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Article history: Microgrids are a suitable, reliable and clean solution to integrate distributed generation into the mains grid.
Received 23 June 2014 Microgrids can present both AC and DC distribution lines. The type of distribution conditions the performance
Received in revised form of distribution line and implies different features, advantages and disadvantages in each case. This paper
14 October 2014
analyses, in detail, all this parameters for AC and DC microgrids in order to identify and describe the available
Accepted 1 November 2014
Available online 5 December 2014
alternatives for building and configuring a microgrid. Elements and issues involved in the implementation
and development, such as protections, power converters, economic analysis, and availability are discussed and
Keywords: described. This analysis constitutes a tool for selecting a suitable configuration of a microgrid adapted to the
Distributed generation needs in each situation. In addition, the paper provides a picture of the current situation of microgrids, and
Microgrids
identifies and proposes future research lines.
AC technology
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
DC technology
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
2. Description of a microgrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
3. Transmission system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
4. Point of common coupling (PCC): interconnection between the mains grid and the microgrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
5. Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
6. Protection schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
7. Monitoring and measuring system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
8. Power converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
9. Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
9.1. Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
9.2. Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
9.3. Power quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
9.4. Optimisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
10. Regulatory issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
11. Economic analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
12. Future research areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
13. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.11.067
1364-0321/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
E. Planas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 726–749 727
WASHING DISHWASHER
MACHINE DRYER
VACUUM
PC CLEANER
MICROWAVE
CONNECTION 5 KW
WITH INVERTER
DC MICROGRID
FRIDGE
v DC v AC OVEN
INDUCTION
BURNER TV
In this sense, as microgrids integrate distributed and renewable distributed loads. Both elements constitute the main body of a
sources, energy storage devices and large variety of loads, they are a microgrid.
suitable interface between this distributed generation and the DERs, can be classified into two groups (Fig. 2):
mains grid [2,3].
The microgrids definition states that; they are local distribution Distributed generators (DG). Electric microgrids include different
systems that include generation, storage and load capabilities, and types of DGs that can be based on either renewable or non-
they can work isolated or connected to the mains grid [4]. This ability renewable resources. This characteristic allows to adequately
for operation both connected and disconnected from the mains grid exploit the available resources in each location (wind, sun,
improves the reliability and power quality of the users connected to biomass, etc.) (Fig. 2). Tables 1 and 2 summarise the main types
them. In addition, if these microgrids are planned following an of distributed generators [1,10–12]. This table highlights that
ecodesign, nearly zero energy buildings (NZEB) can be obtained [5]. non-renewable based technologies provide yet higher efficien-
Microgrids can be designed to support alternating current (AC) cies. It also shows that wind and small hydro-power based
or direct current (DC). Each alternative has distinctive features, systems offer the highest efficiencies among the renewable
which imply different advantages and disadvantages that need to based technologies. Ocean energy, although is a very promising
be pondered. Comparatives between the two types of microgrids source of energy, still requires further research and develop-
in terms of control, protections and power losses are provided in ment to become profitable and reach the market with guaran-
[6–9]. Following the same line, this paper presents a detailed study tees of success [10].
of AC and DC microgrids that provides the main characteristics of Storage systems (SS). The use of SSs improves the stability,
the components of each type of microgrid. The work also discusses power quality, reliability of supply and the overall performance
and analyses technical, economic and regulation issues such as of a microgrid [13,14]. Table 3 summarises some key energy
available power converters architectures, applicable directive, storage technologies available for microgrid applications
monitoring systems, and economic analysis. The main objectives [15–17]. It is interesting to underline that, even if supercon-
of this analysis are: ducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) provides high effi-
ciency, this technology is still in the demonstration stage.
Highlighting the advantages and drawbacks of each technology. Table 3 also shows that there are other technologies such as
Identifying and classifying feasible configurations and archi- pumped hydro storage (PHS) or compressed air energy storage
tectures require to implement a microgrid. (CAES) that, in spite of their lower efficiencies, have higher
capacities with longer lifetimes. There are different procedures
The aforementioned objectives become a tool that allows to to estimate the amount of power that a SS requires. Parameters
choose the most suitable microgrid that fulfils the specifications and considerations for sizing the energy storage in stand alone
required in a given situation. In addition, this analysis constitutes a systems can be found in [18]. In addition, Ref. [19] provides
picture of the microgrids state of art, and proposes the research models for the same purpose, that also guarantee safe energy
lines to deal with microgrids current needs, and to further supply and help to reach suitable power quality in the micro-
develop them. grid. For the particular case of lead-acid batteries in stand-
alone photovoltaic systems, some guidelines and recom-
mended practices for its sizing can also be found in [20].
9
€
Economic
1 Transmission 2 PCC 3 Distribution 4 Protections 5 Monitoring 6 Power 7 Control 8 Regulatory
converters issues analysis
Fig. 2. A general scheme of a microgrid. Elements that differ in AC microgrids (blue) and elements that differ in DC microgrids (green). (For interpretation of the references to
color in this figure caption, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Table 1
Main technologies of non-renewable DGs.
Energy based Primary energy Output Module Electrical Overall Advantages Disadvantages
technology type power efficiency efficiency
type (kW) (%) (%)
unfriendly emissions
High efficiency
inputs
Gas turbine Diesel or gas AC 0.5–30,000 21–40 80–90
High efficiencies when Too big for small
Environmentally friendly
Cost effective
weight
unfriendly emissions
Fuel cell Ethenol, H2, N2, natural gas, PEM, DC 1–20,000 05–55 80–90
phosphoric acid or propane One of the most Extracting hydrogen
andelectricity applications
E. Planas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 726–749 729
Table 2
Main technologies of renewable DGs.
technology required
Photovoltaic Sun DC 0.02–1000 –a 40–45
systems Emission free Storage mechanisms
required
required
maintenance
reserves
Geothermal Hot AC 5000– 10–32 35–50
water 100,000 Extremely environmentally friendly Non-availability of
projects
maintenance costs
Solar thermal Sun and AC 1000– 30–40 50–75
water 80,000 Simple, low maintenance Unknown operations and
maintenance costs
a
No data available.
(MGCC) [22], but can also be done in a decentralised manner by Protections (Fig. 2 - ④). Microgrids, either connected or dis-
agents [23], both alternatives are detailed in Section 9. connected to the mains grid, must have protection mechanisms
Besides the aforementioned elements, microgrids require other that guarantees safe operation. These protection elements must
infrastructures (Fig. 2): be designed following different principles and parameters.
Besides, they must allow to be configured in different manners
Point of common coupling (PCC) (Fig. 2 - ②). Microgrids can (Section 6).
operate connected or disconnected from the mains grid. PCC Monitoring (Fig. 2 - ⑤). There are many parameters in a
constitutes the gateway between both grids. This connection microgrid such as voltage, frequency, and power quality that
can be performed through switchgears and power converters, must be continuously supervised by means of a monitoring
which are detailed in Section 4. system. Its main components and features for AC and DC
Distribution (Fig. 2 - ③). The main elements of a microgrid microgrids are described in Section 7.
(DERs and loads) are interconnected with distribution lines. Power converters (Fig. 2 - ⑥). DERs and loads are generally
Meanwhile AC microgrids use single phase or three phase lines, connected to the distribution lines of the microgrid through
the distribution in DC microgrids is monopolar, homopolar or power converters. They adapt the currents and voltages levels
bipolar (Section 5). of the microgrid to the connected units. According to the type
730 E. Planas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 726–749
Table 3
Main technologies of SSs.
TESa 30–60 0–300 80–250 140–220 5–40 Developed Small Solar two Central Receiver Solar Power Plant,
California (USA)
b
PHS 75–85 100– 0.5–1.5 400–1500 40–60 Mature Negative Rocky River PHS plant, Hartford (USA)
5.000
CAESc 50–89 3–400 30–60 250–1500 20–60 Developed Negative Huntorf (Germany) and McIntosh, Alabama (USA)
Flywheel 93–95 0–25 10–30 250 15 Demonstration Almost Commercially supplied by AFS-Trinity (USA), Beacon
Power (USA), Piller (USA), etc.
Pbacid batteryd 70–90 0–40 30–50 200 5–15 Mature Negative BEWAG Plant, Berlin (Germany)
NiCd batterye 60–65 0–40 50–75 350–1.100 10–20 Commercial Negative Golden Valley, Alaska USA
NaS batteryf 80–90 0.05–8 150–240 700–2.100 10–15 Commercial Negative Tokyo Electric Power Company, Japan
Li-ion batteryg 85–90 0–1 75–200 3.000 5–15 Demonstration Negative Kyushu Electric Power and Mitsubishi Heavy
Industries (Japan)
Fuel cells 20–50 0–50 800– 350–1.100 5–15 Developing Small Topsoe Fuel Cell, Lyngby, (Denmark)
10.000
Flow battery 75–85 0.3–15 10–50 400–1.100 5–15 Developing Negative Innogys Little Barford Power Station, (UK)
Capacitors 60–65 0–0.05 0.05–5 250 5 Developed Small Commercially supplied by SAFT (France),
NESS (Korea), ESMA (Russia) etc.
Supercapacitors 90–95 0–0.3 2.5–15 200 4 20 Developed Small PowerCache (Maxwell, USA), ELIT (Russia),
PowerSystem Co. (Japan), Chubu Electric Power
(Japan), etc.
SMESh 95–98 0.1–10 0.5–5 200 4 20 Demonstration Positive Wisconsin Public Service Corporation (USA)
a
TES: Thermal Energy Storage.
b
PHS: Pumped Hydro Storage.
c
CAES: Compressed Air Energy Storage.
d
Pb-acid battery: Lead-acid battery.
e
Ni–Cd battery: Nickel–Cadmium battery.
f
Na–S battery: Sodium–sulfur battery.
g
Li-ion battery: Lithium-ion battery.
h
SMES: Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage.
of microgrid, different types of power converters are used these questions and identify the characteristics and features of the
(Section 8). transmission systems according to the type of technology used.
Control (Fig. 2 - ⑦). In a microgrid, there are different sources
and mechanisms available to gather information. This informa-
tion requires further processing, which eventually implies that 3. Transmission system
certain tasks need to be performed and coordinated, such as
load sharing, voltage level control, and electric generation. Both The main characteristic of microgrids is that they can work
AC and DC microgrids have a hierarchical control system that both connected or disconnected from the mains grid (Fig. 2 - ①).
carries out such tasks. Section 9 explains in detail this control Nowadays, the majority of power transmission lines use three
system. phase AC technology [24] (Fig. 2 - ①, 1a). However, in recent years,
DC high voltage direct current (HVDC) technology (Fig. 2 - ①‘, 1b)
has become more popular for power transmission due to the
Finally, deployment and maintenance of microgrids must
advantages that offers, such as high power density, controlled
ponder the next practical issues (Fig. 2):
emergency support, no contribution to short circuit level and more
stability [25–27]. Moreover, an upgrade of AC lines into DC ones
Regulatory issues (Fig. 2 - ⑧). Microgrids need a regulatory
implies minor infrastructure changes and increases the transmis-
framework in order to provide a successful development and
sion capacity [24]. In this sense, there are several examples of
implementation. Standardisation of AC and DC microgrids has
HVDC installations in different countries (Table 4) [26,28]. Their
progressed during the last years because there are currently
locations can be found in Fig. 3. There are remarkable ones like the
under development several projects that deal with this objec-
Rio Madeira in Brazil (Fig. 3, 3), which is the longest HVDC
tive (Section 10).
installation built ever (2375 km) [29]. Jinping-Sunan 7 800 kV
Economic analysis (Fig. 2 - ⑨). An analysis of the cost and
ultrahigh voltage direct current (UHVDC) installation, in China
benefits of a microgrid requires to consider multiple factors and
(Fig. 3, 33) is the most powerful transmission line in the world,
variables. Section 11 describes which are those parameters and
with a rated capacity of 7.2–7.6 GW [29]. More examples of HVDC
methodologies to perform economic analysis of microgrids.
installations can be found in many other countries such as USA,
India and Canada, and their number is continuously increasing due
The aforementioned elements and issues mainly depend on the to, among other reasons, the multiple advantages that offers HVDC
technology (AC or DC) of the distribution line of the microgrid. for power transmission in long distances ( 4 800 km for overhead
At the same time, because microgrids can be connected to AC and lines and 4 50 km for cable systems).
