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Corrosion in Crude Distillation Overhead System: A Review

Article · September 2019

DOI: 10.1007/s40735-019-0262-4

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Journal of Bio- and Tribo-Corrosion (2019) 5:67
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40735-019-0262-4

Corrosion in Crude Distillation Overhead System: A Review

M. A. Fajobi1 · R. T. Loto1 · O. O. Oluwole2

Received: 1 May 2019 / Revised: 31 May 2019 / Accepted: 18 June 2019

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

Abstract
The consequence of corrosion in the oil and gas industry cannot be ignored due to the damage caused to equipment and
structures, and the huge cost of controlling it. This review covers the corrosion of metallic structures, types of corrosion that
occurs, and corrosion prevention and control in crude distillation overhead system. Some case studies on crude distillation
overhead system, the economic cost of corrosion within the oil and gas industry and the factors responsible for corrosion in
crude distillation overhead system are discussed. Corrosion has been a major challenge in the oil and gas industry, especially
in the crude distillation overhead system where the metallic structure used for construction and equipment are majorly affected
by corrosion. However, to minimize corrosion cost in oil and gas industry, application of corrosion inhibitors and appropriate
material selection is of utmost importance as stated in this report. Materials selected are mostly affected by general corrosion
or localized corrosion, depending on the metallurgical properties of the material used.

Keywords  Corrosion · Oil and gas · Crude distillation system · Inhibitor · Material selection

1 Introduction of many products, in addition to serving as the world’s pri-

Corrosion is an undesirable destructive reaction that occurs
naturally between metals and its surroundings. It is one of
the major challenges associated with oil and gas industry
[1]. Corrosion affects every metallic structure in the oil and
gas industry, such as carbon steel, low alloy steel, stain-
less steel [2–4] etc. Carbon steel is mostly used to construct
crude distillation overhead system and other units [5–7].
They cause huge loses of revenues to the oil industry as a
result of repairs of parts, replacement corrosion control and
maintenance which eventually leads to plant shut down and
downtime [8]. Collectively, corrosion is a worldwide disas-
ter wherever it occurs and cannot be completely eradicated
from the environment, but can be controlled. Oil and gas
are recognized among the world’s most important resources
and has been in existence for over two centuries. The oil and
gas industry play an important role in driving the global
economy [9]. Petroleum itself is used for the manufacture
* M. A. Fajobi
fajobi.muyiwa@covenantuniversity.edu.ng
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, Covenant University,
Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
2
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Ibadan,
Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
mary fuel source. The processes and systems involved in
producing and distributing oil and gas are highly complex.
They are capital intensive and require state-of-the-art tech-
nology. The oil industry is categorized into three main sec-
tions (a) upstream section, (b) mid-stream section and (c)
downstream section [10]. Each of these sections has its own
task to fulfill their actual purpose. The upstream section of
the oil and gas industry, engages in drilling, exploration,
and production [9]. The mid-stream section is concerned
with the movement of petroleum products, that is, transmis-
sion of the products through pipelines, product storage and
marketing of the products while the downstream section is
involved in the refining of the upstream products into fin-
ished product e.g. kerosene, petroleum, diesel, drugs, and
paints [10]. Despite the economic benefits of the oil indus-
tries, they are faced with severe corrosion challenges. Cor-
rosion of concealed parts, structures, and equipment in the
oil industry like oil well, pipelines etc., are majorly affected
by factors which are encountered within the environment
of operation [11]. These parameters are high temperature,
carbon dioxide (­ CO2), hydrogen sulfides (­ H2S), water (­ H2O),
flow velocity etc.

