Sour Gas

Q u e s t i o n s + A n s we r s

Second Edition
SOUR GAS: QUESTIONS + ANSWERS
Second Edition

Writer: Robert D. Bott

Copyright 2006 by the Canadian Centre for Energy Information, www.centreforenergy.com

Canadian Cataloguing in Publications Data

Main entry under title: Sour Gas Questions + Answers

1. Gas industry - Canada. I. Bott, Robert, 1945- II Canadian Centre for Energy Information

ISBN 1- 894348-17-6

ABOUT THIS PUBLICATION

The second edition of Sour Gas Questions + Answers has been updated and expanded from the original 2000 version.
It includes more information about public consultation processes, emergency response planning and scientific studies
related to health effects. All statistics, technical information and illustrations have been reviewed and updated as required.

In developing this publication, we encountered some variance of opinion among scientists studying the effects of sour gas
exposure on human health. We have attempted to address this by including a range of findings in our discussions in Part 3
(Human Health Effects) and Part 6 (Research). In an effort to produce a balanced, credible publication, we consulted a
number of experts in the field of human health and toxicology (not all of whom are listed below) and drew upon peer-
reviewed, published research as well as documents produced by government. In order to maintain a focus for our readers,
we used Canadian sources as much as possible.

The Centre for Energy strives to produce impartial, fact-based information about the energy industry. To this end, all major
works are reviewed independently by individuals with relevant expertise and interest in the topic. We would like to thank the
reviewers who scrutinized the two drafts of the sour gas publication. We very much appreciate their support and
commitment to help produce a factual, balanced, educational resource that provides useful information to people living
with sour gas operations near their communities, workers in the oil and natural gas industry, educators and the media.

Colleen Killingsworth, President, Canadian Centre for Energy Information

Cover photos (top to bottom) courtesy of Neil Scott, edgecine.com, Nexen Inc.,Tami Hutchinson and JuneWarren Publishing.

REVIEWERS
The following individuals generously provided their time and expertise to assist in the development of this publication:

Brian Bietz Randy Dobko and Lawrence Cheng Lynne Patenaude

Bietz Resources Inc. Alberta Environment Environment Canada
Dr. Karina Bodo and Alex MacKenzie Ian Dowsett Greg Ritz
Public Health Surveillance and First Response Emergency Services Ltd. David Thompson Health Region
Environmental Health
Craig Gibson Gay Robinson
Alberta Health and Wellness
British Columbia Oil and Gas Community Relations Consultant
David Brown Commission
James Shaw
Landowner & community volunteer
Terry Gibson Nexen Inc.
Public Safety & Sour Gas
Gecko Management Consultants
Advisory Committee Nikki Sitch and Rob Telford
Bryan Gormley Canadian Association of
Judith Bugg
Canadian Gas Association Petroleum Landmen
Public Safety & Sour Gas
Advisory Committee Geoff Granville and John Squarek
Laurieanne Lynne Canadian Association of
Dan Clarke
Shell Canada Limited Petroleum Producers
Alberta Human Resources
and Employment Jim Kiss Doug Van Eden
Government of Alberta Enform
Selena Cole
Farmer’s Advocate Safety Training
Alberta Energy
Land Access and Development Tony Messer Trent West
City of Calgary Disaster Services Municipal District of Rockyview
Marilyn Craig, Greg Gilbertson
Disaster Services
and Gary Nielson
Alberta Energy and Utilities Board
CONTENTS

PART 1 DEFINING SOUR GAS

4 What is sour gas?
5 How is sour gas formed?
5 Where is sour gas found?
6 How is sour gas processed?

PART 2 THE PUBLIC INTEREST

10 Why is sour gas produced?
10 How does sour gas production affect surrounding communities?
11 What rights do residents and landowners have in sour gas operations?
12 What say do other stakeholders have in sour gas operations?