DC transmission systems (Fig. 2 - ①) with different advantages Data collected about the amount of HVDC installed in last years,
and disadvantages (Section 3). The next sections deal with all shows an annual linear increase in number of installations and an
E. Planas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 726–749 731
Table 4
Principle HVDC installations.
Continent Location Fig. 2 HVDC links Continent Location Figs. 2 and 3 HVDC links
Fig. 3. Principle HVDC installations all over the world. Note: Numbers referred to Table 3.
exponential growth of the installed power (Fig. 4). Table 5 com- maintenance of synchronism, need of line compensation and high
pares the performance of the two transmission technologies [26]. ground impedance. Thus, DC transmission systems are more
The table also shows that DC transmission systems are more cost suitable than AC transmission systems in applications that require
effective than AC ones for long distances, and they overcome some transmission of power over long distances, such as underground
drawbacks presented in AC transmission systems, such as and underwater cables. However, nowadays tapping microgrids to
732 E. Planas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 726–749
HVDC or medium voltage DC (MVDC) systems is a technical standards, reduce custom engineering and site-specific approval
challenge. processes, and minimise the cost [14]. A study of the grid inter-
connection standards and guidelines for Europe and America can be
found in [31]. Although, the study of microgrid interconnection can
4. Point of common coupling (PCC): interconnection between be simplified in medium voltage (MV) and low voltage (LV) net-
the mains grid and the microgrid works [32]. LV switches are normally air insulated, meanwhile MV
types are air, oil or sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) insulated [30].
Microgrids are connected and disconnected from the mains grid Some examples of microgrids interconnected to the mains grid
at the PCC (Fig. 2 - ②). This interconnection is done through a only with switches (Fig. 2 - ②, 2a) can be found [14,33–37].
switchgear, that can also be combined with power electronics. However, this type of connection usually requires additional
Three main types of switchgears are used: circuit breakers (CB), elements that isolate the microgrid from the mains grid. Those
contactors and switches [30]. In microgrids, among the aforemen- devices are transformers (Fig. 2 - ②, 2b) [14,21,38–50] and power
tioned types of devices, the preferred switchgear is the switch. In converter (Fig. 2 - ②, 2c, 2e, 2 g and 2i) [21,51–53].
fact, recent researches on microgrids employ static switches with Table 6 summarises most of the possible interconnections
fast response or digital signal processor (DSP) [21]. These inter- between microgrids and the mains grid as a function of the type
connection switches are designed to meet grid interconnection of current and voltage level. It also classifies the main topologies
that can be used for PCC. Thus, Table 6 (blue text) comprises
possible topologies for DC transmission (Fig. 2 - ②, 2d, 2f and 2 h)
200 with combinations for different voltage levels (back to back
180 converters and matrix converters [54,55], multilevel converters
[56], modular multilevel converters [57], inverters [58] and non-
160
Number of installations isolated and isolated DC/DC converters [59].
140 The microgrid technology (AC or DC) is a key factor that must
Power installed (GW)
120 be considered in order to chose a proper interconnection switch.
u / GW
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
00
05
10
14
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
Table 5
Comparison between AC and DC transmission systems.
Issue AC DC
Transmission costs
Investment costs
– Right-of-way (ROW) Higher Lower
–Towers Higher Simpler and cheaper
–Insulators Higher Lower
–Conductors Higher Lower
–Terminal equipment Lower Higher
Operation costs
–Losses Higher Lower
–Skin effect Yes No
–Dielectric losses Higher Lower
–Corona effects Higher Lower
–Compensation By means of reactive power Lower
Technical considerations
–Control of transmitted power Need of reactive power control Full
–Transient and dynamic stability Worse Better
–Fault currents Limited Higher
–Power carrying capacity Distance dependent No distance dependency
–Voltage control Load dependent No reactive power (Q) control
–Line compensation Yes No
–Interconnection Need of synchronism and large power oscillations Asynchronous connection
–Ground impedance High Low
–Reliability Similar Similar
–Availability Similar Similar
Applications Short distances ( o 50 km) Underground and underwater cables
Long distance bulk power transmission
Asynchronous interconnections of AC systems
Stability of power flows in integrated power systems
E. Planas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 726–749 733
Table 6
Power converters topologies for the PCC (Fig. 2): topologies in real and experimental microgrids (black) and proposed topologies (blue).
GRID MG
MV LV
AC DC AC DC
b
HV AC - -b
a a
Transformer [62] Transformer and inverter
a -b -b
Transformer and back to a
Multilevel inverter and modular multilevel
back converter or matrix inverter
converter
DC a -b -b
a
Multilevel inverter and Multilevel converter and modular multilevel
converter
modular multilevel inverter
-b -b
a
Inverter and transformer
MV AC a a
a
Transformer [63] Multilevel inverter and modular multilevel a
Transformer Multilevel inverter and
DC a a
a
Inverter and transformer Multilevel converter and modular multilevel a
Multilevel inverter and Multilevel converter
converter and isolated and nonisolated DC DC power and modular multilevel
modular multilevel inverter
converters converter
a a
Multilevel inverter and Inverter and transformer
LV AC a a
a
Transformer
a
Transformer and inverter No power device [14,33– Inverter [64]
37]
a
Transformer and back to a
Multilevel inverter and modular multilevel a
Transformer
a
Transformer and
back converter or matrix inverter [38,14,21,39–50] inverter [65,52]
converter
a
Back to back converter
[51,66–68,53]
DC a
a
Multilevel inverter and Multilevel converter a
Inverter
a
No power device
a
Numbers referred to Fig. 1.
b
Not possible combination.
microgrids [61]. Nevertheless, solutions for AC systems are still also hybrid microgrids that combine AC and DC distribution lines
more economical. that are controlled separately [69–72].