13
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 67   Page 2 of 9
2 Crude Distillation Overhead System
Crude distillation overhead system helps in the separation
of crude oil into fractions based on their different boiling
points [12–14]. It is the first production step in the refinery
plant [15]. Crude distillation system is described as the
heart of any oil refinery which consist of the preheat train,
a desalter, a pre-flash drum, a furnace, an atmospheric
distillation column and vacuum distillation column [16,
17]. Crude oil consists of hydrocarbons which are refined
into different oil products by burning them bits by bits to
remove the lighter hydrocarbons first before the heavier
ones. This process undergoes high temperature to be able
to break them into their various constituents. Crude distil-
lation components or subunits are further discussed below.
2.1 The Desalter Unit
This is the process where the operation is first carried out
in the crude refining system and it is installed when crude
oil to be processed contains more 75 parts per million salt
[9]. Although the desalter unit is installed in some refiner-
ies regardless of the salt that is present in the crude oil. Its
main function is to minimize the salt content of the crude
oil to as low as 4 parts per million and to reduce corrosion
level from calcium, magnesium, and sodium [9, 18]. The
result of the desalted (remover of salts) crude oil from
the desalter unit is sent into the atmospheric distillation
system for further processes in the refinery.
2.2 Vacuum Distillation Unit
The vacuum unit takes the residue formed from the atmos-
pheric unit by pumping and the pressure lowered than the
atmospheric pressure [9]. When the pressure is reduced,
the lighter part of the residue from the atmospheric unit
vaporizes without cracking. Vacuum pump keeps a lower
pressure and pulls out vapor of smaller hydrocarbons and
water. The working principle of vacuum distillation unit
operates based on the heating the liquid crude oil in order
to change to gas with the required temperature [9]. Vac-
uum distillation systems as reported by Idris et al. [19] are
much larger in diameter than atmospheric towers, usually
12–15 m. The operating pressure is maintained by using
steam ejectors and condensers. A few millimeters reduce
in pressure drop between the vacuum-inducing device and
the flash zone will save operating costs. The main feed
to the vacuum distillation system is always the residues
from the crude distillation unit [19]. Carbon steel material
is usually used for constructing vacuum distillation unit
13
Journal of Bio- and Tribo-Corrosion (2019) 5:67
[9]. Pitting corrosion is a type of corrosion that occurs in
vacuum distillation unit [9].
2.3 Hydrotreating Units
The hydrotreating units are used at different stages of the
refineries. It is used to remove chemical of bound sulfur
compounds from the hydrocarbons. In addition, it can be
used to reduce sulfur oxide emission and to get sulfur lim-
its for diesel and kerosene [9]. It operates below the tem-
perature of 288 °C and the material used for construction
is carbon sheets of steel. The carbon steel may be covered
with stainless steel. When hydrogen and hydrogen sulfide
are present, the hydrotreating unit operates at the tempera-
ture above 288 °C and are constructed with stainless steel.
Hydrotreating unit suffers from general corrosion, pitting
corrosion, hydrogen blistering, which are caused by water
from the hydrotreating unit which condenses during cooling
[9]. Therefore, it is necessary to keep water away from the
hydrotreating unit to avoid damages from corrosion effect
[9].
2.4 Catalytic Cracking Unit
The catalytic cracking unit is used for converting heavy oil
into gasoline because the gas oil from vacuum distillation
unit is very heavy. The Catalytic cracking unit usually con-
sists of four parts namely; a reaction section (heater and
riser), catalysts, regenerators and fractionating column. Each
one of them working with one another. The catalytic crack-
ing unit components (piping between the units) are made
up of carbon steel [9]. The unit is affected by erosion type
of corrosion and pitting corrosion due to the motion of the
fluid catalyst [9].
