Gauss Law

Lecture 3:
Electric Flux, Gauss’s

Law, and Divergence
ELECTRIC FLUX, GAUSS’S LAW CONCEPT AND
APPLICATION, DIVERGENCE THEOREM
EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 1

Faraday’s Experiment
Electrically neutral:
+Q +(-Q) = 0
• A pair of concentric metallic
spheres was constructed (inner
and outer sphere)
• A known positive charge was

given to the inner sphere and
enclosed it with the outer sphere
that is electrically neutral
• Space between inner and outer

conductor was filled with a
dielectric (insulating) material
Insulating material

Faraday’s Experiment
• The outer sphere was discharged
momentarily when connected to ground
+Q flowing
to ground • When measured, the outer sphere has
a total charge of –Q
• Setup was carefully dismantled and the

measured total charge on the inner
sphere is +Q
• Charges of inner and outer sphere

have equal magnitude but different
signs regardless of insulating material

The Electric Flux
• “Something” has caused charge to be induced at the outer conductor
which Faraday called as displacement flux or electric flux 
• ELECTRIC FLUX: Measure of amount of electric field passing
through a surface
• Quantitatively,  = Q , that is, the electric flux is directly proportional
to the amount of charge causing the flux (in SI units, the constant of
proportionality is 1)

Electric Flux Density
• Define: D as Electric Flux Density
– electric flux per unit area
– unit: coulombs per square meter, C/m2
NOTES:
• D is a vector field belonging to the "flux density" class of vector
fields.
• The direction of D at a point is the direction of flux lines at that
point
•magnitude is equal to the number of flux lines crossing the
surface normal to the lines divided by the surface area.

Electric Flux Density Due to a
Spherical Charge
Example: Consider the setup of Faraday’s experiment where an inner
metallic sphere of radius a has a charge +Q and outer metallic sphere
of radius b and charge –Q. Determine the flux density, D, between the
two spheres
Remarks:
• The known positive charge +Q given
to inner sphere induced the –Q
charge on the outer sphere
a • Direction of electric flux is along a r
• Surface area of a sphere at an arbitrary
b radius r is 4πr2
+Q D can be expressed as:

-Q 
D=
Q
a , ar b
4r 2 r

Spherical Charge
•If the radius is shrunk to a point charge
while maintaining its charge, then:
 Q
D= a , 0r b
4r 2 r
• Recall: E-field due to a point charge is:

 Q
+Q E= a , 0r b
-Q
4 0 r 2 r
• In free-space, we can say that:

 
D = 0E

Flux Density due to a Continuous
Source
A flux density at a point P due to a continuous charge distribution can be
expressed as:
 
 n
 v v r − ri '
D(r ) = lim    2  
v →0
i =1 4 r − ri ' r − ri '
 
v r − ri '
= 
vol
  2
4 r − ri '
  dv
r − ri '

Gauss’s Law
“The electric flux passing through ANY CLOSED SURFACE is
equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface”
Consider a small area on a closed surface:
 
d = D  dS
Flux crossing an Surface Area Vector

incremental surface = (differential area) x
element (unit vector normal to
closed surface)
 
Integrating over the
closed surface, we get:
  dv = Q
vol
v enclosed =  =  D  dS
closed
surface

Applying Gauss’s Law
Example: Consider a point charge +Q located at the origin that
causes an electric field in free space:
 Q
E= ar
4 0 r 2
 
Since D =  0 E , we get:
 Q
D= a
4r 2 r
If we enclose this point charge by a spherical Gaussian surface of

radius a, we get:
 Q
D(r = a) = a
4a 2 r

• The differential area on the spherical
surface r = a, in spherical coordinates, is:
dS = a 2 sinθ dq df
DS
q • The direction normal to the spherical
surface is along a r :
a
Q r= dS
d S = a 2 sinθ dq df a r
f
• The integrand is:
  Q 
Ds  dS = sinθ dq df ar
4

The total flux is:
= D
surface
S  dS
f = 2 q =
Q
q
DS = f=0
q =0 4 sin θ dθ df
f = 2 q =
=a dS Q Q  2
Q r
=
4 f=0 q =0
 sin θ dθ df = 4
(− cos q ) 0 f 0
f
Q
= (1 − (−1))(2 ) = Q
4

Remarks on Gauss’s Law
• DS may be determined if the charge distribution is known.
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = ර 𝑫𝑺 ∙ 𝑑𝑺
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
• The evaluation of the integral is easy if the closed surface satisfies

these conditions:
1. DS is everywhere either normal or tangential to the closed
surface, so that DS • dS becomes either DS,normdS or zero,
respectively.
2. On that portion of the closed surface for which DS • dS is not
zero, DS is constant.

