21st century literature

Cultural/ Post- Colonial Criticism

Critical approaches to literature “Literary theory” -Examine how different religions, ethnicities, class identifications, and
political beliefs affect how texts are created and interpreted.

- It means to be part of- or excluded from- a particular group

Literary Theory enhances understanding of the text in relation to culture.
- The way people read the text. Colonialism
- The “lens’ through which you view the literature.
- There is no “right” way to look at literature. -Is the political and economic control over a dependent territory.

Creation of Theory -Uses a process called “othering-“ the colonized are seen as different
and lesser the colonized.
- 20th century: theories began to emerge.
- No theory is based in factual knowledge- someone created it and it is arguable. -Important to look at the relationship between dominant and
- Some theories are created in opposition or response to another theory submissive cultures.

Historical/Biographical Criticism
TYPES
-According to WILFRED GUERIN, historical/biographical criticism –
Reader Response “see a literary work chiefly, in not exclusively, as a reflection of the
-Making a connection between your experiences and the text author’s life and times of the life and times of the character in the
-literature has no objective meaning. work” (Guerin, 22).
-A reader brings their own though and experiences.
Assumption of Historical/Biographical
Formalist Criticism
-Understanding the social structure or way of life of a certain time
- Scientific “Dissection” of texts
period will help the reader draw conclusion and better understanding
- Focus on literary elements
about the work of the author.
- Analyze: setting, character, plot, theme, imagery foreshadowing, irony, etc.
New Historical Criticism
Archetypal Criticism
-Are UNIVERSAL SYMBOLS that appears in literature, myth, dreams, oral -Seeks to find meaning in a text by considering the work within and
tradition, song, etc. assumptions of its historical era.
Character: hero, earth mother, soul mate, trickster, damsel in distress.
Ideas: light vs. darkness, good vs. evil, journey/quest.
-Concerned with the political function of literature and with the concept -Every element in the literature has no significance by itself- it is
of power. determined by all the other elements involved in the literature

- More on “Sociohistorical” than it is a delving into facts.

Postmodern Theory

Psychological Criticism -A reaction to structuralism

-Deal with the work of literature as a fictional expression of the -Reader can find endless meaning- there’s no single center.
personality, state of mind, feelings, and desires of the author
MODERNISM vs. POSTMODERNISM
-Idea is to evaluate the psychology of the character or the author to
find meaning in the text. Modernism

-there is an absolute, universal truth that we can understand through

Marxist Criticism
rationalism and logic.
-Based on the economic and cultural theory of KARL MARX
-“disenchantment with material truth and search for abstract truth.”
-Marx argued that capitalism, like previous socioeconomic systems,
will produce internal tension which will lead to its destruction. Postmodernism

-there’s no universal truth. Rationality by itself does not help us truly

HOW TO USE MARXIST THEORY
understand the world.
-focus on power and money in the literature.
-“There’s no universal trust, abstract or otherwise.”

Feminist Criticism

-Realizes cultural and economic problems in a “patriarchal” society

LITERARY TERMS and TECHNIQUES (I randomized everything in
-The concept of “gender” are cultural constructs. this part of literary terms and techniques. Since there are some
subparts which are the just the same to literary terms and
techniques)
Structuralism