2.5 Atmospheric Distillation Unit
This unit is where separation generally takes place and the
process is usually done in two stages in most refineries. The
atmospheric unit operates based on the principles of vapori-
zation [9]. This occurs when the liquid is heated to the tem-
perature which turns it into vapor (gaseous sate). It passes
through a condenser then gets cool and returns back into
its liquid form. Materials used for constructing atmospheric
units depend on the type of crude oil and the temperature of
operation. Although carbon steel is mostly used for atmos-
pheric distillation unit [20–22]. Carbon steel is used where
sulfur of less than 0.2 wt% content and temperature of about
288 °C is available [9]. Stainless steel (5Cr-0.5Mo) is used
when the sulfur present is higher than 0.2 wt% content and
temperature of 288 °C but if the temperature is higher than
288 °C then 9 Cr-1 Mo steel is used [9]. The major corrosion
type that occurs in atmospheric distillation unit is localized
Journal of Bio- and Tribo-Corrosion (2019) 5:67 Page 3 of 9  67
pitting corrosion due to the presence of hydrochloric acid
[9, 20]. Corrosion in atmospheric distillation unit can be
controlled by adding caustic solution, by neutralization using
agents like amines and ammonia, using corrosion inhibitor
[23, 24], by regular inspection.
Refinery equipment is majorly constructed by the use
of carbon steel materials [18, 19]. In addition, Kahar [25]
showed that non-alloyed carbon steel is commonly used as
a material for crude distillation system. Although the use of
corrosion-resistant alloys is limited because of the presence
of chloride, ferritic steel, super duplex steel and nickel base
alloys are also used [23, 26]. Report from Mannan and Patel
[27] showed that new corrosion-resistant high strength alloy
945 is a material used for distillation units.
General corrosion (acid corrosion) and localized corro-
sion (under salt corrosion) are the major categories of cor-
rosion that occurs in crude distillation overhead system due
to the presence of hydrochloric acid and chlorides [7]. Loto
[26] stated that apart from localized corrosion, fouling and
desalter operation are reasons for corrosion on components
of the distillation unit.
Corrosion of crude distillation overhead system can be
controlled by the application of chloride management, the
introduction of organic neutralizer, injection of corrosion
inhibitors [1, 28] and ammonia to the distillation system
[29]. Apart from the selection of appropriate materials [28],
use of an inhibitor, other controls such as protective coatings,
adequate corrosion monitoring, and inspection, cathodic
protection techniques are also used [30]. According to Price
and Figueira [31], the following were discussed as corrosion
control methods, which includes; metallurgy upgrade, mini-
mizing contaminants, alternative additive chemistry, revised
processing conditions, low velocity, high velocity, spray noz-
zles, water wash rate, injection location, water wash system
design and best practices. Factors like pH control, increasing
the tower top temperature and periodically injecting water to
the manifold helps to control corrosion in the crude distil-
lation overhead system [32]. In addition, the following are
some of the corrosion control methods for crude distillation
system, which includes; settling of crude and draining of
sour water from the storage tanks, wash water of the crude
with electric desalting aided [33].
3 Prevalent Corrosion Types Within
the Crude Distillation Overhead System
3.1 General Corrosion
General corrosion occurs as a result of attack characterized
by extensive metal loss across the surface of the metal. It
occurs progressively over the majority of the surface of the
metal, usually at a predictable and more or less uniform rate.
A good illustration of this in the oil industry is the case
of hydrochloric acid in pipes, called acidize corrosion. It
spreads the corrosion uniformly and when exposed to an
area, it takes over the entire place completely. General corro-
sion can be formed into two, namely localized and uniform,
which could also be developed from one to the other by
some certain factors [9]. According to Obanijesu et al. [34],
uniform corrosion takes place over the entire metal structure
completely but it can be managed well enough by increas-
ing the surface thickness of the structure to work well for
the desired use.
General corrosion takes place in crude distillation over-
head system due to the presence of acid as revealed in the
research of a case study, showing decrease in thickness of
the metallic structure [35]. Blumer [24] revealed that crude
distillation overhead system experiences general corrosion
attacks due to acids, chlorides, sulphide and carbon diox-
ide in the presence of water and oxygen. General corrosion
naturally takes uniform possession of the affected part of
the whole surface of the crude distillation overhead system
and continues with a spread on the surface [24]. Research
by Groysman and Hiram [36] stated that when carbon steel
is used for crude distillation overhead system construction,
sulfides and chlorides of hydrogen causes general corrosion
in the presence of dissolved in water. General corrosion
occurs in crude distillation overhead system as a result of the
presence of salts deposits from ammonia, amines and high
chances in alkaline structures [37]. Groysman [33] stated
that general corrosion is among the types of corrosion that
occurs in petrochemical equipment such as crude distillation
overhead systems.