Point Charge
Example: Determine D due to a point charge located at the origin
Remarks:
dS • The electric field points radially
outward so the (Gaussian) surface
r of choice is a sphere
• At any point on the surface, the

field is normal
• Electric Field has constant

magnitude throughout the surface

Point Charge
Example: Determine D due to a point charge located at the origin
Therefore:
dS    
Qenclosed =  Ds  dS = Ds   dS
r sphere sphere
 f = 2 q = 2
= Ds   r sin q dq df
f =0 q =0

= 4r Ds 2
 Qenclosed 
Ds = ar
4r 2

Uniform Line Charge
Example: Determine D due to a line charge located along the z-
axis
Rermarks: Due to symmetry, D = D() a,
that is, the electric field points radially
z= L outwards from the z-axis

dS = dfdz
• a cylindrical surface which axis is the z-
axis is the only surface to which D is
normal.
• D is constant throughout thus surface.
• the electric field is tangent to any plane
normal to the z-axis.
Choose a closed right circular cylinder of radius  extending from z = 0 to z = L as the

Gaussian surface.
Uniform Line Charge
Example: Determine D due to a line charge located along the z-
axis
Therefore:
z= L Q=  DS • dS
 cyl
dS = dfdz = DS  dS + 0  dS + 0  dS
sides top bottom
L 2
= DS    df dz = DS 2 L
z= 0 f = 0
Qenclosed Q = l L l
Ds = a ⎯⎯⎯→ a
2 L 2

Coaxial Cable
Example: Given a coaxial cable which inner and outer conductors
are  = a and  = b, determine the electric flux density at the
region a <  < b. The charge density at the outer surface of the
inner conductor is S.
b Remarks:
a
• Gaussian surface: right circular cylinder of length L
and radius , a <  < b.
• Applying Gauss’s Law:
L f = 2 
L →Q = 
z =0 f =0
 Ds   df dz

→ 2aL s = 2L Ds
Coaxial Cable
region a <  < b. The charge density at the outer surface of the
inner conductor is S.  a 
Therefore: Ds =  s a 
b

a Comments:
• at  < a, flux density is zero because no charge
is enclosed
• at  >b, we need to assign a charge density at
L
outer conductor to cancel out flux density due
to inner conductor
a
 s ,outer = −  s ,inner ⎯⎯
→ Ds (   b) = 0
b
Electric Flux Density Due to an
Infinite Sheet of Charge
Example: Use Gauss’s Law to determine the flux density due to
an infinite sheet of charge with density S
S
Remarks:
• Total Charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is: Q = s S
• Electric Flux is passing only through top and bottom surfaces. Thus, a flux density
D can be expressed as:
Qenclosed = S S = 2 DS
D = S / 2
E = S / 2ε0
Clarification on Coaxial Cable
Example
region a <  < b. The charge density at the inner conductor is S.
b Remarks:
a
• Gaussian surface: right circular cylinder of length L
and radius , a <  < b.
• Applying Gauss’s Law:
L f = 2 
L →Q = 
z =0 f =0
 Ds   df dz

→ 2aL s = 2L Ds
Coaxial Cable
region a <  < b. The charge density at the inner conductor is S.
 a 
Therefore: Ds =  s a 
b

Comments:
a
• at  < a, flux density is zero because no charge
is enclosed
• at  > b, we need to assign a charge density at
L outer conductor to cancel out flux density due
to inner conductor
a
 s ,outer = −  s ,inner ⎯⎯
→ Ds (   b) = 0
b
Gauss’s Law for Asymmetric
Charge Distribution
• Our examples on Gauss’s Law relied
on symmetry
• Without symmetry, we can’t choose

+Q a surface such that D is constant or
zero everywhere on the surface
• How to solve this kind of problem?

