A transformer is a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical

circuit to one or more circuits. A varying current in any one coil of the transformer produces a
varying magnetic flux, which, in turn, induces a varying electromotive force across any other coils
wound around the same core. Electrical energy can be transferred between the (possibly many)
coils, without a metallic connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of
induction discovered in 1831 described the induced voltage effect in any coil due to changing
magnetic flux encircled by the coil.
Transformers are used for increasing alternating voltages at low current (Step Up Transformer)
or decreasing the alternating voltages at high current (Step Down Transformer) in electric power
applications, and for coupling the stages of signal processing circuits.
Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885, transformers have become
essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating current electric power.[2] A
wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications.
Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume, to units
weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect the power grid.
An ideal transformer is a theoretical linear transformer that is lossless and perfectly coupled.
Perfect coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic permeability and winding inductances and
zero net magnetomotive force (i.e. ipnp - isns = 0).[5][c]

Ideal transformer connected with source VP on primary and load impedance ZL on secondary, where 0 <
ZL < ∞.
Ideal transformer and induction law

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding attempts to create a varying magnetic flux
in the transformer core, which is also encircled by the secondary winding. This varying flux at the
secondary winding induces a varying electromotive force (EMF, voltage) in the secondary
winding due to electromagnetic induction and the secondary current so produced creates a flux
equal and opposite to that produced by the primary winding, in accordance with Lenz's law.
The windings are wound around a core of infinitely high magnetic permeability so that all of the
magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings. With a voltage
source connected to the primary winding and a load connected to the secondary winding, the
transformer currents flow in the indicated directions and the core magnetomotive force cancels to
zero.

Real transformer[edit]

Leakage flux of a transformer

Deviations from ideal transformer[edit]
The ideal transformer model neglects the following basic linear aspects of real transformers:
(a) Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses, consisting of[9]

 Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear magnetic effects in the transformer core, and
 Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that are proportional to the square of the
transformer's applied voltage.
(b) Unlike the ideal model, the windings in a real transformer have non-zero resistances and
inductances associated with:

 Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and secondary windings[9]

 Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one winding only resulting in
primary and secondary reactive impedance.
(c) similar to an inductor, parasitic capacitance and self-resonance phenomenon due to the
electric field distribution. Three kinds of parasitic capacitance are usually considered and the
closed-loop equations are provided [10]

 Capacitance between adjacent turns in any one layer;

 Capacitance between adjacent layers;
 Capacitance between the core and the layer(s) adjacent to the core;
Inclusion of capacitance into the transformer model is complicated, and is rarely attempted;
the ‘real’ transformer model’s equivalent circuit does not include parasitic capacitance. However,
the capacitance effect can be measured by comparing open-circuit inductance, i.e. the
inductance of a primary winding when the secondary circuit is open, to a short-circuit inductance
when the secondary winding is shorted.
Leakage flux[edit]
Main article: Leakage inductance
The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the
turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside
the windings.[11] Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with
the mutually coupled transformer windings.[12] Leakage flux results in energy being alternately
stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not
directly a power loss, but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage not
to be directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under heavy load.[11] Transformers
are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance.