Introduction ..........................................................................................................

power system introduction & simulation…………………………………………………………….3

 Block diagrams

 Signal flow graphs

 State space form

Elements of synchronous machine ………………………………………………………………………16

 Excitation system

 Benefits of excitation system

system equations in state space ...……………………………………………………………………….. 23

Transfer function of excitation……………………………………………………………………………….. 25

Speed governor representation...................................................................................26

The 3th order model of synch. Machine ...................................................................28

Parks transformation………………………………………………………………………………..………………..32

Voltage equation……………………………………………………………………………………………...…………35

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 Mathematical modeling in electrical
.power systems
Abstract
A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a set of
equations that represents the dynamics of the system accurately, or at
least fairly well. Note that a mathematical model is not unique to a
given system, A system may be represented in many different ways
and , there for, may have many mathematical models ,depending on
one’s perspective. The dynamics of many systems, whether they are
mechanical, electrical, thermal, economic, biological, and so on, may
be described in terms of differential equations. Such differential
equations may be obtained by using physical laws governing a
particular system…for example, Newton’s laws for mechanical
systems and Kirchhoff’s laws for electrical systems .We must always
keep in mind that deriving reasonable mathematical models is the
.most important part of the entire analysis of control systems

Introduction
As the power system becomes more complicated and more
interconnected, modeling and identification of its elements become
more essential. Synchronous generators play an important role in the
stability of power systems, so the play accurate modeling of
synchronous generators is essential for a valid analysis of dynamic
and stability performance in power systems

The SM is called synchronous machine, because the rotor of the

machine rotates Synchronously with the frequency of the grid. That
means for a synchronous generator in Europe for example 50 Hz. It
.can be used as a motor as well as a generator
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In fact the synchronous machine is the most commonly used machine
to generate power at

Power plants of all kinds, due to its ability to also supply the needed
reactive power

2-1) Power System Simulation & Modeling.

In studying control systems the reader must be able to model any

system and analyze system characteristics. A system model of any
system is defined as a set of equations that represents the operation of
the system accurately, or at least fairly well.

Note that a system model is not a unique for a given system. A system
may be represented in many different ways and therefore may have
many mathematical models depending on one's perspective .

The dynamics of many systems, whether they are mathematical,

electrical, thermal, economic, biological, and so on may be described in
terms of differential equations may be obtained by using physical lows
governing

a particular system, for example Newton's low for mechanical systems

and Kerchief's low for electrical systems. We must always keep in mind
that deriving reasonable mathematical models the most important part
of the entire analysis of control systems.

2-1-1) Block Diagrams.

A block diagram of a system is a graphical representation of the

functions performed by each component and of the flow of
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 signals, Such diagram depicts the inter relationships that exist
among the various components.

Differing from a purely abstract mathematical representation, a

block diagrams has the advantage of indicating more realistically
the signal flows of the actual system.

In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other

through functional blocks the functional block or simply block is a
symbol for the mathematical operation on the input signal to the
block that produces the output. The transfer functions of the
components are usually entered in the corresponding blocks
which are connected by rows to indicate the direction of the flow
of signals .

Note that the signal can pass only in the direction of the arrows.
Thus a block diagram of a control system explicitly shows a
unilateral property.

In the figure below, there are two elements with transfer function Gone(s)
and Gtwo(s). Where Gone(s) is the transfer function of first element and
Gtwo(s) is the transfer function of the second element of the system.

In addition to that, the diagram also shows there is a feedback path

through which output signal C(s) is fed back and compared with the input
R(s) and the difference between input and output is ,
which is acting as the actuating signal or error signal.

In each block of the diagram, the output and input are related together by
a transfer function. Where the transfer function is:

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Where C(s) is the output and R(s) is the input of that particular block.

A complex control system consists of several blocks. Each of them has its
own transfer function. But overall transfer function of the system is the
ratio of transfer function of final output to transfer function of initial input
of the system. This overall transfer function of the system can be obtained
by simplifying the control system by combining this individual blocks,
one by one.

The technique of combining of these blocks is referred to as block

diagram reduction technique. For successful implementation of this
technique, some rules for block diagram reduction to be followed. Let us
discuss these rules, one by one for reduction of control system block
diagram.