-is a way of thinking about the world in relationship to structure

Allegory- Story in which the character represent abstract qualities or
ideas. Ex: Westerns, the sheriff represents the good, and the outlaw
represents the evil.
Alliteration – The repretition of first consonants in a group of words as
in “Peter Piper Picked a Peck of Pickled Peppers.”
Allusion- reference to something or someone often literary. For
instance, if you were trying to instill confidence in a friend and said,
“Use the force,” that would be an allusion to Stars Wars. The verb
form of allusion is to allude.
Antagonist- A major character who opposes the protagonist in a story
or play.
Archetype- A character who represents a certain type of person. For
example, Daniel Boone is an archetype of the early American
frontiersman.
Assonance- The repetition of vowel sounds as in “Days wane away.”
Atmosphere- The overall feeling of a work, which is related to tone
and mood.
Blank Verse: Unrhymed lines of poetry usually in iambic pentameter.
Plenty of modern poetry is written in blank verse.
Characterization- The means by which an author establishes
character. An author may directly describe the appearance and
personality of character or show it through action or dialogue.
Climax- The point at which the action in a story or play reaches its
emotional peak.
Conflict- The elements that create a plot. Traditionally, every plot is
build from the most basic elements of a conflict and an eventual
resolution. The conflict can be internal (within one character) or
external (among or between characters, society, and/or nature).
Contrast- To explain how two things differ. To compare and contrast
is to explain how two things are alike and how they are different.
Couplets-A pair of rhyming lines in a poem often set off from the rest
of the poem. Shakespeare’s sonnets all end in couplets.
Denouement- The resolution of the conflict in a plot after the climax. It
also refers to the resolution of the action in a story or play after the
principal drama is resolved—in other words, tying up the loose ends
or wrapping up a story
Dramatic Monologue- A poem with a fictional narrator addressed to
someone who identity the audience knows, but who does not say
anything.
Elegy- A poem mourning the dead.
End Rhyme- Rhyming words that are at the ends of their respective
lines—what we typically think of as normal rhyme.
Epic- A long poem narrating the adventures of a heroic figure—for
example, Homer’s The Odyssey.
Fable- A story that illustrates a moral often using animals as the
character—for example, The Tortoise and the Hare.
Figurative Language- Language that does not mean exactly what it
says. For example, you can call someone who is very angry
“steaming.” Unless steam was actually coming out of your ears, you
were using figurative language.
First person point of view- The point of view of writing which the
narrator refers to himself as “I.”
Foreshadowing- technique in which an author gives clues about
something that will happen later in the story.
Free Verse- Poetry with no set meter (rhythm) or rhyme scheme.
Genre- A kind of style usually art or literature. Some literary genres
are mysteries, westerns, and romances.
Hyperbole- A huge exaggeration. For example, “Dan’s the funniest
guy on the planet!” or “That baseball card is worth a zillion dollars!”
Lambic Pentameter- Ten-syllable lines in which every other syllable is
stressed. For example: “With eyes like stars upon the brave night air.”
Imagery-The use of description that helps the reader imagine how
something looks, sounds, feels, smells, or taste. Most of the time, it
refers to appearance. For example, “The young bird’s white,
feathered wings flutter as he made his way across the nighttime sky.”
Irony- Language that conveys a certain ideas by saying just he
opposite.
Literature Language- Language that means exactly what it says.
Lyric- A type of poetry that expresses the poet’s emotions. It often
tells some sort of brief story, engaging the reading in the experience.
Metaphor- A comparison that doesn’t use “like” or “as”—such as “He’s
a rock” or “I am an island.”
Meter- The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in the lines of
a poem.
Monologue- A long speech by one character in a play or story
Mood- The emotional atmosphere of a given piece of writing
Motif- A theme or pattern that recurs in a work
Myth- A legend that embodies the beliefs of people and offers some
explanation for natural and social phenomena
Onomatopoeia- The use of words that sound like what they mean
such as “buzz.”
Paradox- A seeming contradiction. For example, “It was the best
of times. It was the worst of times.”
Parody- A humorous, exaggerated imitation of another work.
Personification- Giving inanimate object human characteristics. For
example, “The flames reached for the child hovering in the corner.”
Plot- Action in the story
Prose- Writing organized into sentences and paragraphs. In other
words, normal writing—not poetry.
Protagonist- The main character of a novel, play, or story.
Pun- The use of a word in a way that plays on its different meanings.
For example, “Noticing the bunch of bananas, the hungry gorilla went
ape.
Quatrain- four-line stanza.
Rhetorical Question- A question not meant to be answered such as
“Why can’t we just get along?”
Sarcasm- Language that conveys a certain idea by saying just he
opposite such as if it’s raining outside and you say, “My what a
beautiful day.”
Satire- A work that makes fun of something or someone.
Sensory Image-Imagery that has to do with something you can see,
hear, taste, smell, or feel. For example, “The stinging, salty air
drenched his face.”
Simile- A comparison that uses “like” or “as” For example, “I’m as
hungry as a wolf,” or “My love is like a rose.”
Soliloquy- A monologue in which a character expresses his or her
thoughts to the audience and does not intend the other characters to
hear them.
Sonnet- A fourteen-line poem written iambic pentameter. Different
kinds of sonnets have different rhyme schemes.
Stanza- A section of poetry separated from the sections before and
after it; a verse “paragraph.”
Subplot- A line of action secondary to the main story.
Symbolism- The use of one things to represent another. For example,
a dove is a symbol of peace.
Theme- The central idea of a work.
Tone- The author’s attitude toward his or her subject. For example, a
tone could be pessimistic, optimistic, or angry.
Voice- The narrative point of view whether it’s in the first, second, or
third person.
ELEMENTS OF POETRY
Rhythm- music made by the statements of the poem
Meter- is the basic structural make-up of the poem.
Stanza- unit or group of line or a paragraph in a poem.
Rhyme- it means that the last words or sounds of the lines match with
each other in some form.
Rhyme Scheme- defined as the pattern of rhyme.
Theme- is the central idea that the poet want to convey.
Symbolism- can stand for many things at one time and leads the
reader out of a systematic and structured method of looking at things.
Imagery- this device is used by the poet for readers to creat an image
in their imagination.
FIGURATIVE/CONNOTATIVE DEVICES
1. Simile is the rhetorical term used to designate the most
elementary form of resemblances: most similes are
introduced by "like" or "as." These comparisons are usually
between dissimilar situations or objects that have something
in common, such as "My love is like a red, red rose."
2. A metaphor leaves out "like" or "as" and implies a direct
comparison between objects or situations. "All flesh is grass."
For more on metaphor, click here.
3. Synecdoche is a form of metaphor, which in mentioning an
important (and attached) part signifies the whole (e.g. "hands"
for labour).
4. Metonymy is similar to synecdoche; it's a form of metaphor
allowing an object closely associated (but unattached) with a
object or situation to stand for the thing itself (e.g. the crown
or throne for a king or the bench for the judicial system).
5. A symbol is like a simile or metaphor with the first term left
out. "My love is like a red, red rose" is a simile. If, through
persistent identification of the rose with the beloved woman,
we may come to associate the rose with her and her
particular virtues. At this point, the rose would become a
symbol.
6. Allegory can be defined as a one to one correspondence
between a series of abstract ideas and a series of images or
pictures presented in the form of a story or a narrative. For
example, George Orwell's Animal Farm is an extended
allegory that represents the Russian Revolution through a
fable of a farm and its rebellious animals.
7. Personification occurs when you treat abstractions or
inanimate objects as human, that is, giving them human
attributes, powers, or feelings (e.g., "nature wept" or "the wind
whispered many truths to me").
 8. Irony takes many forms. Most basically, irony is a figure of - Literature and history are closely interrelated. In discovering the
speech in which actual intent is expressed through words that history of a race, the feelings, aspirations, customs and traditions of a
carry the opposite meaning. people are sure to be included . . . and these feelings, aspirations,
customs and traditions that are written is literature.
o Paradox: usually a literal contradiction of terms or
situations -History can also be written and this too, is literature. Events that can
o Situational Irony: an unmailed letter
be written down are part of true literature. Literature, therefore, is part
o Dramatic Irony: audience has more information or
greater perspective than the characters of history.
o Verbal Irony: saying one thing but meaning another
Literary Compositions that Have Influenced the World.
 Overstatement (hyperbole)
 Understatement (meiosis)
Among them are:
 Sarcasm
1. The Bible or the Sacred Writings