AC microgrids can present different distribution types: single
phase (Fig. 2 - ③, 3a), three phase without neutral (Fig. 2 - ③, 3b)
and three phase with neutral (Fig. 2 - ③, 3c).
5. Distribution In DC microgrids, there are three main types of distribution:
monopolar (Fig. 2 - ③, 3d), bipolar (Fig. 2 - ③, 3e) and homopolar
Microgrids can be classified into AC and DC microgrids based (Fig. 2 - ③, 3f) [9,52]. There are also some DC microgrids with
on the characteristics of the distribution line (Fig. 2 - ③). There are multiple buses in order to obtain higher reliability [73]. Due to the
734 E. Planas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 726–749
Table 7
Examples of DC distribution systems in USA.
7. Monitoring and measuring system work concludes that the total conversion efficiency in residential
distribution lines increases in case of AC lines and decreases for DC
Microgrid monitoring system (Fig. 2 - ⑤) must perform several lines. However, if the power source of a residence is a fuel cell or
tasks and must fulfil certain requirements: distributed structure to another DC generator, the total conversion efficiency within a
monitor each unit simultaneously, online definition and modifica- residential DC distribution system could be similar or better than
tion of system configuration and remote control and monitoring of for AC distribution. Another study [114] shows that AC and DC
the whole system, among others [95,96]. The available literature distribution systems can have similar efficiencies if the following
proposes a wide range of monitoring schemes for microgrids conditions are met: loads are equal in ratio, and an AC source
[95,97–102]. The following alternatives can be highlighted: supplies the AC power and a DC source supplies the DC power. The
work in [115] studies the efficiency of DC systems. Among other
A framework based on the service-oriented architecture (SOA) conclusions, it states that, under the assumption that semicon-
model [98]. A SOA can be defined as a component model that ductor losses decrease by half, the efficiency of a pure DC system
interrelates different functional units of an application, called becomes higher than AC system. Moreover, [116] concludes that
services, through well-defined interfaces and contracts the current ripple (or harmonics in the AC cases) is reduced in the
between services. DC case due to two facts: the AC/DC circuit inside most devices
Installation at each component of the microgrid universal monitor- acts only as a reverse polarity protection, and the ripple caused by
ing, protection, and control units (UMPCUs) [99]. These units are different devices is not synchronised. Thus, it can be said that the
similar to intelligent electronic devices (IEDs). They collect data efficiency of power conversion is normally higher in DC systems,
about connectivity, device model and measurements. and it is mainly affected by the technology of the primary source
and the AC and DC load ratios.
There are vendors that supply commercial solutions for mon-
itoring and control of microgrids [103]. It is also possible to
monitor microgrids through phasor measurement units (PMU),
9. Control
as it has been proposed in [104]. These PMUs are systems which
offer more accurate data about the power system, which allow to
AC and DC microgrids require different control tasks (Fig. 2 - ⑦)
manage the system more efficiently and with a higher level of
in order to guarantee a correct operation of the system. Normally,
response [105].
a hierarchical control carries out these tasks. There are three levels
Therefore, the main difference between AC and DC microgrids
of controls are described from the outer to the inner level of
is that DC ones only require to monitor and control a reduced
control as follows (Fig. 5) [22]:
number of variables. In fact, monitoring systems for DC microgrids
(Fig. 2 - ⑤, 5b) are simpler than AC microgrids (Fig. 2 - ⑤, 5a) Grid level. At this level a distribution network operator (DNO)
because they do not require to monitor the frequency nor the
and a market operator (MO) are found. Active management
reactive power.
techniques in microgrids allow DNO to take advantage of a
several control variables which are not considered in their
current operation and planning philosophies [117]. The MO is
8. Power converters
in charge of the participation of the microgrid in energy
markets and it can follow different market policies such as
The three main components of a microgrid (DGs, SSs and loads)
serving the total demand of the microgrid using its local
are connected to it through power converters (Fig. 2 - ⑥). These
production or participating in the open market buying and
power converters rely on the type of microgrid (AC or DC), as well
selling active and reactive power to the grid [118].
as on other features of the devices (voltage levels, power flow
Management level. A MGCC performs those tasks related to the
direction, etc.). In addition, they usually include a transformer in
management of the microgrid. The main functions of the MGCC
order to obtain galvanic isolation.
are the restoration of the frequency (only in AC microgrids) and
Tables 18 and 19 summarise the main topologies of isolated
voltage, synchronism between the microgrid and the grid (only
power converters used in DGs and SSs for coupling to AC grids
in AC microgrids), load shedding and optimisation of the
(Fig. 2 - ⑥, 6a and 6b) [106,107]. Both tables show that power
production of the microgrid [119].
converters usually require a controlled inverter, which is com-
Field level. One local controller (LC) is placed in each element of
posed of insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBT) and capacitors
the microgrid (DGs, SSs or loads). According to the type of
on the DC bus. Matrix converters can also be used, which
element (DG, SS or load), the corresponding LC carries out
guarantee bidirectional power flow by means of bidirectional
different tasks:
switches and without any significant reactive component [108].
○ LC for DGs (Fig. 2 - ⑦, 7a and 7b). The best alternative for
Since DC grids are not yet widespread, there are no standard
controllable DGs, such gas turbines, small diesel generators,
topologies of power converters to couple DERs to them. Tables 18
and 19 present some feasible power converters architectures for
coupling DGs and SSs to DC microgrids (Fig. 2 - ⑥, 6c and 6d)
[59,107,109–111]. Both tables show that power converters usually DNO Grid level
require fewer components in DC lines than in three-phase AC MO
lines. Some of DC topologies can also use high-frequency trans-
formers, which implies that they are smaller and lighter than the
MGCC Management
low-frequency transformers of AC microgrids. level
The efficiency of the power converter is a key parameter.
It depends on many variables, such as power rate, load rate, core DG SS Load
volume and material when galvanic isolation is needed [112]. The LC LC LC Field level
majority of power converters have optimal efficiency when they
work at their nominal power. In [113] an approach for comparison
of system conversion efficiencies for residences is presented. This Fig. 5. General architecture of centralised and decentralised controls of microgrids.