*Cascade Blocks*
When several systems or control blocks are connected in cascaded
manner, the transfer function of the entire system will be the product of
transfer function of all individual blocks. Here it also to be remembered
that the output of any block will not be affected by the presence of other
blocks in the cascaded system.

Now, from the diagram it is seen that,

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Where, G(s) is the overall transfer function of cascaded control system.

A)Summing Point of Block Diagram

Instead of applying single input signal to different blocks as in the

previous case, there may be such situation where different input signals
are applied to same block. Here, resultant input signal is the summation
of all input signals applied. Summation of input signals is represented by
a point called summing point which is shown in the figure below by
crossed circle. Here R(s), X(s) and Y(s) are the input signals. It is
necessary to indicate the fine specifying the input signal entering a
summing point in the block diagram of control system.

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B)Consecutive Summing Point

A summing point with more than two inputs can be divided into two or
more consecutive summing points, where alteration of the position of
consecutive summing points does not affect the output of the signal. In
other words – if there are more than one summing points directly inter
associated, and then they can be easily interchanged from their position
without affecting the final output of the summing system.

C)Parallel Blocks

When same input signal is applied different blocks and the output from
each of them are added in a summing point for taking final output of the
system then over all transfer function of the system will be the algebraic
sum of transfer function of all individual blocks.

D)Shifting of Take off Point

If same signal is applied to more than one system, then the signal is
represented in the system by a point called take off point. Principle of
shifting of take off point is that, it may be shifted either side of a block
but final output of the branches connected to the take off point must be
un-changed. The take off point can be shifted either sides of the block.

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In the figure above the take off point is shifted from position A to B. The
signal R(s) at take off point A will become G(s)R(s) at point B. Hence
another block of inverse of transfer function G(s) is to be put on that path
to get R(s) again.

Now let us examine the situation when take off point is shifted before the
block which was previously after the block.

Block Diagram of Closed Loop Control System

In a closed loop control system, a fraction of output is fed-back and

added to input of the system. If H (s) is the transfer function of feedback
path, then the transfer function of feedback signal will be B(s) =
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C(s)H(s). At summing point, the input signal R(s) will be added to B(s)
and produces actual input signal or error signal of the system and it is
denoted by E(s).

2-1-2) Signal Flow Graphs.

A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of

simultaneous linear algebraic equations. When applying the signal
flow graph method to analysis of control systems we must first
transform linear differential equations into algebraic equations in S
plain.

A signal flow graph consists of a network in which nodes are

connected by directed branches. Each node represents a system
variable and each branch connected between two nodes acts a
signal multiplier.

Note the signal flows in only one direction, the direction of signal flow is
indicated along the branch. The signal flow graph depicts the flow of
signals from one point of a system to another and gives the relation ships
among the signals.

2-1-3) State Space Form.

1- Simple the system analysis.

2- Used with multi input or output.

3- Increasing in the number of input not increase the complexity

but increase the order.

4- It gives more than presentation shape for the same system .

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 i) State Space Concept.

The min set of variables which defined the system. We used the
differential equations from the first order. Number of differential
equations equal to the storing elements in the circuit.

ii) State Space of A Dynamic System.

Is a set of the smallest numbers of variables that needed to be

known at a certain time t= t 0 to gather with the input to determine
the behavior of the

system at any time t≥t 0 .

State space representation in canonical forms.

1- Controllable canonical form.

2- Diagonal canonical form.

3-Jordan canonical form.

4- Observable canonical form.

The general form for state space .

ẋ =¿ Ax +Bu
¿

(2-1)

y =¿ Cx+ Du
¿ (2-2)

Where A,B,C,D are state space matrices.

A= n*n where n: number of states .

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 B= n*r where r: number of inputs .

C= m*n where m: number of outputs .

D= m*r.

U is the input of the system., Y is the output of the system.

The solution of the equation (2-1) can be divided to.

1- The first output from natural response due to the stored energy
in

inductances or capacitances (initial condition).

2- The second output from forced response due to input (source

applied to

the system).

iii) Free Response (Natural Response)and State Transition Matrix

u=0.0
Ẋ=Ax
sX ( s )−X ( 0 ) =AX ( s )
sX ( s )−AX ( s )=X ( 0 )
[ sI−A ] X ( s) =X ( 0 )
Where I is the unity matrix to enable us to substitute S from the matrix
A .

X ( s )=( sI− A )−1 ( X ( 0 ) )

X ( s )=φ ( s ) X ( s )

Where φ ( s ) is state transition matrix .

X ( t )=φ ( t ,0 ) X ( 0 )
X ( t )=φ ( t ,t 1 ) X ( t 1 )

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 (2-3)

Where x(t) is due to free response .

Y =CX

Y is The output due to free response .

iiii) Forced Response.

If there is input we use super position and the free response = zero

Let→ X ( 0 )=0
Ẋ =A∗X+Bu
sX ( s )=AX ( s ) +Bu ( s )
( sI −A ) X ( s )=Bu ( s )
X ( s )=( sI− A )−1∗B∗u ( s )
X ( s )=φ ( s )∗B∗u ( s )
t

X ( t )=∫ φ ( t−τ ) B∗u ( τ ) dτ (2-4)

0

Then the total response is

X ( t )=X ( natural response ) +X ( forced respose )

t

X (t ) =φ ( t ,0 )∗x ( 0 ) +∫ φ ( t , τ )∗B∗u ( τ ) dτ
0

(2-5)

So one can get the Eigen values for matrix A as following

|λ∗I−A|=0 (2-
6) The real part of the Eigen values λ should be -ve for stability .

Transfer function in terms of state space matrices can be derived as

following

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 Ẋ=AX+Bu
y=CX+Du
where
x ( 0 )=0.0
sx ( s)=Ax(s)+Bu(s)
x(s)= ( sI−A )−1 Bu(s)
y(s)=Cx( s)+Bu(s)
−1
y(s)=C( sI−A) Bu( s)+Du(s)
Y (s )
=C ( sI−A )−1 B+D
u (s)
(2-7)

ch/c = ∆ = |λ∗I−A| then one can check the stability of the system .

Check the effect of the modes in the system .

The system can be stable but the mode un stable so we check the effect
of the mode in the system.

V) Evaluation of The Transition Matrix Ф(t).

In order to develop the algorithm for φ ( t ) , let us consider the

unforced form which is

Ẋ =AX (2-
8)

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 sX ( s )−X ( 0 ) =AX ( s ) or ( sI− A ) X ( s ) =X ( 0 )
orX ( s )= ( sI− A )−1 X ( 0 )
−1
therefor , φ ( s ) =( sI −A ) or φ ( t )=ζ −1 φ ( s )
−1 Ψ ( s )
thenφ ( s )=( sI −A ) =
det ( sI− A )
(2-9)

Where Ψ ( s ) is in the adjoint matrix of ( sI −A ) is the determinant of

( sI −A )

matrix.

The matrix function Ψ ( s ) is written as a polynomial as

Ψ ( s )=Ψ 0 S n−1 +Ψ 1 S n−2 + Ψ 2 S n−3 +………+Ψ n−2 S +Ψ n−1

(2-10)

And the det. ( sI −A ) is the characteristic equation

det ( sI − A )= S n −d 1 S n−1 −d 2 Sn−2 −………−d n

(2-11)

Rewriting eq (2-9) as

I [ det ( sI− A ) ] = ( sI −A ) Ψ ( s )
(2-12)

Substituting eq. (2-10) and (2-11) into (2-12), we have

I ( S n −d 1 S n−1 −d 2 Sn−2 ……−d n )= ( sI− A ) [ Ψ 0 Sn−1 +Ψ 1 Sn−2 +Ψ 2 S n−3 +………+Ψ n−1 ]

(2-13)

Equating equal powers of S, we obtain

Ψ 0 =1, Ψ 1= A−d 1 I ,Ψ 2= AΨ 1 −d 2 I , Ψ 3 = AΨ 2−d 3 I , Ψ k = AΨ k −1 −d k I

(2-14)
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The coefficient d1 is equal to the sum of the roots of A and is

d 1 =trac ( A )=a11 +a 22 + a33+……+a nn

d 2 =1/ 2trac ( AΨ 1 )
d k =1/ k trac ( AΨ k −1 )

[ ]
φ11 φ12 …… φ 1n
φ 21 φ22 …… φ 2n
therefor , φ ( t )=ζ −1 φ ( s )=ζ −1
φn 1 φ n2 …… φnn

(2-15)

VI) Diagonalization.