PART 3 H 2 S AND SAFETY

14 How toxic is H2S?
Photo courtesy of
17 What are the permitted concentrations of H2S and SO2? JuneWarren Publishing
18 What is an emergency response plan?
19 What is an emergency planning zone?
21 How is the public protected during a sour gas emergency?
22 What are setbacks?
23 How are workers trained for sour gas operations?
24 What is done to reduce the risks of sour gas operations?
29 Who regulates sour gas operations in Canada?
30 How are regulations enforced?

PART 4 HISTORY Photo courtesy of

32 How has the sour gas industry evolved in Canada? Shell Canada Limited

PART 5 EMISSIONS AND IMPACTS

36 What is emitted from sour gas operations?
40 How do sour gas operations affect humans and animals?
41 How does sour gas production affect soil and vegetation?
42 How does sour gas production affect water quality?
42 What is done to reduce emissions from sour gas operations?

PART 6 RESEARCH
44 What research has been conducted into the effects of sour gas?
Photo courtesy of
JuneWarren Publishing
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
49 Publications
52 Websites
53 Key definitions

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to acknowledge and thank the following individuals for their assistance
in providing information, statistics or photos: Laurieanne Lynne, Shell Canada Limited;
Joey Podlubny and Bill Whitelaw, JuneWarren Publishing Ltd.; Lori MacLean, EnCana;
Stephen Rodrigues, Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers; Jim Shaw, Nexen
and Brett Wootton, RWDI Air Inc.

SOUR GAS QUESTIONS + ANSWERS 2ND EDITION 1

 MAPS, TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
4 Relative concentrations
5 Cross-section of Western Canada Sedimentary Basin
7 Sour gas processing
8 Sour gas producing areas in Alberta and British Columbia
10 Demand for Canadian natural gas, 2004
15 Effects of H2S on people
16 Lost-time injuries and fatalities due to hydrogen sulphide (H2S) exposure
17 Ambient hydrogen sulphide ( H2S) guidelines
17 Ambient sulphur dioxide (SO2) guidelines
20 Sour gas dispersion model
22 Examples of minimum setback distances
25 Circulating system of drilling rig
27 Sour gas pipeline incidents in Alberta
27 Smart pigs
29 Alberta sulphur emissions, 1973-2004
29 Canadian elemental sulphur shipments, 1995-2004
37 Number of complaints and complaint issues recorded
38 Sulphur oxide emissions in Canada, 2000
39 Nitrogen oxide emissions in Canada, 2000
40 Volatile organic compound emissions in Canada, 2000

NOTE: Special terms used in the oil and gas industry are usually defined in context within
one page of where they first appear. A glossary of industry terms is included in Our Petroleum
Challenge and posted in the oil and natural gas glossary on the Centre for Energy portal
www.centreforenergy.com An overview about the potential environmental impacts of
the oil and gas industry is also posted in the oil and natural gas section of the portal.

Flaring Questions + Answers, a companion publication to Sour Gas Questions + Answers,

is produced by the Centre for Energy to explain flaring and the incineration of natural gas in
Canada. Although some sour gas issues are also flaring issues, the majority of flaring involves
sweet gas containing little or no hydrogen sulphide (H2S). For a more complete understanding
of sour gas and flaring, readers are urged to consult both documents and the oil and natural
gas section of www.centreforenergy.com. Sources for further information are included at the
back of each document.

Although the Canadian Centre for Energy Information has endeavoured to provide accurate and
current information within this publication, the Centre for Energy and the volunteer reviewers do not:
• make any warranty or representation, expressed or implied with respect to accuracy,
completeness or usefulness of the information contained within this booklet;
• assume any responsibility or liability to any party for any damages resulting from the negligence
of the Centre for Energy in preparation of any information, method or process described in this
publication; or
• endorse any product, service or process which may be described or implied within this publication.