2. Koran

3. The Iliad and the Odyssey

4. The Mahab-harata
PERIODS OF LITERARY HISTORY
5. Canterbury Tales
1. The Period of Re-orientation: 1898-1910
6. Uncle Tom’s Cabin
2. Period of Imitation: 1910-1925
General Types of Literature
3. Period of Self-Discovery: 1925-1941
Prose consists of those written within the common flow of
4. Japanese Period: 1941-1945 conversation in sentences and paragraphs, while poetry refers to
5. The Rebirth of Freedom: 1946-1970 those expressions in verse, with measure and rhyme, line and stanza
and has a more melodious tone.
6. Period of Activism: 1970-1972
I. PROSE
7. Period of the New Society: 1972-1981
There are many types of prose. These include the following:
8. Period of the Third Republic: 1981-1985
a. Novels.
9. Contemporary Period: 1986
b. Short story.
c. Plays.
d. Legends (fictitious narrative, usually about origins)
e. Fables. Animals
f. Anecdotes (author’s imagination that has lesson.)
g. Essay (ex: Editorial page of newspaper)
h. Biography- deals with life of a person. (Autobiography)
i. News- report of everyday events.
Oration- Formal treatment of a subject and is intended to be spoken in
public.
II. POETRY
A. Narrative Poetry- Form describe important events in life
either real or imaginary.
1. Epic- Heroes and supernatural control.
2. Metrical Table – narrative written in verse and can be
classified as ballad/metrical romance.
3. Ballads- Narrative poems (shortest and simplest.) tells a
single incident.
B. Lyric Poetry – poetry that meant to be sung. (Short, simple
and easy to understand.)
1. Folksong- short poem that meant to be sung (common
theme is love, despair, grief, doubt, joy, hope and sorrow)
2. Sonnets- 14 lines ( Shakespearean)
3. Elegy- Lyric poem that deals with grief (death)
4. Ode- expressed with dignity (no definite number of
syllables or stanza)
5. Psalm- song for preaching God
6. Awit – 12 syllables (dodecasyllabic) slow sung and
compliments the instruments.
7. Corridos- 8 syllables (octosyllabic) recited to a martial
beat.
C. Dramatic Poetry
1. Comedy - Greek (kormos) meaning festivity or revelry.
(amusing and has a happy ending.)
2. Melodrama- musical plays with the opera. Related to
tragedy but it ends with happy ending.
3. Tragedy- the hero dies and the protagonist win
4. Farce- exaggerated comedy
5. Social poems- purely comic/tragic. Pictures the present
life.
PRE-SPANISH PERIOD
-Our ancestor already uses an alphabet right before the Spaniards
came.
-first alphabet used by our ancestors was similar to that of the Malayo-
Polynesian alphabet.
-Spaniards burned the literary works of our ancestors due to belief
that it was created by evils.
Pre-Spanish Literature Is Characterized By
A.Legends – prose the common theme of which is about the origin.
B.Folk Tales- tells about stories of life, adventure, love, horror and
humor where one can derive lesson about life.
C.The Epic Age- long narrative poem which is a series of heroic. (no
one can determine the place, date, all the matters is the story itself.)
D. Folk Songs- song mirrored the early forms of culture. 12 syllables.
(kundiman)
OTHER FORMS OF PRE-SPANISH
E.Epigrams, Riddles, Chants, Maxims, Proverbs or Sayings.
1.Epigrams (salawikain) – allegories or parables that impart lessons
for the young.
2.Riddles(bugtong) –one or more measured lines with rhyme and may
consist of 4-12 syllables.
3.Chant(bulong)-Used in witchcraft or enchantment.
4.Maxims- some are rhyming couplets with verses of 5,6 or 8
syllables.
5. Saying(kasabihan)- often used in teasing or to comment on a
person’s actuations.
6.Sawikain (saying with no hidden meanings)
SPANISH PERIOD (1565-1898)
-Spanish colonization of the Philippines started in 1565 during the
time of the first Spanish Governor-General Miguel Lopez de Legazpi.
-This spurt continued unabated until the Cavite Revolt in 1872.
A.Spanish Influences of Philippine Literature
1.Alibata
2.teaching Christian Doctrine.
3.Spanish Language became the literary language during this time
4.European legends and traditions brought here became assimilated
in our songs, corridos, and moro-moros.
5.Ancient literature is translated to tagalog.
6.Grammar book were printed in Filipino, and other language in the
Philippines.
7.Gained religious tone.
B. The First Books
1.Ang Doctrina Cristiana -1583
-By: Fr. Juan de Placencia and Fr. Domingo Nieva, tagalog and
Spanish. Consist of Our father, hail mary, hail holy mary, ten
commandment of god, the commandments of the catholic church, 7
mortal sins, confess, catchecism.
-3 copies at Vatican (87 pages) cost 5,000 usd.
2. Nuestra Señpra del Rosario (1602)
- 2nd book printed in the Philippines
-By: Fr. Blanca de San Jose
-Printed at UST printing Press with the help of Juan de Verga.
3. Libro de los Cuatro Post primeras de Hombre. (in Spanish and
Tagalog)
4. Barlaan at Josephat- Biblical story By Fr. Antonio de Borja.
5.The Pasion- the suffering of Jesus Christ