3.2 Galvanic Corrosion
This corrosion happens to two unlike metals placed together
in an electrically conducting liquid [9]. The corrosion level
of the metal could be ascertained by various electrochemical
abilities as researched by Dariva and Galio [38] and for cor-
rosion to happen fast, certain factors must be in place, which
includes, the electron must be donated willingly by one of
the metals, there must be an electrical connection with one
of the metals, and finally, there must be extra way for elec-
tron or ion to pass freely [34]. The more occurring example
is the pairing of steel and copper, which produces steel cor-
rosion quickly. The electrical reaction happens between them
because of the difference in potential of their unity. Metal
with the higher reaction within the surrounding happens to
be the anode, thereby getting corroded, like the example of
the pipes made of steel attached to the copper during service
[39]. Galvanic corrosion takes place when the metal of lower
or highly negative ability turn into the anode and begins to
corrode, and research by Bryant and Neville [40] showed
that they are caused by distance or ratio between the cathode
13
 67   Page 4 of 9
and anode, and their environment. Galvanic corrosion can
be naturally uniform in damage and where it is been joined
together with alloys could be localized in corrosion due to
the kind of condition encountered [11].
Research done by [41] showed that galvanic corrosion
occurs whenever different metals (steels) are used in con-
structing crude distillation overheard systems. Acids and
salts cause galvanic corrosion in crude distillation overhead
system when some certain conditions are in place [42].
Groysman [33] revealed that galvanic corrosion also takes
place in petrochemical equipment, such as crude distilla-
tion overhead system due to the influence of acids, sulfides,
chlorides and water.
3.3 Pitting Corrosion
This is a type of localized corrosion damage in which holes
or cavities or pits are formed on the material, leading to fail-
ure of corrosion-induced, as the major causes of pitting cor-
rosion [43]. Pitting corrosion is known to be more dangerous
than uniform corrosion damage because it is more difficult
to notice, predict and fight against. The kind of corrosion
produced is usually covered with pits and are encouraged
by ennoblement which is serious but inactive to alloys [44].
Pitting corrosion was described by Loto [45] as a localized
corrosion that leads to formation and breakdown of passive
film on metal surface when in contact with anion solutions,
e.g. corrosion resistance of stainless steels. Studies by Nasir-
pouri et al. [20] showed that pitting corrosion occurs when
the surface coats have been removed from the surface of the
metal and pin holes are formed on metallic structures (stain-
less steel, titanium, aluminum alloys), which takes place at
a particular part of the metal.
Humooudi et al. [46] discussed that pitting corrosion is a
type of corrosion that occurs in crude distillation overhead
system and it is mainly caused by the presence of salt con-
tent contained in the crude oil. Pitting corrosion damage
also occurs in crude distillation overhead system [42] and
research showed that hydrochloric acid is the chief primary
cause of corrosion occurrence [42, 47]. Research carried
out by Groysman [36] stated that during the process of pro-
duction, chlorides and sulfides dissolves in the condensed
water in the crude distillation overhead system, which even-
tually cause pitting corrosion to the system. Slavcheva et al.
[48], in their own work revealed that at the temperature of
304 °C to 338 °C, intense pitting corrosion occur in crude
distillation overhead system when constructed with alloy
AISI 317 or 316. Furthermore, research showed that acid
and friction encourage pitting corrosion damage in crude
distillation overhead system [49]. Pitting corrosion damage
also takes place in crude distillation overhead system dur-
ing operation at the temperature greater than 310 °C [50].
Severe corrosion such as pitting corrosion usually take place
13
Journal of Bio- and Tribo-Corrosion (2019) 5:67
in crude distillation overhead systems when in contact with
corrosive salts [28].