736 E. Planas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 726–749
ect., in which the primary energy is controllable, is the principal tasks that must be carried on in each kind of microgrid is
droop control [22,117,120–125]. This control method offers shown [9,43,139,140].
a high reliability and does not require communications
between DERs. Several variations of this method that over- 9.1. Stability
come its drawbacks can be found in the literature [43]. For
non-controllable DGs, in which the primary energy is not If the sources of a microgrid are controlled by means of local
controllable, such as wind turbines and PV, nonlinear droop measurements, stability becomes a critical issue [141]. When
control [126] and hybrid droop control with maximum investigating the stability of a microgrid, both the generation
power point tracking (MPPT)can be used [127–129]. dynamics and the load dynamics must be considered [142]. The
○ LC for SSs (Fig. 2 - ⑦, 7c and 7d). SSs need specific charge/ largest body of work done in microgrid stability analysis is for
discharge control strategies. In [130–132] the proposed radial microgrids while stability studies for meshed microgrids are
control method is the state of charge (SoC)-based adaptive still an open research area [141].
droops. In addition, for an optimal operation different Several stability studies for AC microgrids can be found in
control techniques as a function of the SS technology used [141,143–146]. The aforementioned studies lead to conclude that
are proposed in [107]. the stability is mainly affected by the frequency-droop coefficient,
In this control level the islanding detection is carried out in and it is usually improved by means of a good design of the droop
DGs and SSs, which guarantees their good performance both coefficients and a droop control with adjustable dynamic beha-
connected or disconnected from the mains grid. There are viour [146]. The classification of the stability issues in microgrids
several islanding detection techniques for AC lines that can presented in [143] uses that of a large power system. Based on this,
be classified into local and remote detection techniques Table 10 summarises the criteria and different methods for
[133–135]. All these techniques are based on measuring stability improvement on AC microgrids. It can be said that the
different magnitudes (voltage amplitude, frequency, phase stability of AC microgrids is mostly influenced by the mode of
and harmonics). However, in DC systems only voltage can be operation (connected or disconnected from the mains grid),
measured, so new islanding detection techniques must be control topology, types of DERs and network parameters. In
developed. There are few works that deal with this issue addition, the target application and the system scenarios influence
[136] so more research efforts are needed. the efficacy of the stability improvement methods.
○ LC for Loads. If a centralised hierarchical control is used, load In DC microgrids the stability issues are inherently related with
shedding is controlled by the MGCC. In case of agents based the need of power electronics interfaces for integrating sources,
control, an agent is placed in each load in order to perform loads, and energy storage devices [147]. There are many works
its control. that deal with the small signal stability in DC microgrids [131,147–
151]. Taking all these works into account, it can be said that
constant power loads introduce voltage oscillations into the
Both DNO and MO functions are done at the mains grid level, microgrids that can be overcome by means of hardware solutions
while MGCC is located in a central computer, and the local (increasing system's capacitances or resistive loads, reducing
controllers are placed in power converters coupled to each system's inductances and load shedding) or control strategies
element of the microgrid (DGs, SSs or loads). This hierarchical (linear and boundary controllers).
control can be carried out in a centralised or decentralised manner,
which is commonly called multi-agent based control (MAS). The 9.2. Modelling
centralised control alternative offers the possibility of implement-
ing a basic management system with low costs of installation and Modelling microgrids is a key step in order to obtain a suitable
operation. On the other hand, MAS control provides plug and play control. Table 11 summarises models for AC microgrids proposed
performance at expense of a more complex control design [43]. in [147,152,153]. As it is shown, most of the models employ droop
DC microgrids present the advantage that there is no need for control, consider constant power loads and analyse the microgrid
controlling frequency nor reactive power. In this manner, the both connected and disconnected from the mains grid. Few
control tasks are simplified since the devices can be connected models consider three phase systems and there are some models
to the microgrid directly, without any process of synchronism. include SS systems which helps studying in detail dynamics and
Therefore the connection of the microgrid to the mains grid is possible situations on a microgrid. According to software tools for
done asynchronously and only the flow of active power must be modelling microgrids, HOMER has been the most extended energy
controlled. On the other hand, in AC microgrids frequency must be modelling tool. There are other tools suitable for microgrids
controlled and the devices must be synchronised before their modelling, such as EADER, DER-CAM, Matlab-Simulink and PSCAD/
connection with the microgrid, and the microgrid must be EMTDC [154,155].
synchronised with the mains grid before its connection. A sum- There are few works that deal with the modelling of DC
mary of the main synchronisation methods can be found in [137], microgrids. Nevertheless, simple DC microgrid models can be
which are mostly based on phased-locked loops (PLL). Further- found when analysing their stability [131,147–151]. Although,
more, reactive power flow must be also controlled in the PCC, most of them do not consider control schemes and only take into
which adds complexity to the whole control. There are DC and AC account RLC devices.
cases that also require voltage balancing. In three-phase AC
microgrids, voltage balancing can be carried out in several man- 9.3. Power quality
ners: introducing special control loops to converter based DGs and
SSs, using reactive support devices such as static var compesators Renewable energy systems have many benefits for energy
(SVC) or static synchronous compesators (D-STATCOM) with safety and environmental impact. However, the integration of
appropriate control and using simple switched capacitors [138]. intermittent power sources in the grid and its power quality is a
For DC microgrids with bipolar or homopolar distribution, voltage technical challenge that must be cope with [19]. Some solutions
balancing must also be carried out. For this purpose, voltage have been proposed in order to improve power quality in AC
balancers can be placed near the power converters in order to microgrids [155]. DC distribution networks ensure a higher power
balance the distribution lines [52]. In Table 9 a summary of the quality to the customers than in AC distribution network and
E. Planas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 726–749 737
Table 9
Control tasks in the hierarchical control for AC and DC microgrids.
Control of the active power flow between the microgrid and the grid
Control of the reactive power flow between the microgrid and the grid
Management level MGCC Connection and disconnection of loads from the microgrid
Voltage balancing a b
Control of the voltage and frequency of the microgrid during island mode
Inner control: voltage sags, harmonics, control reference matching and flicker
Voltage regulation
Frequency regulation
Islanding detection
LC for loads Normally no local control, load shedding managed by the MGCC or by agents
a
Only in three-phase systems.
b
Only in bipolar and homopolar systems.