6.Urbana at Felisa- a book by Modesto de Castro “Father of Classic
Prose in Tagalog)
-letters between two sisters and how behavior of people in society
7.Ang mga dalit kay Maria (Psalms for Mary)
C.Literary Compositions
D.Folk songs
-became widespread in the Philippines. Each region had its national
song from the lowlands to the mountains of Luzon, Visayas and
Mindanao.
E. Recereational Plays-
-There are many recreational plays performed by Filipinos during the
Spanish times. Almost all of them were in poetic form.
Tibag- St. Helena search for the cross on which Jesus died.
Lagalay- this is a special occasion for the Pilareños of Sorsogon
during Maytime to get together.
3.Cencaculo- passion and death of Jesus Christ
4. Panunuluyan- presented before 12 on Christmas eve.
5. Salubong- easter play that dramatizes the meeting of the Risen
Christ and his mother.
6.Carillo(shadow play) performed on a moonless night during a town
fiesta or on dark nights after a harvest.
7.Zarzuela- musical comedy or melodrama three acts which dealt with
man’s passions and emotions like love, hate, revenge, cruelty, avarice
or some social or political proble.
8.Sainete- this was a short musical comedy popular during the 18th
century. They were exaggerated comedies shown between acts of
long plays and were mostly performed by characters from the lower
classes. Themes were taken from everyday life scenarios.
F.Moro-Moro
-This is performed during town fiestas to entertain the people and to
remind them of their Christian religion. The plot is usually the same
that of a Christian princess or a nobleman’s daughter who is captured
by the Mohammedans. The father organizes a rescue party where
fighting between the Moros and the Christians ensue.
The Period of Enlightenment (1872-98)
-After 300 years of passivity under Spanish rule, the Filipino spirit
reawakened when the 3 priests Gomez, Burgos and Zamora were
guillotined without sufficient evidence of guilt.
A. The Propaganda Movement (1872-1896)
This movement was spearheaded mostly by the intellectual
middle-class like Jose Rizal, Marcelo del Pilar; Graciano Lopez
Jaena, Antonio Luna, Mariano Ponce, Jose Ma. Panganiban, and
Pedro Paterno.
B. Highlights of the Propaganda Movement
There were three principal leaders of the Propaganda
movement. They were Jose P. Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar and
Graciano Lopez Jaena. Here are highlights about them and what they
have done for our country.
The American Regime (1898-1941)
-The Filipino Revolutionists won against the Spaniards who colonized
us for more than 300 years. Our flag was hoisted on June 12, 1898
as a symbol of our independence. Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo was elected
the first President of the Philippine Republic but this was short-lived.
-Filipino writers went into all forms of literature like news, reporting,
poetry, stories, plays, essays, and novels. Their writings clearly
depicted their love of country and their longings for independence.
The active arousal in the field of literature started to be felt in the
following newspapers.
-During the first year of the American period, the languages used in
writing were Spanish and Tagalog and the dialects of the different
regions, but Spanish and Tagalog predominated.
-In 1910, a new group started to write in English. Hence, Spanish,
Tagalog, the Vernaculars and finally, English, were the mediums used
in literature during these times. While the three groups were one in
their ideas and spirit, they differed in their methods of reporting. The
writers in Spanish were wont to write on nationalism like honoring
Rizal and other heroes.
The Tagalog Drama
During the advent of the American period, Severino Reyes and
Hermogenes Ilagan started the movement against the moro-moro ( a
play on the Spanish struggles against the Muslims) and struggled to
show the people the values one can get from the zarzuela and the
simple plays.
Tagalog Poetry
Almost all Tagalog writers during the American Period were
able to compose beautiful poems which made it difficult to select the
best. Even if poetry writing is as old as history, poetry still surfaces
with its sweetness, beauty, and melody.
C. Philippine Literature in English
In a way, we can say that we can trace the beginnings of
Philippine literature in English with the coming of the Americans. For
this purpose, we can divide this period into three time frames, namely:
1. The Period of Re-orientation: 1898-1910
2. The Period of Imitation: 1910-1925
3. The Period of Self-Discovery: 1925-1941
(1) The Period of Re-orientation (1898-1910)
English as a literary vehicle came with the American
occupation in August 13, 1898 and as they say, a choice bestowed on
us by history. By 1900, English came to be used as a medium of
instruction in the public schools. From the American forces were
recruited the first teachers of English.