3.4 Intergranular Corrosion
This kind of corrosion occurs near or at grain boundaries in
such a way that grain crystals are protected. It causes sudden
loss of material properties during serious cases, for example,
tensile properties, even when a small portion of the material
is affected or when a little part of the grain boundaries are
corroded [9]. Intergranular corrosion is described as forms
of localized corrosion that usually occurs in structures made
up of steel during their application in service [51]. Research
also showed that the difference in chemical composition
causes a potential difference between grain boundaries and
grains, creating conditions for intergranular corrosion to
occur [9]. Intergranular corrosion is known to be a danger-
ous type of corrosion damage that mostly occur at the inner
part of the material’s cross-sectional area without decrease
and fails when in use in a disastrous nature [52].
The presence of acids and sulfides causes intergranular
corrosion in crude distillation overhead systems by crack-
ing and fracture of the material or metallic structure [37].
Research by Mostafaei [22] revealed that corrosive gasses
such as hydrogen sulfide, hydrochloric acid and oxygen are
the reasons why intergranular corrosion occurs in crude
distillation overhead system. Intergranular corrosion was
described by Groysman [33] as one of the types of corro-
sion that occurs in crude distillation overhead system when
sulfur, hydrogen, amine, water and acids are present in the
overhead system.
4 Factors Responsible for Corrosion
in Crude Distillation Overhead System
The crude distillation overhead system has suffered a lot
from corrosion effect, through break down of facilities,
equipment, structures, components, thereby causing much
revenue to be diverted to maintain, repair and to sustain
them. There are some factors responsible for the corrosion
effect on components of the crude distillation overhead sys-
tem, which are discussed below.
4.1 Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is an agent that promotes corrosion in crude
distillation overhead system [32]. This occurs when high
concentration of the gasses is led to increasing rate of corro-
sion as temperature reduces, especially when it is dissolved
in water [53]. It forms a carbonic acid when disintegrated
in water [9]. This usually happens in the production com-
partment of the crude distillation overhead system and
Journal of Bio- and Tribo-Corrosion (2019) 5:67 Page 5 of 9  67
the transportation systems as one major problem. Carbon
dioxide is also formed as sweet corrosion. It can be non-
corrosive when dry in the production compartment of the
oil and gas industry even at the presence of temperature.
The corrosion eventually happens when it gets in touch and
disintegrates in water solution by electrochemical processes
[9]. Corrosion by carbon dioxide also happens in two major
ways; as pitting corrosion, which is a localized damage that
leads to swift, limited deterioration of the metal, causing a
gradual disposal of a little distinct region and the second is
(the mesa damage) localized corrosion type too [54].
4.2 Oxygen
Oxygen brings in corrosion effect into crude distillation
overhead system as a result of its oxidizing agent, even
though it’s not really found in the depth of the ground from
about 100 m from the top of the earth, yet it can still happen
[9]. Oxygen gets to react with metals swiftly because of its
powerful oxidizing agent [54]. It also has a great solubility
in water, which raises as temperature reduces [9]. The effect
of oxygen on the oil and gas components happens mostly
on the drill pipe when it disintegrates during the drilling
of fluids [54]. A continuous movement of the drilling fluid
over the drill pipes leads to increase in oxygen as its touches
the metal, creating more damage of oxygen to the pipes at
regular times [54]. Oxygen usually introduce impurities
that brings up corrosion during the process of drilling in oil
and gas industries [9]. This affects the drill muds when not
treated after use, corroding the well-casing, mud handing,
and drilling equipment, as well as a pipeline [53].