Readers may use the contents of this book for personal study or review only. Educators and students
are permitted to reproduce portions of the book, unaltered, with acknowledgement to the Canadian
Centre for Energy Information. Copyright to all photographs and illustrations belongs to the
organizations and individuals noted as sources on the images. For other usage information, please
contact the Canadian Centre for Energy Information in writing.

2 SOUR GAS QUESTIONS + ANSWERS 2ND EDITION

Defining Sour Gas
Par t 1
S O U R G A S I S N AT U R A L G A S CO N TA I N I N G H Y D R O G E N
S U L P H I D E ( H2 S ) . T H E O D O U R O F H2 S C A N B E D E T E C T E D
AT V E RY LOW CO N C E N T R AT I O N S , A N D I T I S T OXIC T O
H U M A N S A N D A N I M A L S AT H I G H E R CO N C E N T R AT I O N S .
A B O U T O N E - T H I R D O F T H E N AT U R A L G A S P R O D U C E D
IN W E S T E R N C A N A D A I S S O U R . L E S S T H A N 0 . 1 P E R C E N T
O F T H E P R O D U C E D H 2 S I S R E L E A S E D I N TO T H E
AT M O S P H E R E.

Photo courtesy of
Nexen Inc.

Photo courtesy of
JuneWarren Publishing

SOUR GAS QUESTIONS + ANSWERS 2ND EDITION 3

 What is sour gas?
Sour gas is natural gas containing hydrogen sulphide (H2S), a compound of two hydrogen
atoms and one sulphur atom. H2S is flammable, has a strong rotten-egg odour, and at higher
concentrations is poisonous to humans and animals.

H2S by itself is heavier than air. However, because sour gas contains lighter-than-air methane,
the mixture may actually be lighter than air at equal temperature and pressure. The density also
depends on the amounts of other hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide and water vapour in the sour
gas. All sour gas containing more than 20 per cent H2S is heavier than air.

About one-third of the natural gas produced in Alberta and British Columbia is sour. Smaller
amounts of sour gas are found in other petroleum-producing areas such as Saskatchewan,
Manitoba, Nova Scotia and the Northwest Territories.

As it comes from the ground, natural gas is typically a mixture of substances. Along with H2S
and possibly other odorous sulphur compounds, natural gas normally contains a range of
hydrocarbons such as methane, ethane, propane and butane, as well as carbon dioxide (CO2)
and water. The water often has a high salt content, reflecting the marine (ocean) environment
from which the gas originated.

Broadly speaking, sour gas is any natural gas containing measurable amounts of H2S.
“Sweet gas” is natural gas containing little or no H2S. In some references, sour gas is defined
more narrowly as natural gas containing more than one per cent H2S. If the gas contains more
than one per cent H2S, more corrosion-resistant materials and equipment must be used to
produce gas safely. However, workers require special training and equipment on worksites
where the natural gas being produced or processed contains more than 10 parts per million
H2S (0.001 per cent). The odour of H2S is detectable in the air at very low concentrations,
as low as 10 parts per billion (0.000001 per cent).

RELATIVE CONCENTRATIONS
A LARGE PUBLIC SWIMMING POOL MIGHT HOLD 375 CUBIC METRES
OR 375,000 LITRES OF WATER

P a r ts per million
A soft drink can holds 375 P a r ts per billion
millilitres. If the contents An eyedropper might hold three-eighths
of the can are dissolved in (0.375) of a millilitre. If this amount of fluid
the swimming pool, the is dissolved in the swimming pool,
concentration of the soft the concentration of the fluid in the water
drink in the water would be one part per billion.
would be one part
per million.

© Canadian Centre for Energy Information

4 SOUR GAS QUESTIONS + ANSWERS 2ND EDITION

How is sour gas formed?
Sulphur is a very common element on Earth, and sulphur compounds are vital components
of plant and animal life. H2S is formed from such sulphur compounds during the anaerobic
(without oxygen) decomposition of organic materials. This process can be observed today in
sewers, manure piles, swamps and bogs, or even a poorly maintained compost heap. A similar
anaerobic process occurred during the formation of oil and gas millions of years ago. This
accounts for the small amount of H2S and other sulphur compounds – typically one or two
per cent – found in many crude oil and natural gas reservoirs around the world.