(2) The Period of Imitation (1910-1924)
By 1919, the UP College Folio published the literary
compositions of the first Filipino writers in English. They were the
pioneers in short story writing.
D. Period of Self-Discovery and Growth (1925-1941)
By this time, Filipino writers had acquired the mastery of
English writing. They now confidently and competently wrote on a lot
of subjects although the old-time favorites of love and youth persisted.
They went into all forms of writing like the novel and the drama.
3. ESSAYS AND OTHER PROSE STYLES (1925-1941)
 Essays during this period improved with the years in quality
and quantity, in content, subject and style. Essayists like Carlos P.
Romulo became even more eminent editorial writers.
The Japanese Period (1941-1945)
-Between 1941-1945, Philippine Literature was interrupted in its
development when the Philippines was again conquered by another
foreign country, Japan. Philippine literature in English came to a halt.
Except for the TRIBUNE and the PHILIPPINE REVIEW, almost all
newspapers in English were stopped by the Japanese.
-Juan Laya, who use to write in English turned to Filipino because of
the strict prohibitions of the Japanese regarding any writing in English.
Haiku- 17 syllables, 5,7,5
Tanaga- 17 syllables but has measure and rhyme.
B. FILIPINO DRAMA DURING THE JAPANESE PERIOD
The drama experienced a lull during the Japanese period
because movie houses showing American films were closed. The big
movie houses were just made to show stage shows. Many of the
plays were reproductions of English plays to Tagalog.
C. THE FILIPINO SHORT STORY DURING THE JAPANESE
PERIOD
The field of the short story widened during the Japanese
Occupation. Many wrote short stories. Among them were: Brigido
Batungbakal, Macario Pineda, Serafin Guinigindo, Liwayway Arceo,
Narciso Ramos, NVM Gonzales, Alicia Lopez Lim, Ligaya Perez, and
Gloria Guzman.
D. PHILIPPINE LITERATURE IN ENGLISH (1941-1945)
Because of the strict prohibitions imposed b the Japanese in
the writing and publishing of works in English, Philippine literature in
English experienced a dark period. The few who dared to write did so
for their bread and butter or for propaganda.
The Rebirth of Freedom (1946-1970)
-The Americans returned in 1945. Filipinos rejoiced and guerillas who
fled to the mountain joined the liberating American Army.
On July 4, 1946, the Philippines regained is freedom and the Filipino
flag waved joyously alone. The chains were broken.
-A. THE STATE OF LITERATURE DURING THIS PERIOD
The early post-liberation period was marked by a kind of
“struggle of mind and spirit” posed by the sudden emancipation from
the enemy, and the wild desire to see print.
-Journalists had their day. They indulged in more militant attitude in
their reporting which bordered on the libelous. Gradually, as normality
was restored, the tones and themes of the writings turned to the less
pressing problems of economic survival.
Period of Activism (1970-1972)
-According to Pociano Pineda, youth activism in 1970-72 was due to
domestic and worldwide causes. Activism is connected with the
history of our Filipino youth.
-Many young people became activists to ask for changes in the
government. In the expression of this desire for change, keen were
the writings of some youth who were fired with nationalism in order to
emphasize the importance of their petitions.
A. THE SEED OF ACTIVISM
The seeds of activism resulted in the declaration of Martial
Law in 1972. We can, however, say that he seeds were earlier sown
from the times of Lapu-lapu, Lakandula, and Rizal.
B. PERIOD OF THE BLOODY PLACARDS
Pineda also said that this was the time when the youth once
more proved that it is not the constant evasion that shapes our race
and nationalism.
C. THE LITERARY REVOLUTION
The youth became completely rebellious during this period.
This was proven not only in the bloody demonstrations and in the
sidewalk expressions but also in literature. Campus newspapers
showed rebellious emotions. The once aristocratic writers developed
awareness for society. They held pens and wrote on placards in red
paint the equivalent of the word MAKIBAKA (To dare!).
WRITING DURING THE PERIOD OF ACTIVISM
The irreverence for the poor reached its peak during this
period of the mass revolution. It was also during this period that
Bomba films that discredit our ways as Filipinos started to come out.
PALANCA AWARDEES FOR LITERATURE IN ENGLISH
(Established in 1950, the Palanca Memorial Awards for
Literature had been giving cash prizes for short story, poetry and one-
act play writing as an incentive to Filipino writers. The prizes come
from La Tondena, Inc., the firm founded by the late Carlos Palanca Sr.
For the list of winners from 1950-51 to 1960-70, we recommended
Alberto S. Florentino’s “Twenty Years of Palanca Awards.”)
Period of the New Society (1972-1980)
-The period of the New Society started on September 21, 1972. The