4.3 Sulfur Compounds
Corrosion by sulfide happens when metals or alloy are in
contact with compounds of sulfide at high temperatures
[16]. Research by Popoola et al. [54] showed that corrosion
by hydrogen sulfide degenerates’ metals when it comes in
touch with hydrogen sulfide and damp, happening mostly
at the drill pipes of the oil industry components. In the oil
and gas industries, sulfide corrosion usually takes place at
the atmospheric distillation column [16]. Also, other units
where sulfide corrosion occurs includes; vacuum distillation,
hydro-processing, coking units, hydrocrackers at the down-
stream section, even at the hydro-treaters etc. [16]. Hydrogen
sulfide by itself is non-corrosive but it turns into an intense
agent of corrosion when it comes in contact with water [53,
54]. Environments deposited with hydrogen sulfide in the
oil and gas industries are called sour environments [9]. This
environment generates failures of two kinds, namely sour
corrosion and the sulfide stress cracking [9]. The presence
of sulfur in petroleum consists of different chemical com-
pounds which include; sulfides, hydrogen sulfide H ­ 2S [32],
mercaptans, polysulfide, elemental sulfur and thiophenes
[55].
4.4 Microbiological Activities
Microorganisms are of different types, which are usually
present in water, air and are also attached to solid materials.
The ones that flow in the liquid are called the planktonic and
the ones found around surface parts are sessile [9]. These
microorganisms are grouped into bacteria [56], fungi [56,
57], algae [58] etc. Corrosion happens when activities of
bacteria take place thereby producing carbon dioxide, hydro-
gen sulfide, acids that get in contact with pipes. It gets the
pipe corroded by causing them to elevate harmfulness when
oil moves in them [9]. They usually take place at the surface
of the oil and gas pipes, making the pipe to pit at the bot-
tom where the residues are settled [54]. The presence and
activities of microorganisms lead to pitting corrosion, crev-
ice corrosion, selective de-alloying, and differential aeration
cell [9]. The microbiological analysis demonstrates accu-
mulation of heterotrophic aerobic bacteria in the produc-
tion of corrosion [9]. The concentration of these bacteria in
corrosion tubercles is large that could be related to biofilm
formation by these bacteria [59]. Physicochemical analy-
sis of corrosion deposits shows that they consist mainly of
iron and oxygen but organic substances also are contained
in relatively large amounts [16]. Research by Abioye et al.
[60] also revealed that microbes causes biofouling on steel
structures mostly in saline environment, which leads to their
rapid destruction.
5 Corrosion Prevention and Control in Crude
Distillation Overhead System
Corrosion prevention and control in crude distillation over-
head system have been largely encouraged to minimize
maintenance and overhead cost. The problems of corrosion
in crude distillation overhead system are solved by the basic
application (treatments) of physicochemical processes [16].
Some existing corrosion preventions are discussed below.
Material Selection showed that materials used in crude dis-
tillation overhead system are very important because of the
kind of chemicals and contaminants they face [9]. Studies by
Nalli [61] showed that whenever existing material used are
regularly declining due to corrosion, decisions for selection
of change of material for construction must be done. Mate-
rial selection is a core consideration for control of corrosion
in oil industry [62]. Anodic protection is a method used to
control the corrosion of the surface of the metal, thereby
making it the anode of the electrochemical cell and control-
ling the electrode potential in a region where the metal in
active [63]. For example, anodic protection has been used
13
 67   Page 6 of 9
on tanks (storage), reactors, vessels (for transportation),
and heat exchanger (tubes, plates) for corrosion protections.
Cathodic Protection is a technique used to reduce corro-
sion by making it minimize the difference in the potentials
between the anode and the cathode [9]. It was achieved
by putting current on the component to be prevented e.g.,
pipeline, from the outer part. After much current has been
applied to it, the whole component will be at one potential,
whereby making the anode and cathode not to occur again
[54].