738 E. Planas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 726–749
Table 10
Main stability issues and reasons and their corresponding possible improvement methods for AC microgrids.
Table 11
AC microgrid models proposed in the literature.
a
No control considered.
facilitates more DGs connection [9]. The results of ongoing microgrid with respect to load demand and environmental
research on the field of DC microgrids indicate a significant requirement is constructed.
reduction in power quality problems, losses and downtime and Sustainability [158]. The sustainability of a microgrid is improved
protection malfunctions [9]. through the minimisation of carbon emissions and at reducing
Thus, there is ongoing research to find out the details of DC production costs and maximising quality in this work.
microgrids which result in significant reduction in power quality Economics [159–161]. Some works propose different solutions
problems, losses and downtime and protection malfunctions [9]. in order to economically optimise different issues in micro-
grids. A hierarchical control that deals with an economic
9.4. Optimisation optimisation in the second level of the architecture is presented
in [159]. Another proposal can be found in [160] where
Optimal control of microgrids is an active field of research optimisation techniques and management functions are imple-
whose most common objective is to minimise the operating cost mented in a central energy management system (CEMS). This
[156]. Some of the solutions proposed only consider the electrical CEMS is aimed at optimising the economic exploitation of the
generation of microgrids and include mathematical programming, microgrid in grid-connected mode and it also improves the
heuristics and priority rules [156]. However, there are also some reliability of the microgrid in islanding operation. In [161] a
microgrids, most of them residential microgrids, that also include methodology to design the number and capacity for each
thermal generation which must be also considered. In [157] there component in a microgrid with combined heat and power
are examples, most of them residential, of such models of micro- (CHP) system is presented that minimises the annual cost.
grids in order to achieve an optimal thermal generation. Design of different controllers, filter, and power sharing coeffi-
Optimisation of AC microgrids has been widely studied and cients [162]. Linear and nonlinear models of a microgrid
related works deal with different issues: operating in grid-connected and autonomous modes are pre-
sented in this work. Through these models, an optimisation
Load demand and environmental requirements [157]. In this problem is formulated for dealing with the design of control-
work, a model to determine the optimum operation of a lers, filters and power sharing coefficients.
E. Planas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 726–749 739
Fuel consumption [163,164]. In [163] an algorithm that per- and sizing of internal source converter storage were studied in order
forms an optimisation of fuel consumption and emissions costs to identify the topology characteristics that can be applied more
of microsources using a heuristic approach is presented. generally to DC microgrids. Another proposal for hybrid AC/DC
Another proposal can be found in [164] where the fuel microgrids can be found in [166]. This work formulates a multi-
consumption rate of the system is reduced guaranteeing the objective optimisation problem that allows to optimally operate
local energy demand (both electrical and thermal) and provid- hybrid AC/DC microgrids, minimising their energy costs and green-
ing a certain minimum reserve power. house gas emissions.
Production of local DGs and power exchanges [118]. A central
controller aims to optimise the operation of the microgrid
during interconnected operations by means of the optimisation 10. Regulatory issues
of the production of the local DGs and power exchanges with
the main distribution grid. A regulatory framework must include a set of principles, rules
and incentives, which address both technical and economic issues
There are very few examples of DC microgrids that propose [167]. The regulatory environment for microgrids (Fig. 2 - ⑧)
optimal solutions for their management. In [165] both the allocation is complex since it combines multiple existing regulations that
Table 12
Applicable standards to AC and DC microgrids.
AC EN 50160 Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied Definitions and indicative values for a number of power quality
by public distribution networks phenomena in LV and MV networks
Limits for power frequency, voltage variations, harmonics voltage,
voltage unbalance, flicker and mains signalling
IEC 61000 General conditions or rules necessary Safety function and integrity requirements
for achieving
Electromagnetic compatibility Compatibility levels
Emission and immunity limits
Measurement and testing techniques
Installation guidelines, mitigation methods and devices
IEEE C37.95 Protective relaying of utility-consumer Establishment of consumer service requirements and supply methods
interconnections
Protection system design considerations
DC ETSI EN 300 132-3- Environmental engineering (EE), Power Definition of DC interface up to DC 400 V
1 supply
interface at the input to telecommunications
and datacom (ICT) equipment;
Part 3; Subpart 1: Direct current source
up to 400 V
DC bus voltage limits consideration
Guidelines for testing powered equipment behaviour for abnormal
operating conditions and stress
EPRI and Standard for 400 Vdc in buildings (under Interiors and occupied spaces where lighting and control loads
Emergence construction) dominate the need for DC electricity
Data centres and telecom central offices with their DC-powered
information and communications technology equipment
Outdoor electrical uses, including electric vehicle charging
and outdoor light-emitting diode (LED) lighting
Building services, utilities, and HVAC with variable-speed drive
and electronic DC motorised equipment
IEC SG4 LVDC distribution system up to 1500 V Align and coordinate activities in many areas where LVDC is
(under construction) used such as green data centres, commercial buildings, electricity storage for
all mobile products (with batteries), electric vehicles, and so forth, including
all mobile products with batteries, lighting, multimedia, ICT etc. with electronic supply
units
Measuring methods
Architecture: 100 % DC or hybrid
Grounding
Operation and life cycle of the equipment
Protective measurements for hazards for LVDC distribution systems
The impact of DC (corrosion, insulation, etc.)