Application of Gauss’s Law on
Differential Volume Element
Consider a differential volume that encloses P:
At point P, the electric flux density is

z
P(x0,y0,z0) D = D0 = Dx0 ax + Dy0 ay + Dz0 az
Applying Gauss's Law:

z
x
y
y  D • dS = Q
S
=  +  +  +  +  + 
x front back left right top bottom

z Considering the first integral (front surface):
P(x0,y0,z0)
 = Dfront • Sfront
front
= (Dx,front ax + Dy,front ay + Dz,front az) • yz ax
z
x
y = Dx,frontyz
y
Where
x
x Dx,front = Dx0 + x rate of change of Dx with x
2
x D x
= Dx0 +
2 x
x D x
So  = (Dx0 + ) yz
front 2 x

z Now, consider the back surface:
P(x0,y0,z0)
 = Dback • Sback
back
= (Dx,back ax + Dy,back ay + Dz,back az )• yz(-ax)
z = -Dx,backyz
x
y x D x
y where Dx,back = Dx0 -
2 x
So
x x D x x D x
 = -(Dx0 -
2 x
) yz = (-Dx0 +
2 x
)yz
back
x D x
Since  = (D x0 + ) yz
front 2 x
D x
 +  =
x
xyz
front back

Similarly, we can show that
D y Dz
 +  =
y
xyz  +  =
z
xyz
right left top bottom
 D • dS = Q =  +  +  +  +  + 
S front back left right top bottom
D x D y Dz D D y Dz
=( + + )xyz = ( x + + ) v
x y z x y z
The charge enclosed in a small volume v is approximately equal to
D x D y Dz
( + + ) v
x y z

Electric Flux due to a
Example: approximate the charge in a 10-9 m3 volume where
D = e-x sin y ax – e-x cos y ay + 2z az C/m2
D x D y D z
+ + = −e − x sin y + e − x sin y + 2 = 2
x y z
D x D y D z
At any point (x, y, z), + + = 2 , so the charge enclosed by
x y z
a 10-9 m3 volume is 2 * 10-9 = 2 nC

Divergence Operator
• Given a differential volume ∆v, it was shown
that:
z    Dx D y Dz 
P(x,y,z) S D  dS = Q =  x + y + z v
1    Dx D y Dz 
z
x 
v S
D  dS = 
 x
+
y
+ 
z 
y
y • Taking the limit as ∆v → 0, we get:
1    Dx D y Dz 
x lim
v →0 v 
S
D  dS = 
 x
+
y
+ 
z 
This operation is called the DIVERGENCE of D

Divergence Operator
DEFINITION: For any vector field A, the divergence of A is defined as:
1 
div A = lim
v →0 v 
S
A  dS
The divergence of a vector flux density is the outflow of flux from a small
close surface per unit volume as the volume shrinks to zero
 Dx D y Dz 
Cartesian: div D =  + + 
 x y z 
1  1 Df Dz
Cylindrical: div D = ( D  ) + +
   f z
1  2  1 Df
Spherical: div D =
r r
2
r(Dr + ) 1
r sin q q
(sin q Dq ) +
r sin q f
Maxwell’s First Equation
(Electrostatics)
Given a small volume v,
D x D y D
 D • dS = Q = ( + + z ) v
S x y z
or
1 Q D x D y D
v
 D • dS =
v
=(
x
+
y
+ z)
z
S
getting the limit as v → 0,
1 Q
lim v  D • dS = lim
v → 0 S v → 0  v
= v = volume charge density
Maxwell’s First Equation
(Electrostatics)
Maxwell’s first (of four) equation:
div D =  v
The electric flux per unit volume leaving a vanishingly small
volume unit is exactly equal to the volume charge density there.
REMARKS:
• Maxwell’s first equation is also known as the point form of
Gauss’s Law
•Conversely, Gauss’s Law is the integral form of Maxwell’s first
equation

Divergence Example 1
Example: Determine the divergence of D in the region about a
point charge Q located at the origin.
Q 
D= ar
4r 2
Using Maxwell’s 1st equation:

1  2  1 Df
div D = 2
r r
(r Dr ) +
1
r sin q q
(sin q Dq ) +
r sin q f
1   2 Q 
div D = 2  r  = 0 ( for r  0)
2 
r r  4 r 
Charge density every where is zero everywhere, except origin
where it is infinite
Example: In a region in free space, electric flux density is found to be
𝜌0 𝑧 + 2𝑑 𝒂𝒛 −2𝑑 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 0
𝑫=ቊ
−𝜌0 𝑧 − 2𝑑 𝒂𝒛 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 2𝑑
Everywhere else, 𝑫 = 0. Using the divergence of 𝑫 find the volume
charge density as a function of position everywhere.
Solution: for −2𝑑 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 0,
𝜕𝐷𝑥 𝜕𝐷𝑦 𝜕𝐷𝑧
div 𝑫 = + + = 𝜌0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
for 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 2𝑑,
div 𝑫 = + + = −𝜌0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

for anywhere else,
div 𝑫 = + + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
The total expression:
𝜌0 −2𝑑 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 0
𝜌𝑣 = ቐ−𝜌0 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 2𝑑
0 elsewhere

The Vector Operator 
• DEFINE:
     
= ax + a y + az = , ,
x y z x y z
• Using the definition, we can express divergence of D (in Cartesian

coordinates) as:
Dx D y Dz
divD =   D = ax + ay + az
x y z
•  is called the del operator

The Vector Operator 
•  is also used to operate on scalar fields, that is, if u(x,y,z) is a
scalar field, then
    
u =  a x + a y + a z u ( x, y, z )
 x y z 
u u u
= ax + ay + az
x y z
• u is called the gradient of u
• del operator does not have a specific form in other coordinate
system but   D still indicate divergence in other coordinate
system

The Divergence Theorem
• Recall Gauss’s Law:  
Qenclosed =  D  dS
closed
surface
• Since Q=   dv and   D =  , we have:

vol
v v
  
Divergence
Theorem:
   D dv =
volume closed
 D  dS
surface
The integral of the normal component of any vector field over a closed
surface is equal to the integral of the divergence of this vector field
throughout the volume enclosed by the closed surface.

Divergence Theorem Ex. 1
Example: The electric flux density on a region in space is defined
by the equation:
𝐷 = 0.75𝜙𝑟 2 𝑎Ԧ𝑟
What is the total charge enclosed by the surface 𝑟 = 1?
Solution: Two methods to arrive at the answer: Apply Gauss’ Law
or use Divergence Theorem.
𝑄𝑇 = ර 𝐷 ∙ 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ
𝑆
The differential surface area is 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑎Ԧ 𝑟 bounded by

0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋, 0 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 2𝜋, and 𝑟 = 1

2𝜋 𝜋
𝑄𝑇 = ර 𝐷 ∙ 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = න න 0.75𝜙𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙

𝑆 0 0
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑄𝑇 = 0.75𝑟 2 න 𝜙𝑑𝜙 න sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

0 0
𝑄𝑇 = 0.75 1 2 2𝜋 2 2
𝑄𝑇 = 3𝜋 2 𝐶
• To confirm this value, then the divergence of the field can be used:
1 𝜕 2
𝜌𝑣 = ∇ ∙ 𝐷 = 2 𝑟 0.75𝜙𝑟 2
𝑟 𝜕𝑟

𝜌𝑣 = 3𝜙𝑟
• Integrate the expression using the sphere 𝑟 = 2. The bounds of the
integral becomes 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 1, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋, and 0 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 2𝜋.
𝑄𝑇 = ම 3𝜙𝑟 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙

𝑉
𝜋 1 2𝜋
𝑄𝑇 = 3 න sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 න 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟 න 𝜙𝑑𝜙
0 0 0
1
𝑄𝑇 = 3 2 2𝜋 2 → 𝑄𝑇 = 3𝜋 2 𝐶
4