Protective coatings are used to protect barriers (layer) on
the material to prevent the direct contact and to enhance the
material and equipment life. The barrier layer could be paint
[9] or a coating (metallic lining). For components such as
bolting, flanges, coatings like nickel, cadmium, and zinc are
always preferred [54]. Protective coatings are highly useful
means of preventing bio-corrosion in oil and gas industry
[32]. There must be an adherent, coherent, non-porous coat-
ing and mechanically resistant to the dangers that may hap-
pen during delivery, installation and chemically resistant to
sustain contact with the environment. Corrosion Inhibitor
as stated by Hasan et al. [64] is a combination of chemical
input in the refining industries to subdue the rate of corro-
sion for the materials used. Film formation on the surface of
the pipeline is one regular way of corrosion inhibiting [65].
This is known as the passivation of the layer, which stops
the flow of corrosive kind to the pipeline metal. In addition,
application of corrosion inhibitor is the most trusted, time
tested and proven method in the refinery industry [9].
6 Case Studies in Crude Distillation
Overhead System
6.1 Vacuum Distillation System
Corrosion occurred at the heat exchanger tubes that was con-
structed with A 199 T5 steel type of material (5 wt% Cr) and
the thickness of the well is 2.41 mm. The heat exchanger
serves as cooling of the base remains of column at the distil-
lation system. This was designed to be used for the period
of 15 years but failed at the 8th year of use. The inner part
of the heat exchanger had intense corrosion, making size
decreased largely. A high temperature of sulfide corrosion
was noticed [16].
6.2 Corrosion of Tubes in Heat Exchange
(Visbreaker)
The tubes were constructed with carbon steel ASTM A179
materials and was designed for the period of 6 years but
failed before durability time. An intense corrosion was
observed at the outer part of the tube with lots of holes in the
13
Journal of Bio- and Tribo-Corrosion (2019) 5:67
part of the plate. Deposits of black scale and black thickness
were found in the outer part of the tube due to iron sulfides
as observed from the result of the deposits and scales. The
high temperature of sulfide corrosion occurred because of
hydrogen sulfide contained in the oil and iron at a tempera-
ture of about 340 °C, the pressure of 4 bar through which
the oil passed into the shell [16].
6.3 Corrosion of Valves
There are two valves operating at the overhead vacuum sys-
tem, in which hydrogen sulfide, water vapor, and hydrocar-
bon gasses moved into at the temperature of 50 °C. The
valves were constructed with carbon steel material and were
designed for the period of 1 year. Firstly, two different sized
holes were located on the valves with diameters 12- and
2-mm. second, corrosion of black iron sulfide were formed
at the inner part of the moving disc, bolt, pin and another
part of the valves. The pH value which is always 4 in value,
for the condensation of water increased from the range of
3.8 to 7.8. Low temperature sulfide corrosion and wear were
observed [16].
6.4 Corrosion of the Second Step Vacuum
Condenser
There was a movement of hydrogen sulfide, hydrocarbon
and vaporized water into the shell of the second step vacuum
column at a temperature of 40 °C. The material used for
the shell was (carbon steel) and the tubes (copper-nickel).
A localized corrosion was observed at the second vacuum
condenser in a huge part of the outer part of the water con-
densate. The corrosion was said to be an under-deposit cor-
rosion due to the formation of acid deposit in the inside part
of the shell close to the outer part of the lower side of the
condensate as a result of extremely localized corrosion [16].
6.5 Corrosion of Trays in Stabilizer Hydro
Desulfurization
The overhead temperature of the stabilizer was between
60 and 80 °C. The stabilizer allows the movement of gaso-
line containing 400 part per million hydrogen sulfide and
200 parts per million hydrogen sulfides to the outer part.
The trays were constructed with carbon steel material and
designed for the period of 8 years. Extreme corrosion effect
on the trays were noticed with formations of rust at the over-
head part of the stabilizer, making the thickness to the tray to
decrease drastically from 3.5 to 0.5 mm. General corrosion
was observed and was caused by sulfates which were the
main corrosion agent. Also, there was oxygen disintegration
in the hydrocarbon stream as a result of hydrogen sulfide
oxidation and sulfuric acid formed in the wash water. The
Journal of Bio- and Tribo-Corrosion (2019) 5:67 Page 7 of 9  67
corrosion of carbon steel trays in the tower at the tempera-
ture of 60 °C to 80 °C was as a result of the acids [16].