H2S is also produced by chemical reactions within some sedimentary rocks. At temperatures
above 140 degrees Celsius, the calcium sulphate (CaSO4) in gypsum reacts with hydrocarbons
to produce H2S and compounds such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3). This chemical process can
produce large volumes of H2S – up to 90 per cent of the gas contained in some reservoirs – in
deeply buried sedimentary rocks such as those found in the foothills of the Canadian Rockies.
Many petroleum-bearing rock formations also contain iron that bonds with sulphur. When there
is ample iron present, the result is sweet gas containing little or no H2S.

CROSS-SECTION OF WESTERN CANADA SEDIMENTARY BASIN

© Canadian Centre for Energy Information

Where is sour gas found?

About 30 per cent of Canada’s total natural gas production is sour. Most of this gas is found
in central and western Alberta and northeastern British Columbia. Alberta accounts for about
85 per cent of Canada’s sour gas production. In addition, some sour gas is produced along
with crude oil in Saskatchewan and Manitoba. The natural gas discovered thus far in the
Canadian Arctic is sweet. Most of the natural gas found off the East Coast is also sweet, although
the Deep Panuke field off Nova Scotia contains about 0.2 per cent H2S. There have also been
discoveries of slightly sour gas near Fort Liard in the southern Northwest Territories, with an
average H2S content of about one per cent or less. The map on page 8 shows the principal sour
gas producing areas in Alberta and northeastern British Columbia.

Natural gas is often a component of crude oil, and this gas can also be sour. While the oil is
underground, the pressure of the reservoir holds the natural gas in the oil. When the oil is
brought to the surface, the pressure is reduced, and the gas bubbles out of the oil. This is similar
to the way the carbonation bubbles out of soda pop when the cap is removed. Natural gas
contained in crude oil is called solution gas. If the gas contains H2S, it is sour solution gas. In
general, solution gas is captured and processed unless quantities are too small to support
economic recovery. In those cases, the solution gas is flared, incinerated or re-injected into
the ground.

SOUR GAS QUESTIONS + ANSWERS 2ND EDITION 5

 How is sour gas processed?
Various means are used to process sour gas, dispose of H2S and deliver “sweet” H2S-free natural
gas to transmission pipelines and end-use customers.

Gas processing plants use physical and chemical processes, in the presence of catalysts, to
remove H2S and other byproducts from the natural gas. In Western Canada, about four per cent
of the recovered H2S is injected into underground rock formations. Otherwise, nearly all of the
H2S is converted into elemental sulphur. The sulphur is sold to customers around the world and
is used mainly in the manufacture of phosphate fertilizers. Some sulphur is also used in making
products such as pharmaceuticals, plastics and matches. When the sulphur production rate is
higher than the demand, the elemental sulphur must be stored, usually in large blocks at the
plant site. Canada accounts for more than one-quarter of world sulphur production.

Less than 1.5 per cent of the H2S in sour gas production is burned in flares or incinerators.
Combustion in incinerators is more efficient because it is controlled and contained, compared to
open-air combustion in flares. (See the Centre for Energy’s Flaring Questions + Answers for more
detailed information on flaring and incineration.) With either method, burning converts H2S into
water (H2O) and sulphur dioxide (SO2).The heat of combustion lifts both the water vapour and
the SO2 upwards into the atmosphere and disperses the emissions over a larger area.

