a*and L*. It also indicates that the mass transfer

coefficient reaches a maximum at a particular value of a*.

4
β

L*=20
3 L*=10

2 L*=5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
a*

Figure 5-3. Dependence of β on a* for given L*.

59
 Figure 5-3 illustrates the dependence of β on a* for given L*. Figure 5-3 is similar

to Figure 5-2. The value of β increases with a* and L*. However, the increase is not as

significant as for α. Thus, the crimp geometry does not affect mass transfer in the well

developed limit as much as in the entry limit. The results in Table 5-4 may be plotted as α

and β versus k instead of a*. One might expect k and L* would be a better choice of

parameters since increasing a or decreasing L (both lead to increasing k) introduce a

longer cross flow component, i.e. degree to which flow is normal to fiber.

16
14
12
10
8
α

L*=20
6 L*=10
4 L*=5
2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
k

Figure 5-4. Dependence of α on k for a given L*.

Figure 5-4 illustrates the dependence of α on k. As in Figure 5-2, α passes through a

maximum with increasing k. Figure 5-4 indicates one optimal value of k is ~0.4 or a =

0.4L.

60
 8

5
L*=20
4
β

L*=10
3
L*=5
2

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
k

Figure 5-5: Dependence of β on k for a given L*

Like Figure 5-4, Figure 5-5 indicates β passes through a maximum at k ~ 0.3 -0.4. The

changes in β with k and L* are much smaller than the changes in α as observed

previously in figure 5-2 and 5-3.

5.5 Comparison with cross flow

Mass transfer coefficients in the cross flow are significantly higher than in parallel

flow. The performance of a crimped hollow fiber is compared to that of a fiber in pure

cross flow in Figure 5-6. We compare the cross flow with k = 0.4 as it is the best

performing crimped fiber.

Figure 5-6 indicates that in the entry level limit the crimped fiber performs nearly

identically to a fiber in pure cross flow. In the well developed region, Performance differs

substantially. Therefore, an isolated crimped hollow fiber offers superior performance to

an isolated fiber in cross flow.

61
 Sh

a*=0.8,k=0.4
Counter

30
1 10 100 1000
Gz

Figure 5-6. Comparison of crimped fiber flow with cross flow.

5.6 Conclusion and future work

Analysis of mass transfer for axial flow along crimped hollow fiber membranes is

presented in this study. A single crimped hollow fiber membrane is modeled independent

of the influence of other fibers. The continuity, conservation of momentum and energy

equations with appropriate boundary conditions are solved to calculate heat transfer

coefficients. The FLUENT commercial CFD package was used to solve the equations

and mass transfer coefficients by analogy.

Mass transfer coefficients were calculated for straight hollow fiber membranes, to

validate the simulation methodology, are in good agreement with the analytical solution.

Results for the crimped hollow fiber membrane indicate that mass transfer coefficients

62
increase significantly when compared with straight hollow fiber membranes. In the entry

limit, mass transfer coefficients are maximized at k=0.4, this indicates the optimal value

of amplitude is ~0.4 times the wave length. In well developed region, the crimp

geometry does not affect the mass transfer coefficient as significantly. Mass transfer

coefficients for crimped hollow fiber are nearly identical to a fiber in pure cross flow.

The logical progression of this work would be to work on the effect of adjacent

fibers on the mass transfer coefficient of crimped fiber membrane bundles. Bunch of

single crimped fiber modules can be put together to form randomly packed hollow fiber

bundle. The walls surrounding each crimped fiber should be assigned as the interior

boundary condition. This simulation will require significantly more computational effort

than the present problem because of the number and complexity of the solution domain.

For experimental validation fibers with crimping, varying k from 0.1 to 0.4,

should be created and formed into hollow fiber bundle. Then mass transfer coefficients

for a salt solution should be calculated for all values of k and compared.

63
References

1. http://www.cheresources.com/hmembranes.shtml

2. Materials for Separation Technologies: Energy and Emission Reduction, Oak

Ridge National Laboratory and BCS Inc.,

(http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/imf/pdfs/separationsreport.pdf).

3. Lipscomb, GG, Membrane Separation Technology: Past, Present and Future, in

Innovations in Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, ACS Symposium Series

Number 1000, WH Flank, M Abraham, and MA Matthews, Eds., Oxford

University Press (2008).

4. Cote, P; Roy, C; Bernier, N, Energy Reduction in the Production of Ethanol by

Membrane Dehydration, Sep. Sci. Tech., 44 (2009) 110.

5. Dairy Processing Handbook. Published by Tetra Pak Processing Systems AB, S-

221 86 Lund, Sweden. pg. 125.

6. mtrinc.com, http://www.mtrinc.com/images/faq/spiral.gif

7. Baker, RW, Membrane Technology and Applications, 2nd Edition, Wiley, West

Sussex, England, 2004.

8. Membrane Separation Technologies to 2006, The Freedonia Group, Inc.,

Cleveland, OH, 2002.

9. BCC Research Report MST041b, July 17, 2008,

(http://www.bccresearch.com/report/mst041b)

10. BCC Research Report MST041d, November 5, 2008,

(http://www.bccresearch.com/report/mst041d)

64
11. Bao, L; Lipscomb, GG, Mass Transfer in Axial Flows Through Randomly

Packed Fiber Bundles, New Insights into Membrane Science and Technology:

Polymeric and Biofunctional Membranes, D Bhattacharyya and DA Butterfield,

Eds., Elsevier (2003)

12. Wang, KL; McCray, SH; Newbold, DD; Cussler, EL, Hollow fiber air drying,

J. Membr.Sci., 72 (1992) 231.

13. Graetz, L, Über die Wärmeleitungsfähigkeit von Flüssigkeiten, Annalen der

Physic und Chemie, 18 (1883) 79.

14. Lipnizki, F; Field, RW, Mass transfer performance for hollow fibre modules

with shell-side feed flow: using an engineering approach to develop a framework,

J. Membr. Sci.,193 (2001) 195.

15. Alan gabelman, Sun- Tak Hwang, Hollow fiber membrane contactors, Journal

of membrane science 159 (1999) 61-106

16. Naftali Walter Rosenblatt U.S. Pat No. 3,616,928.

17. Breen U.S Pat. No. 2,783,609 and Hallden et al. U.S. Pat.No.3,005,251.

18. Carr U.S Pat. No. 2,880,056.

19. Rokosz U.S. Pat No. 2,917,805.

20. British Pat. No. 1,137,027.

21. Teoh, May May; Bonyadi, Sina, Chung, Tai-Shung, Investigation of different

hollow fiber module designs for flux enhancement in the membrane distillation

process, Journal of membrane science 311 (2008) 371-379

22. K.Schneider, W. Holz, R.Wollbeck, Membranes and modules for trans-

membrane distillationa, J. Membr. Sci. 39 (1988) 25.

65
23. E. Curcio, E. Drioli, Membrane distillation and related operations-a review, Sep.

Purif. Rev. 34 (2005) 35.

24. FLUENT USER GUIDE, Chapter 23.3.4 Momentum Equation

25. FLUENT USER GUIDE, Chapter 23.3.5 Energy Equation

26. FLUENT USER GUIDE, Chapter 25.3.1 Spatial Discretization

27. Bao, Lihong; Glenn Lipscomb, G., Well-developed mass transfer in axial flows

through randomly packed fiber bundles with constant wall flux, Chemical

Engineering Science 57 (2002) 125-132

66