Example: In the region of free space that includes the volume
2 < 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 < 3, the flux density is
2
𝑫 = 2 𝑦𝑧𝒂𝒙 + 𝑥𝑧𝒂𝒚 − 2𝑥𝑦𝒂𝒛 C/m2
𝑧
Evaluate the volume integral side of the divergence theorem.
Confirm your result to the surface integral side for the defined
volume.
Solution: Solve for the divergence,
𝛁∙𝑫 = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 2𝑦𝑧 𝜕 2𝑥𝑧 𝜕 −4𝑥𝑦
𝛁∙𝑫= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝑧 2 𝜕𝑦 𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 𝑧 2
8𝑥𝑦
𝛁 ∙ 𝑫 = 3 C/m3
𝑧
Volume integral side of the divergence theorem. The volume is a
rectangular prism bounded by 2 < 𝑥 < 3, 2 < 𝑦 < 3, and 2 < 𝑧 < 3.
3 3 3 3 3 3
8𝑥𝑦
නනන 3
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 8 න 𝑥𝑑𝑥 න 𝑦𝑑𝑦 න 𝑧 −3 𝑑𝑧
𝑧
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3
4𝑥𝑦 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧 −2
නනන 3
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 8 อ อ อ
𝑧 2 2 −2
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3
4𝑥𝑦 125
න න න 3 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = C
𝑧 36
2 2 2

Closed surface integral of the flux density. The rectangular prism has six sides.
The sum of the individual flux of each side is the total closed surface flux.
Left and right (−𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧𝒂𝒚 and 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧𝒂𝒛 ):
3 3 3 3
2𝑥 2𝑥
න න ቤ −𝒂𝒚 ∙ 𝒂𝒚 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 + න න ቤ 𝒂𝒚 ∙ 𝒂𝒚 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 = 0
2 2 𝑧 𝑦=2 2 2 𝑧 𝑦=3
Front and back (𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝒂𝒙 and −𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝒂𝒙 ):

3 3 3 3
2𝑦 2𝑦
න න ቤ 𝒂𝒙 ∙ 𝒂𝒙 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 + න න ቤ −𝒂𝒙 ∙ 𝒂𝒙 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 = 0
2 2 𝑧 𝑥=3 2 2 𝑧 𝑥=2
Top and bottom (𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝒂𝒁 and −𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝒂𝒛 ):
3 3 3 3
−4𝑥𝑦 −4𝑥𝑦 125
න න ቤ 𝒂 ∙ 𝒂 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + න න ቤ −𝒂 ∙ 𝒂 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 =
2 2 𝑧 2 𝑧=3 𝒛 𝒛 2 2 𝑧 2 𝑧=2 𝒛 𝒛
36
Total flux:
125
Ψ𝑡𝑜𝑡 = Ψ𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 + Ψ𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 + Ψ𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 + Ψ𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 + Ψ𝑡𝑜𝑝 + Ψ𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 → Ψ𝑡𝑜𝑡 = C
36

Gauss Law

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Gauss Law

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Lecture 3:

Electric Flux, Gauss’s

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 1

• A known positive charge was

• Space between inner and outer

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 2

• Setup was carefully dismantled and the

• Charges of inner and outer sphere

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 3

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 4

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 5

+Q D can be expressed as:

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 6

• Recall: E-field due to a point charge is:

• In free-space, we can say that:

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 7

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 8

Flux crossing an Surface Area Vector

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 9

If we enclose this point charge by a spherical Gaussian surface of

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 10

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 11

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 12

• The evaluation of the integral is easy if the closed surface satisfies

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 13

• At any point on the surface, the

• Electric Field has constant

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 14

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 15

Choose a closed right circular cylinder of radius  extending from z = 0 to z = L as the

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 17

• Without symmetry, we can’t choose

• How to solve this kind of problem?

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 23

At point P, the electric flux density is

Applying Gauss's Law:

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 24

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 25

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 26

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 27

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 28

This operation is called the DIVERGENCE of D

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 29

getting the limit as v → 0,

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 32

Using Maxwell’s 1st equation:

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 34

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 35

• Using the definition, we can express divergence of D (in Cartesian

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 36

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 37

• Since Q=   dv and   D =  , we have:

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 38

The differential surface area is 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑎Ԧ 𝑟 bounded by

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 39

𝑄𝑇 = ර 𝐷 ∙ 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = න න 0.75𝜙𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙

𝑄𝑇 = 0.75𝑟 2 න 𝜙𝑑𝜙 න sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 40

𝑄𝑇 = ම 3𝜙𝑟 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 41

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 43

Front and back (𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝒂𝒙 and −𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝒂𝒙 ):

EEE 135: ELECTROMAGNETICS I 44