740 E. Planas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 726–749
have not been specifically devised for microgrids [168]. Moreover, 11. Economic analysis
the most cited restriction to interconnect microgrids with the
distribution network is the high connectivity cost in the distribu- An economic analysis of microgrids can be carried out by
tion network due to high connection fee policies [167]. Islanding means of the study of the relevant benefits and costs. Two main
also creates conflict with the existing grid codes and regulations. issues are considered: on-site generation from the customer
Another important issue is the metering since netmeter with perspective and the traditional utility economics of expansion
bidirectional registering capability needs to be installed at the planning from the utility perspective [168]. In this sense, the main
PCC by means of metering tools that support the participation of benefits are an increased reliability for microgrid participants,
microgrids in the market [167]. general reliability improvements, waste heat recovery and gen-
Therefore, it is necessary to establish a suitable framework, eration adequacy [167,172,173]. Some models to quantify these
adapted to each country, for the development and proliferation of economic benefits can be found in [174].
microgrids. In Europe, for instance, the whole interconnection Besides, the costs can be divided into microgrid development
framework needs a revision that must take into account specific costs and the costs related to the DNOs (Fig. 7) [172]. The first set
issues such as the change of characteristics according to the mode of costs (most relevant costs [90]) is related to microgrid devel-
of the microgrid (connected or islanded), protections and com- opment, which involves specific investment in controllers, protec-
munication infrastructure [168]. In Japan, the Ministry of economy, tion devices, storage systems, installation, etc., and operation and
trade, and industry (METI) has already established rules and maintenance expenditures (staff, losses on storage systems, main-
technical guidelines for grid interconnection. However, it is still tenance of the equipments, etc.) (Fig. 7) [172]. Therefore, operating
necessary to unify worldwide the standards required for inter- cost of microgrids under optimal control highly relies on microgrid
connecting distributed generators with information and distribu- configuration, optimisation method and benchmark model [156].
tion networks [168]. In this line, in the United States the IEEE The second set of costs is related to the DNOs expenses that may
Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric result from potential investment requirements in order to over-
Power Systems 1547 establishes criteria and requirements for the come technical problems, such as excessive voltage regulation,
interconnection of distributed resources with electric power
systems. Its section 1547.4 is being treated as the fundamental Controllers
standard for microgrid standardisation [43].
Protections
For AC microgrids some of the existing standards for DERs can Development
be adapted (Table 12). This is not possible for DC distribution and Storage Systems
costs
there are several organisations engaged in developing standards. Installation
These organisations also support proof of concept sites to bench- Operation
Costs of microgrids
mark the needs of DC distribution, such as IEC and EMerson
[169,170]. There are also many groups working on the topic, which Mantainance
are developing several voltage and performance standards. Among Voltage regulation
these standards, there are three that must be highlighted: EN 300 DNO
Voltage balance
costs
132-3-1 of ETSI, Emergence Alliance standard for 380 Vdc and IEC
Adaptation of fault levels
SG4 for LV distribution [169]. The last standard proposes a DC-
Overloading
powered home (Fig. 6) [171]. Table 12 provides a summary of the
existing standards for both AC and DC microgrids [43,169]. Fig. 7. Classification of the costs related to microgrids.
Fig. 6. DC-Powered home example proposed in IEC SG4. Courtesy of Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI).
E. Planas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 726–749 741
fault levels, voltage unbalance, and overloading (Fig. 7). Most of feeding offices or data centres since they tend to have more DC
the time, these costs can be neglected since some studies show loads. Offices or data centres fed with DC microgrids have
that significant quantities of microgeneration may be connected to lower installation costs, since they tend to present more DC
distribution networks without significant investments [172], thus, loads. R1.2 DC microgrids have been also proposed for feeding
they are not considered in this work. The following items describe trains and electrical bicycles in a clean and reliable manner
the development costs considered in AC and DC microgrids: [175,176]. Besides, AC microgrids are more suitable to feed
factories or big plants, because in these installations more AC
Since AC technology is more mature than DC technology, the loads are presented.
development and production costs (Fig. 7) of customised R1.1 According to domestic applications, a variety of both AC
components are usually higher for DC microgrids. However, it and DC loads are presented in a current home. In Table 14, a
has to be taken into account that the design of the control and summary of the power stages, internal loads and the power
metering system for DC microgrids is simpler than for AC consumption that usually present the main home appliances
microgrids (no control of reactive power, no synchronisation are presented. As it is shown, a great part of these appliances
control and no frequency control). presents AC/DC and DC/AC internal power stages. However,
Installation costs in AC and DC are determined by the number electronic devices such as TVs and PCs only present AC/DC
of elements installed which are highly dependant on the power stages since they only have internal DC loads.
features of the connected elements (DGs, SSs and loads). Homes can be fed by AC or DC microgrids in order to take
Therefore, DC microgrids lead to lower installation costs in advantage of the local energy resources. If homes are fed by AC
Table 13
Development costs in AC and DC microgrids.
Protections in PCC Fig. 2 - ② Lower Higher Technology more mature and lower power ratings in AC systems
Distribution Fig. 2 - ③ Higher Lower Due to skin effect, reactive power etc. higher losses in AC systems
LV protections Fig. 2 - ④ Lower Higher Lower power ratings and more mature technology in AC systems
Metering Fig. 2 - ⑤ Higher Lower More variables to be monitored in AC systems
Communication Fig. 2 - ⑤ Similar Similar Depending to the control technique used
Power converters Fig. 2 - ⑥ Higher Lower Lower efficiencies and more components in AC systems
MCC Fig. 2 - ⑦ Higher Lower More tasks (synchronism, reactive power control, etc.) in AC systems
LC Fig. 2 - ⑦ Higher Lower More tasks (synchronism, reactive power control, etc.) in AC systems
Load controller Fig. 2 - ⑦ Similar Similar Similar tasks in AC and DC systems.
Table 14
R1.1 Power characteristics of the principal home appliances.
a
This motor can be an AC motor or a DC motor.
b
No AC loads.
Table 15
R1.1 Features of some commercial available inverters with a rated power output of 5 kW.
microgrids, no change at the home appliances is necessary first option is to design a DC distribution system inside the
since they are all prepared for AC sources. In case of feeding house (Fig. 6), obtaining a distribution system more reliable
homes by DC microgrids, two options can be considered. The than AC distribution system. Besides, this option allows
removal of several power stages inside the home appliances
since the AC/DC stage would not be necessary. Removing the
AC/DC power stage from all the home appliances involves a
higher efficiency and saving costs for manufacturers. These
saving costs rely on the characteristics of each home appliance
and each manufacturer. The second option is to install an
inverter at the entrance of the house in order to maintain an
AC distribution line inside the house (Fig. 1). In this case, the
unique cost involved would be this inverter, which rated power
corresponds to the contracted power of the house. In Table 15
some examples of commercially available inverters are pre-
sented considering an average power of 5 kW at home.