Ẋ=AX +Bu
Z=T∗X∧ Ż=T∗ Ẋ⇒ Ẋ=T −1∗Ż
Where T is transformation matrix .

T −1∗Ż=A∗T −1∗Z +B∗u

−1
Ż =T∗A∗T ∗Z +T∗B∗u
~
Ż= A∗Z +~
B∗u
where
~
A=T∗A∗T −1 ∧~B=T∗B
−1
T =u then write eigenvector matrix make A diagonal and the diagonal
element is the eigenvalues.

A∗ui= λi∗ui

i is number of eigen values & U= [u 1 ,u 2 ,u3 ⋯⋯⋯⋯,un ]

−1
. if T =u then the matrix A diagonal with eigen values
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 ELEMENT OF
SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINE

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 2-2-5) Excitation system.

The system which is used for providing the necessary field current to
the rotor winding of the synchronous machine, such type of system is
called an excitation system. In other words, excitation system is defined
as the system which is used for the production of the flux by passing
current in the field winding. The main requirement of an excitation
system is reliability under all conditions of service, a simplicity of
control, ease of maintenance, stability and fast transient response.

The amount of excitation required depends on the load current, load

power factor and speed of the machine. The more excitation is needed in
the system when the load current is large, the speed is less, and the power
factor of the system becomes lagging.

The excitation system is the single unit in which the each alternator has
its exciter in the form of generator. The centralised excitation system has
two or more exciter which feeds the bus-bar. The centralised system is
very cheap, but the fault in the system adversely affects the alternators in
the power plant.

i)Types of Excitation System

1. DC Excitation System

2. AC Excitation System

o Rotor Excitation System

o Brushless Excitation System

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3. Static Excitation System

1. DC Excitation System
The DC excitation system has two exciters – the main exciter and a pilot
exciter. The exciter output is adjusted by an automatic voltage regulator
(AVR) for controlling the output terminal voltage of the alternator. The
current transformer input to the AVR ensures limiting of the alternator
current during a fault.

When the field breaker is open, the field discharge resistor is connected
across the field winding so as to dissipate the stored energy in the field
winding which is highly inductive.

The main and the pilot exciters can be driven either by the main shaft or
separately driven by the motor. Direct driven exciters are usually
preferred as these preserve the unit system of operation, and the
excitation is not excited by external disturbances.

The voltage rating of the main exciter is about 400 V, and its capacity is
about 0.5% of the capacity of the alternator. Troubles in the exciters of
turbo alternator are quite frequent because of their high speed and as such
separate motor driven exciters are provided as standby exciter.

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2. AC Excitation System
The AC excitation system consists of an alternator and thyristor rectifier
bridge directly connected to the main alternator shaft. The main exciter
may either be self-excited or separately excited. The AC excitation
system may be broadly classified into two categories which are explained
below in details.

a. Rotating Thyristor Excitation System

The rotor excitation system is shown in the figure below. The rotating
portion is being enclosed by the dashed line. This system consists an AC
exciter, stationary field and a rotating armature. The output of the exciter
is rectified by a full wave thyristor bridge rectifier circuit and is supplied
to the main alternator field winding.

The alternator field winding is also supplied through another rectifier

circuit. The exciter voltage can be built up by using it residual flux. The
power supply and rectifier control generate the controlled triggering
signal. The alternator voltage signal is averaged and compare directly
with the operator voltage adjustment in the auto mode of operation. In the
manual mode of operation, the excitation current of the alternator is
compared with a separate manual voltage adjustment.

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b. Brushless Excitation System
This system is shown in the figure below. The rotating portion being
enclosed by a dashed line rectangle. The brushless excitation system
consists an alternator, rectifier, main exciter and a permanent magnet
generator alternator. The main and the pilot exciter are driven by the main
shaft. The main exciter has a stationary field and a rotating armature
directly connected, through the silicon rectifiers to the field of the main
alternators.