Carlos Palanca Awards continued to give annual awards.
-Almost all themes in most writings dealt with the development or
progress of the country
-The military government established a new office called the Ministry
of Public Affairs that supervised the newspapers, books and other
publications.
A. FILIPINO POETRY DURING THE PERIOD OF THE NEW
SOCIETY
Themes of most poems dealt with patience, regard for native
culture, customs and the beauties of nature and surroundings.
B. THE PLAY UNDER THE NEW SOCIETY
The government led in reviving old plays and dramas, like the
Tagalog Zarzuela, Cenaculo and the Embayoka of the Muslims which
were presented in the rebuilt Metropolitan Theater, the Folk Arts
Theater and the Cultural Center of the Philippines.
The following organizations contributed a lot to the development of
plays during this period:
1. PETA of Cecille Guidote and Lino Brocka
2. Repertory Philippines: of Rebecca Godines and Zenaida Amador
3. UP Repertory of Behn Cervantes
4. Teatro Filipino by Rolando Tinio
C. RADIO AND TELEVISION
Radio continued to be patronized during this period. The play
series like SI MATAR, DAHLIA, ITO AND PALAD KO, and MR.
LONELY were the forms of recreation of those without television.
Even the new songs were first heard over the airwaves.
D. FILIPINO FILMS
New kinds of films without sex or romance started to be made but
which were nevertheless well-received by the public.
Period of the Third Republic (1981-1985)
-After ten years of military rule and some changes in the life of the
Filipino which started under the New Society, Martial Rule was at last
lifted on January 2, 1981.
-A historian called this the Third Republic. The First Republic he
claimed was during the Philippine Republic of Emilio Aguinaldo when
we first got our independence form the Spaniards on June 12, 1898.
-During this period, it cannot be denied that many people seethed with
rebellion and protest because of the continued oppression and
suppression.
-This stage of the nation had its effect on our literature. After the
Aquino assassinated, the people’s voices could no long be contained.
Both the public and private sectors in government were chanting, and
shouting; women, men and the youth became bolder and their voices
were raised in dissent.
THE PALANCA AWARDS
The Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for literature which was
launched in 1950 (see Chapter 7, The Renaissance Period),
continued its recognition of the best in the literary fields – poetry, short
story, essays, and the one and three-act plays.
B. FILIPINO POETRY
Poems during this period of the Third Republic were romantic
and revolutionary. Writers wrote openly of their criticism against the
government. The supplications of the people were coached in fiery,
colorful, violent, profane and insulting language.
C. FILIPINO SONGS
Many Filipino songs dealt with themes that were really true-
to-life like those of grief, poverty, aspirations for freedom, love of God,
of country and of fellowmen.
D. PHILIPPINE FILMS DURING THE PERIOD
The yearly Festival of Filipino Films continued to be held
during this period. The people’s love for sex films also was unabated.
Many producers took advantage of this at the expense of public
morality.
E. POETRY IN ENGLISH DURING THE THIRD REPUBLIC
 Most especially, during the wake of the tragic Benigno Aquino
Jr.’s incident, people reacted with shock, appalled by the suddenness
and the unexpectedness of events.
F. MEDIA OF 1983
Sheila S. Coronel, a PANORAMA staff stalwart, reporting on the state
of the media during these times said: it was a year of ferment, and
change, of old problems made more oppressive by the new throbbing
beat of the times.”
G. CHILDREN’S BOOKS
Among the well-loved forms of writing which abounded during this
period were those of children’s stories. The Children’s
Communication Center (CCC) directed by poet and writer Virgilio S.
Almario already has built up an impressive collection of these kinds of
books. The following are some of the books of the period.
Periods (1986-1999)
-Historical Background
History took another twist. Once more, the Filipino people regained
their independence which they lost twenty years ago.
In the span of four days form February 21-25, 1986, the so-called
People Power (Lakas ng Bayan) prevailed. Together, the people
barricaded the streets petitioning the government for changes and
reforms. Freedom became a reality – won through a peaceful,
bloodless and God-blessed revolution.
A. THE STATE OF LITERATURE DURING THIS PERIOD:
In the short span of the existence of the true Republic of the
Philippines, several changes already became evident. This in noticed
in the new Filipino songs, in the newspapers, in the speeches, and
even in the television programs.
B. FILIPINO SONGS DURING THIS PERIOD
Here are a few Filipino songs that were often heard. They were often