Flaring has been used primarily to dispose of sour solution gas in oilfields where the gas
volumes are too small, or the sites too remote, to make pipelining and gas processing economic.
Due to government and industry commitments to reduce the amount of flaring, as well as the
rising economic value of natural gas, more of the sour solution gas is now being pipelined to
processing plants. At some facilities, flares have been replaced with more efficient incinerators.
Previously incineration had been used primarily at smaller gas processing plants where the
gas volumes or H2S concentrations were too low to make sulphur recovery economic.

An increasing proportion of the formerly incinerated H2S, along with CO2 and salt water removed
from the natural gas, is now being injected into underground rock formations. This process is
known as acid gas injection because H2S and CO2 are both gases that can form acids when
combined with water. Acid gas injection has been adopted at about 45 gas processing plants
in Alberta and British Columbia since 1990. It not only disposes of H2S safely, it also reduces
greenhouse gas emissions of CO2. The gas mixture can be injected into either saltwater aquifers
or depleted oil and gas fields. A new project in northwestern Alberta uses the injected acid gas
to coax more production from oil reservoirs.

Due to a world oversupply of sulphur relative to demand, and resulting low prices, sulphur
extraction has become less attractive economically. Sulphur stockpiles at gas processing plants
and oilsands upgraders represent an expense and a potential disposal problem. This provides
an additional incentive for sour gas producers to seek alternatives such as acid gas injection.

Less than 0.1 per cent of the H2S produced by the oil and gas exploration and production
industry in Canada – the “upstream” part of the industry – is released into the atmosphere.
Small releases, known as fugitive emissions, must be addressed as soon as they are detected
to avoid exceeding air quality objectives. Large releases are rare and must be controlled or
ignited promptly.

SO2 and other emissions from sour gas operations are discussed in Part 5 of this publication.

6 SOUR GAS QUESTIONS + ANSWERS 2ND EDITION

 © Canadian Centre for Energy Information

MARKETABLE COMMODITIES
After the H2S, water, carbon dioxide and any other trace contaminants are removed, the
hydrocarbons in the gas are then separated into three marketable commodities: sales gas,
natural gas liquids and condensate.

• S a l e s g a s is mainly methane. Methane is the clean-burning, odourless gas shipped

in transmission pipelines and sold to consumers for uses such as home heating. For safety
reasons, gas distribution companies artificially create an odour in sales gas by adding tiny
amounts of a strong-smelling sulphur compound called mercaptan to ensure leaks are
detected quickly. Mercaptan gives the natural gas used by consumers its distinctive odour.

• N a t u ra l g a s l i q u i d s (NGLs) are ethane, propane and butane. NGLs are used mainly
in manufacturing petrochemicals, although some propane is sold as a heating and
transportation fuel. Mercaptan is also added for safety reasons to the propane sold
to consumers.

• Co n d e n s a te is mainly pentane and other, heavier liquid hydrocarbons. Condensate is

normally sold to oil refineries for use in making gasoline, jet fuel and other products.
It is also used as a diluent to transport oilsands bitumen and heavy oil by pipeline to
upgraders and refineries.

SOUR GAS QUESTIONS + ANSWERS 2ND EDITION 7

 SOUR GAS PRODUCING AREAS IN ALBERTA AND BRITISH COLUMBIA

The map shows the principal

sour gas producing areas in
Alberta and northeastern
British Columbia in 2005. The average
H2S content of sour gas produced in
Alberta is 10 per cent, although the
concentration of H2S can range from
trace amounts to more than 80 per cent.

Map courtesy of Oilweek magazine and JuneWarren Publishing Ltd.