6.6 High Temperature Hydrogen Attack of Piping
Welds at Hydro Desulfurization Unit
There were crack initiations in a seamless tube-elbow weld-
ment of diameter 100 mm with the service of hydrogen over
a period of 16 years. This led to a disastrous failure in nature
and with the discharge of extremely flammable hydrogen
and gas oil from the opening of the tube at a temperature
of approximately 280 °C, making it having severe fire out-
break. A material of the tube was carbon steel A 106 Grade
B schedule number 80, temperature design of 240 °C, pres-
sure 46 bar. Fractographic check (Scanning electron micro-
scope was used to analyses, which reflects the intergranular
fracture due to decarburization) and macroscopic check (the
welding segment was examined to see if there were cracks,
a smooth, dark heat affected area was observed). Failure of
hydrogen molecules at an increased temperature of greater
than 260  °C, dissolves into the carbon steel. Hydrogen
embrittlement happened too, resulting in loss of mechani-
cal properties [16].
7 The Economic Cost of Corrosion in Oil
and Gas Industry
Corrosion has been on since the inception of oil and gas
industry, causing lots of havoc and been managed for over a
very long period of time till now. Research has shown that
so much revenue has been used in controlling corrosion and
its maintenance. Some of these experiences are discussed
further based on past records from research. Ramraj and
Anandaraj [42], reported in their research that about $40,000
was spent yearly for maintenance of the crude distillation
overhead system. Corrosion of steel infrastructure in 2001,
was reported to cost the oil and gas industry in the range of
$3 billion to $7 billion each year in maintenance, repairs,
and replacement [66]. In 2016, overall global cost of corro-
sion was calculated as $2.5 trillion [67]. The research from
NACE stated that $276 billion dollars were spent on corro-
sion, resulting in 3.1% of the Gross domestic product by the
Americans. It was further illustrated that about $1.4 billion
dollars were separated to handle corrosion in the oil and
gas upstream only [68]. The storage (hazardous materials)
of oil and gas products was not left out as it cost about $7
billion US dollars to take care of the tank storage (petrol,
diesel etc.) for both surface and below ground tank. Research
showed that the yearly cost of corrosion from the manufac-
turing section in oil and gas totals to $1.372 billion dollars
in 2008, which includes $589 million dollars on pipeline
aboveground, 463 million dollars on underground and 320
million dollars on other corrosion expenses [68]. Akinyemi
et al. [69] revealed in their research that more than $2.5 mil-
lion was spent on corrosion within the year 2004 to 2008 in
the oil and gas industry, with year 2008 having the largest
amount spent and 2004 the lowest. This shows increment
in the expenses as the year goes by. The biggest oil and gas
producing country in Africa, Nigeria, which produces 2.4 to
2.53 million barrels of oil each day [70, 71], also loses up to
$765 million every year on corrosion [72].
8 Conclusion
This review summarizes the corrosion effect in petrochemi-
cal industry. The focus here was on crude distillation over-
head system. Crude distillation overhead system is usually
constructed with different types of steel grades such as car-
bon steel, stainless steel etc. Corrosion effect differs from
these steels. The components or sub-units of the crude dis-
tillation overhead system were also discussed, showing the
type of corrosion that occurs in them and corrosion controls.
Pitting corrosion and general corrosion are the common
types of corrosions that occurs in crude distillation overhead
system. The review further explains that some contaminants
from crude oil are the major promoters of frequent corrosion
effect on crude distillation overhead system. Contaminants
such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, sulfide, and microbiological
activities contributes largely to corrosion effects of the crude
distillation overhead system.
Finally, this review describes the corrosion prevention
and control technique commonly used in the crude distil-
lation overhead system. It explains that use of inhibitors is
most trusted and proven method used in the petrochemical
industry. Material selection also showed excellent control
measure for corrosion effect in crude distillation overhead
system.
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