The pilot exciter is the shaft driven permanent magnet generator having
rotating permanent magnets attached to the shaft and a three phase
stationary armature, which feeds the main exciter field through silicon
rectifiers, in the field of the main alternator. The pilot exciter is a shaft
driven permanent magnetic generator having rotating permanent magnets
attached to the shaft and a 3-phase stationary armature, which feeds the
main’s exciter through 3-phase full wave phase controlled thyristor
bridges.

The system eliminates the use of a commutator, collector and brushes

have a short time constant and a response time of fewer than 0.1 seconds.
The short time constant has the advantage in improved small signal
dynamic performance and facilitates the application of supplementary
power system stabilising signals.

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3. Static Excitation System
In this system, the supply is taken from the alternator itself through a 3-
phase star/delta connected step-down transformer. The primary of the
transformer is connected to the alternator bus and their secondary
supplies power to the rectifier and also feed power to the grid control
circuit and other electrical equipment.

This system has a very small response time and provides excellent
dynamic performance. This system reduced the operating cost by
eliminating the exciter windage loss and winding maintenance.

Why do we need excitation for a generator?

If your generator doesn't have permanent magnets to help create
electricity, the generator has to “create” its own magnets from wire
windings.

The electricity to create power for these windings, has to be created from
smaller magnets, or “exciters”.

Once the initial small impulse of electricity is created with the help of the
“exciters”, then the rotation of the armatures will create enough power to

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activate the “magnet” windings, as well as generate power for output
from the generator.

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Although the theory of synchronous generator has been
known since the beginning of its application, the
research of modeling and analysis of synchronous
generators is still very much ongoing. Mathematical
description of electromechanical systems operation such
as synchronous generator generally leads to a system of
differential equations which is regularly nonlinear due to
the multiplication of state variables. With the increase of
computing power, the capabilities for modeling and
analysis are increased as well. This has resulted in a large
number of models that differ depending on the type of
research they are intended for and on the degree of
desired accuracy

PARK’S TRANSFORMATION
Mathematical description of a synchronous generator
can be significantly simplified with proper variable
transformation. One of the possible stator
variables(currents, voltages, fluxes) transformation is
known as Park’s or d-q transformation .The number of
variables after a transformation generally remains the
same and in general case, substitution with new
variables should be observed as a completely
mathematical operation, thus no physical interpretation
of fictitious is necessary ,the applied transformation can

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be physically interpreted because the new variables are
obtained by projecting the real variables onto the
three axes (direct, quadrature and stationary)

Current id can be imagined as a current through a

fictitious winding which rotates with the same speed as
rotor windings and has such position that its axis always
aligns with the field winding axis. The magnitude of
current in this fictitious winding will be such that it will
induce a magnetic motive force in the d-axis equal to
the sum of magnetic motive forces in real phase
windings. The current I q can be
Imagined in the same way, but the difference is that the
axis of the fictitious winding aligns with the neutral axis
of the rotor. Current i0 is identical to the zero sequence
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current component and it exists only when the sum of
phase currents is different than zero. Zero-sequence is
not considered in the generator analysis so the two-
reaction representation is simplified which facilitates the
setting of generator
equations. Park’s transformation is unique, thus an
inverse transformation P−1 exists as
:well, defined as

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VOLTAGE EQUATIONS

Figure 1 shows rotor and stator windings of a three-

phase synchronous generator. The considered
synchronous generator has three phase stator windings
,(a, b, c)
A field winding (F) and two fictitious windings, one in d-
axis (D) and on in q-axis (Q)
Which substitute the reaction of damper windings or
dampening caused by eddy currents in a cylindrical
rotor. These six windings are magnetically linked, and
.flux linkages are a function of the rotor position
Voltage equations for these six linked circuits can be
written in a matrix form

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By applying Park’s transformation, (6) becomes

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By substituting for flux linkages

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As only balanced three-phase systems are usually
Analysed , the zero sequence equations are usually
omitted. By row-switching in order to group d-axis
variables together and q-axis variables together, voltage
equations (10) become

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 All these parameters and initial values can be estimated by
parameters estimation and load flow calculations to have the
final model

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