aired in radio and television and often accompanied the historical
events that transpired in the Philippines and gained for the Filipinos
world-wide acclaim.
Representative Compositions through the Years
1. AMERICAN PERIOD (1898-1941)
A. Period of Re-Orientation 1898-1910
Air Castles (Poetry) by Juan F. Salazar (1909-1910)
B. Period of Imitation 1911-1925 (American Period)
The Sea by Natividad Marquez (Poetry)
C. Period of Self Discovery (1925-1941)
Poetry
1896 by Aurelio Alvero
To a Lost One by Angela Manalang Gloria
Prayer of a Student by Trinidad L. Tarrosa Subido
Short Story
Dead Stars by Paz Marquez-Benitez
The Making of A Writer by Salvador P. Lopez
Shadow and Solitude (A translation of Solo Entre Las Sombras) by
Claro M. Recto translated by Nick Joaquin
2. THE JAPANESE PERIOD (1941-1945)
To My Native Land by Tarrosa Subido
My Father’s Tragedy by Carlos Bulosan
Shall We Walk? by Pura Santillan Castrence
3. THE REBIRTH OF FREEDOM (1946-1970)
Poetry
When I see a Barong-Barong by Maximo Ramos (1946)
Short Story
Plighted Word by Narciso G. Reyes
Scent of Apples by Bienvenido Santos
Cadaver by Alberto S. Florentino
They Called It “BROTHERHOOD” by Maximo V. Soliven
4. PERIOD OF ACTIVISM (1970-1972)
Valedictorian sa Hillcrest ni Rolando Tinio
Beggar Children by Emmanuel Torres
5. PERIOD OF THE NEW SOCIETY (1972-1980)
Poetry
Philosopher’s Love Song by Tita Lacambra-Ayala
The Tomato Game by N.V.M. Gonzales
I Married a Newspaperman by Maria Luna-Lopez
6. PERIOD OF THE THIRD REPUBLIC (1981-85)
Poetry
Death Like Stone for Benigno S. Aquino Jr. from PHILIPPIN
PANORAMA
Fables
The Emperor’s New Underwear by Mynardo A. Macaraig
Literary Compositions from 1986-1999
-And, as Salvador Lopez aptly said in his Literature and Society:
“Absolute divorcement from the world by writers is impossible, for
literature is, in some way, rooted in the earth of human experience.”
CANONICAL AUTHORS
Francisco "Franz" Arcellana (September 6, 1916 – August 1, 2002)
was a Filipino writer, poet, essayist, critic, journalist and teacher. He
was born on September 6, 1916. Arcellana already had ambitions of
becoming a writer during his years in the elementary. His actual
writing, however, started when he became a member of The Torres
TorchOrganization during his high school years. Arcellana Grande
continued writing in various school papers at the University of the
Philippines Diliman. He later on received a Rocketfeller Granted and
became a follower in creative writing the University of Iowa and
Breadloaf's writers conference from 1956– 1957.[
 Selected Stories (1962)
 Poetry and Politics: The State of Original Writing in English in the
Philippines Today (1977)
 The Francisco Arcellana Sampler (1990).
Virginia R. Moreno (born 1925) is a Filipino writer.[1]
 She was born in the Tondo neighbourhood of Manila and
studied at the University of the Philippines, where she was
editor of the campus newspaper, and at the Kansas Institute
of International Education. Her first collection of poems Batik
Maker and Other Poems was published in 1972; it received
the Palanca Memorial Award for Literature. Her play Straw
Patriot (1956) was translated into Filipino by Wilfredo Pascua
Sanchez in 1967 as Bayaning huwad. In 1969, she won the
National Historical Playwriting Contest for her play The Onyx
Wolf, also known as La Loba Negra and Itim Asu. Also in
1969, she studied at the British Film Institute in London under
a British Council grant. In 1973, she was co-director of the
documentary The Imaginative Community: 7 Poets in Iowa.
Moreno also took part in the International Writing Program at
the University of Iowa. In 1976, she became director of the
University of the Philippines Film Center.
Jessica Hagedorn
Hagedorn was born in Manila to a Scots-Irish-French-Filipino mother
and a Filipino-Spanish father with one Chinese ancestor.[1] Moving
to San Francisco in 1963, Hagedorn received her education at
the American Conservatory Theater training program. To further
pursue playwriting and music, she moved to New York City in 1978.
Joseph Papp produced her first play Mango Tango in 1978.
Hagedorn's other productions include Tenement Lover, Holy Food,
and Teenytown. Her mixed media style often incorporates
song, poetry, images, and spoken dialogue.
 Chiquita Banana. Third World Women (3rd World
Communications, 1972)
 Pet Food & Tropical Apparitions (Momo's Press, 1975)
 Dangerous Music (Momo's Press, 1975)
 Mango Tango (Y'Bird Magazine January 1, 1977)
 Dogeaters (Penguin Books, 1990)
Alejandro Reyes Roces
(13 July 1924 – 23 May 2011) was a Filipino author, essayist,
dramatist and a National Artist of the Philippines for literature. He
served as Secretary of Education from 1961 to 1965, during the term
of Philippine President Diosdado Macapagal.
Roces won Best Short Story for We Filipinos are Mild Drinkers.
Another of his stories, My Brother’s Peculiar Chicken, was listed as
Martha Foley’s Best American Stories among the most distinctive for