Protection costs. LV and MV protection devices are available for
both AC and DC lines. AC technology has still more attractive
prices even though DC technology has progressed.
The operation costs are the result of the activity of the
microgrid and include losses in storage systems, staff, etc.
[177]. As it has been commented on Section 5, if DC lines are
Fig. 8. Sendai microgrid in Fukushima, Japan. Courtesy of New Energy and Industrial compared with AC microgrids, they present lower power losses
Technology Development Organisation (NEDO). and, thus, lower operation costs.
Table 16
Examples of microgrids in Africa and America.
Continent Country Place Type Fig. 9 Continent Country Place Type Fig. 9
AC DC AC DC
70
77
69
71
72
73
74
76
75
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
68
in Fukushima was guaranteed after the serious earthquake in 2011,
Fig. 8. In Europe there are also projects of microgrids, although smart
grids are the preferred alternative. Off-grid microgrids require a special
DC
✓
mention because they play an important role on rural electrification.
Several examples of remote areas can be found in which islanded
microgrids guarantee the power supply. The Antarctic Princess Elisa-
Type
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
islanded microgrid completely based on renewable energies (Fig. 9)
[178]. Tables 16 and 17 provide a summary of microgrids installed all
over the world [21,43,122,179]. As they show, microgrids can be found
Kassel, Manheim Wallstadt
Tables 16 and 17 with the technology used and the installed power
Bornholm island
in each microgrid [179]. The data of these Figs. highlights two facts:
the number of AC microgrids and their rated power has increased
Nottingham
Manchester
Eigg island,
Compigne
Azores
Seville
Ilhavo
Utsira
Milan
Derio
Porto
Lyon
Cork
account:
Macedonia
Denmark
Germany
Holland
Norway
Finland
Ireland
Greece
France
Spain
Italy
50
52
53
54
55
56
58
59
60
62
63
65
47
51
57
61
67
48
49
64
66
following issues:
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
Ulsteinen Nunatak
Kings Canyon
Maharashtra
Town island
Queensland
Hachinoche
Pulau Ubin
Newcastle
Xinjiang
Longtan
Nanjing
Xiamen
Sendai
Kyoto
Hefei
Place
Aichi
EPRI and EmergeAlliance have already take the first steps into
standardisation of DC distribution lines.
Islanding detection techniques [136]. Islanding detection is a key
requirement for electrical safety and equipment protection.
Hong Kong
Singapore
Australia
Country
Japan
India
13. Conclusions
Antarctica
Continent
Oceania
Table 17
Asia
Table 18
Main power converters topologies for photovoltaic panels and wind turbines.
built with an AC or DC distribution system which defines the main solutions for DC protections are still more expensive than AC
features, advantages and disadvantages of the microgrid. This protections. Besides, there is considerable experience in ground
paper has presented a full description of microgrids. AC and DC fault detection and isolation in AC systems which is not the case in
technology in transmission lines has been described concluding DC systems. Thus, research efforts are needed in terms of the
that DC technology offers several advantages in comparison with design of the protection scheme in DC microgrids and
AC technology, specially for long distances. The PCC in AC and DC protection units.
microgrids has been also analysed. AC technology presents several Monitoring AC and DC microgrids has also been analysed in
advantages at the PCC and AC protections are more economical this paper. From this perspective, the tools and schemes for AC
than DC protections. microgrids can be simplified for their use in DC microgrids. DC
After the PCC analysis, the AC and DC distribution lines have microgrids present two main advantages it terms of monitoring:
been studied. DC distribution lines have definitely more advan- generally simpler topologies of power converters for coupling
tages than AC lines due to lower loses, lower cable sections and units to DC microgrids and normally a higher efficiency of the
higher transmittable power. Therefore, although the vast majority power conversion in DC systems. According to the control,
of distribution lines use AC technology, the interest on DC centralised or decentralised hierarchical control is normally used
distribution lines is increasing and nowadays several examples for AC and DC microgrids. Most of the installed microgrids use
of DC distribution lines can be found. Microgrids also need a centralised control since its design simpler and easier for small
protection scheme in order to guarantee a safe operation. In this microgrids. Although, there is a growing interest in decentralised
sense, several protection schemes for AC microgrids and a few control since it offers a plug and play performance and it is more
for DC microgrids have been presented. Moreover, commercial suitable in case of bigger microgrids. The stability is another issue
E. Planas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 726–749 745
that has been commented and has been widely studied for AC and microgrids. The power quality has been also studied in AC and
DC microgrids. Similar control and hardware solutions have been DC microgrids, concluding that DC systems offer higher power
proposed for both AC and DC microgrids. Besides, islanding quality. Several proposals of optimisation methods for AC micro-
detection methods for AC systems are widely studied but very grids have been found that deal with different issues such as
few works deal with this issue in DC systems. sustainability, fuel consumption and design of controllers. DC
Different proposals for modelling AC microgrids have been microgrids optimisation, although, requires research efforts.
found that generally consider single-phase distribution lines and Efforts have been made in the last years in defining standards
both modes of operation (connected and disconnected from and guidelines for building AC and DC microgrids. This study
the main grid). Research efforts are needed in modelling DC shows that the normative for AC microgrids is more mature than
Table 19
Main power converters topologies for batteries and flywheels.
21 20 7
78 70
10 11 8485
69
12 74
8 9 14 13 86 68
75 71
45 15 43 72 76 60
25 33 80 77 64
24 4437 79 81 82
49 50
61 56
26 22 35
39 34 73 47 55 58
29
28 23 27 36 40 38 2 83 48
41 30 59
31 54 51
18 42 57
32 19
53 52 63
3
62
46 67
66
1 65
17
16
46
Fig. 10. AC (blue), DC (green) and hybrid AC/DC (black) microgrids all around the world. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure caption, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)
746 E. Planas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 726–749
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