8 SOUR GAS QUESTIONS + ANSWERS 2ND EDITION

The Public Interest
Par t 2
P R O D U C I N G S O U R G A S C O N T R I B U T E S T O C A N A D I A N S’
E N E R G Y S U P P LY A N D E CO N O M I C W E L L B E I N G .
H OW E V E R , E X P LO R AT I O N , D E V E LO P M E N T A N D
D E L I V E RY M U S T B E C A R E F U L LY M A N AG E D T O P R E V E N T
N E G AT I V E E F F E C T S O N S U R R O U N D I N G CO M M U N I T I E S
AND T H E E N V I R O N M E N T. R E G U L AT I O N S A N D I N D U S T RY
P R AC T I C E S CO N T I N U E T O E V O LV E, S E E K I N G T O R E D U C E
B OT H T H E AC T UA L A N D P E R C E I V E D I M PAC T S O F S O U R
G A S D E V E LO P M E N T O N P E O P L E, L I V E S TO C K A N D T H E
E N V I R O N M E N T. CO M PA N I E S CO N S U LT W I T H A F F E C T E D
I N D I V I D UA L S A N D BU S I N E S S E S T O R E D U C E I M PAC T S
AND RISKS.

Photo courtesy of
Nexen Inc.

Photo courtesy of
Nexen Inc.

SOUR GAS QUESTIONS + ANSWERS 2ND EDITION 9

 Why is sour gas produced?
About one-third of the natural gas resource in Alberta and British Columbia is sour. When a
natural gas producer is exploring for new sources of natural gas, it relies on information from
the surrounding area to determine if sour gas will be encountered. Ideally, a producer would
prefer that the gas contains as few impurities as possible since this would reduce processing
costs. However, once a new source of natural gas has been found, means are sought to produce
it safely and economically.

Natural gas is highly valued as a clean-burning fuel for homes, buildings and industries across
North America. Natural gas is also used to generate electricity in some areas and provides
the raw materials for making many products such as fertilizers, plastics and pharmaceuticals.
Energy and hydrogen obtained from natural gas are used to upgrade oilsands bitumen and
refine petroleum products.

Over the years, Canadian gas producers have become proficient at economically and safely
removing H2S from natural gas. Because sour gas makes up a significant portion of Canada’s
natural gas supply, its production contributes to Canada’s favourable balance of trade and is an
important source of revenues for federal and provincial governments. Without sour gas,
Canada’s energy supply and export revenues would be substantially smaller.

The direct economic benefits are shared among mineral rights owners, surface rights owners,
industry workers, contractors, suppliers, shareholders, municipalities and other levels of
government. There are indirect benefits through the industry’s contribution to economic
DEMAND FOR CANADIAN activity, including scientific research and technological development. Royalties
NATURAL GAS, 2004 and taxes from sour gas production help to maintain public benefits such as
infrastructure, education and health care.

In 2005, the Canadian sour gas industry produced about $17 billion worth of
natural gas and sold close to $200 million worth of elemental sulphur. This was
nearly 15 per cent of total revenues from oil and gas production in Canada.

Based on a 15 per cent share of total oil and gas industry revenues, sour gas
would thus account for close to 45,000 jobs in Alberta and British Columbia.
Direct payments to governments during the year, including taxes and royalties,
would total about $6 billion. These figures are approximate because statistics
are not collected separately for sour gas employment and revenues.

More than 80 per cent of sour gas is found in areas where mineral rights are
owned by the provincial governments. The rest of the sour gas mineral rights
Source: Statistics Canada are held by First Nations and private freehold owners. Mineral rights owners
generally receive a bonus payment to let companies explore for oil and gas and then a royalty,
or owner’s share, based on revenues from production. About 20 per cent of total sour gas
revenues go to the mineral rights owners.

How does sour gas production affect

surrounding communities?
All oil and gas production has some effect on its neighbours. The typical crude oil or natural gas
well in Western Canada produces for about 20 years, while some wells, pipelines and processing
plants have operated for more than 50 years. When operations cease, regulations require that
the land be restored to at least the equivalent of its pre-existing productivity; for example, a
former wheat field should again be capable of growing wheat. During the period of operation,
there can be both positive and negative effects on the surrounding community. The benefits of
oil and gas activity in a community can include employment, local business activity, infrastructure

10 SOUR GAS QUESTIONS + ANSWERS 2ND EDITION