years 1948 and 1951. Roces did not only focus on short stories alone,
as he also published books such as Of Cocks and Kites (1959), Fiesta
(1980), and Something to Crow About (2005). Of Cocks and Kites
earned him the reputation as the country's best writer of humorous
stories.
Francisco Baltazar
(born Francisco Balagtas y de la Cruz; April 2, 1788 – February 20,
1862), also known as Francisco Balagtas, was a
prominent Filipino poet, and is widely considered one of the greatest
Filipino literary laureates for his impact on Filipino literature. The
famous epic, Florante at Laura, is regarded as his defining work.
The name "Baltazar", sometimes misconstrued as a pen name, was a
legal surname Balagtas adopted after the 1849 edict of Governor-
General Narciso Claveria y Zaldua, which mandated that the native
population adopt standard Spanish surnames instead of native ones.
His trainer is Jose Dela Cruz, also called Huseng Sisiw
 Florante at Laura or Pinagdaanang Buhay ni Florante at Laura sa
Kaharian ng Albanya, an awit (metrical narrative poem with
 dodecasyllabic quatrains [12 syllables per line, 4 lines per
stanza]); Balagtas' masterpiece
 La India elegante y el negrito amante – a short play in one part
 Orosman at Zafira – a comedia in three parts
Francisco Sionil José (born 3 December 1924) is one of the most
widely read Filipino writers in the English
language.[1][2] His novels and short stories depict the social
underpinnings of class struggles and colonialism in Filipino
society.[3][4] José's works—written in English—have
been translated into 28 languages,
including Korean, Indonesian, Czech, Russian, Latvian, Ukrainian and
Dutch.
 Po-on (Source) (1984)
 The Pretenders (1962)
 My Brother, My Executioner (1973)
 Mass (December 31, 1974)
 Tree (1978)
 World War II novel, When the Rainbow Goddess Wept, Magdalena,
Filipino Canadian author Edmundo Farolan started winning literary
awards as a young writer-scholar while studying philosophy and
letters in Madrid in the 1960s. He taught English, Spanish, and Media
in various universities, including Webster University
Thailand, University of Silesia (Czech Republic), Dalian
University (China), University of Toronto and Corpus Christi College[
 Lluvias Filipinas (1967)
 The Rhythm of Despair (1974)
 Gramatica y Practica (1979)
 Don Segundo Sombra: traduccion tagala (1979)
 Literatura filhispana: una antologia (1980)
 Espanol para universitarios filipinos (1981)
 Tercera Primavera (1981)
 Oh Canada (1994)
Ingrid Chua-Go
is the daughter of Benjamin Chua, Jr. and Pacita Ong Chua. When
she was a child, her mother gave her a Tomy typewriter, which
sparked her fascination with writing.[1] This interest was further
stimulated by her father during the summers that they would spend in
San Francisco. He would assign her books to read over the vacation
and required her to write book reports on each one. This developed
her writing proficiency at an early age and she considers her father a
great influence on her chosen profession.
Bag hag diaries, accessory lab.
Cecilia Manguerra Brainard
is an author and editor of 160 books. She co-founded PAWWA or
Philippine American men Writers and Artists; she also founded
Philippine American Literary House. Brainard's works include the
and Woman With Horns and Other Stories. She edited several
anthologies including Fiction by Filipinos in America, Contemporary
Fiction by Filipinos in America, and two volumes of Growing Up
Filipino I and II, books used by educators.
Short Story
 Ala Carte Food and Fiction (Edited by Brainard and Orosa, Anvil,
2007)
 Contemporary Fiction by Filipinos in America (Anvil, 1998)
 Fiction by Filipinos in America (New Day, 1993)
 Growing Up Filipino: Stories for Young Adults (PALH & Anvil,
2003)
 Growing Up Filipino II: More Stories for Young Adults (PALH,
2010)
LUALHATI BAUTISTA
Bautista was born in Tondo, Manila, Philippines on December 2, 1945
to Esteban Bautista and Gloria Torres. She graduated from Emilio
Jacinto Elementary School in 1958, and from Torres High School in
1962 being a lowest in her class. She was a journalism student at
the Lyceum of the Philippines, but dropped out for the reason of failed
grades. She started her writing career in the Liwayway magazine.

"Tatlong Kwento ng Buhay ni Juan Candelabra" (Three Stories in the

Life of Juan Candelabra), first prize, 1982; and "Buwan, Buwan,
Hulugan mo Ako ng Sundang" (Moon, Moon, Drop Me a dagger),

Carlos Sampayan Bulosan

(November 24, 1913[1] – September 11, 1956) was an English-

language Filipino novelist and poet who spent most of his life in the
United States. His best-known work today is the semi-
autobiographical America Is in the Heart, but he first gained fame for
his 1943 essay on The Freedom from Want.

Zoilo Galang

is the Filipino author of the first Philippine novel written in

the English language, A Child of Sorrow, published in 1921