MUFFAKHAM JAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

AND TECHNOLOGY
(SULTAN-UL-ULOOM EDUCATION SOCIETY)
BANJARA HILLS, HYDERABAD-500034

MANUAL OF PHYSICS PRACTICALS

B.E. SEMESTER-II 2019-2020

Name :
Hall Ticket No :
Class :
Section :
 LIST OF STAFF MEMBERS
Physics Department
Teaching Staff
1. Dr. Shaik Kareem Ahmed Associate Professor
Incharge Physics Section
2. Mr. Syed Ilyas Mohiuddin Asst.Professor
3. Mr. Raheem Ahmed Asst.Professor
4. Dr. Nazima Siddiqui Asst.Professor
5. Dr. Shaik Ahmed Asst.Professor

Non-Teaching Staff
1. Mr. Ateeq-ur-Rahman Lab Assistant
2. Mr. Shaik Shakeel Ahmed Lab Assistant
 1

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

CYCLE-1
1. P-N junction diode
2. Solar cell
3. Energy band gap
CYCLE-2
4. Thermistor
5. Laser
6. Optical fiber

CYCLE-3
7. B-H curve
8. Four probe method
9. Dielectric constant
 2

1. P-N JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM : To study the p-n junction diode characteristics.

APPARATUS : p-n junctiondiode, voltmeters of range 0 – 1.5 V in farward bias and

0 – 15 V n reverse bias Milliammeter 0 – 25 mA in FB and microammeter 0-250 mA in
RB, high resistance 1 kW and potentiometer.

FORMULA

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

Figure-1 Forward bias circuit of a PN junction diode

Figure-2 Reverse bias circuit of a PN junction diode

 3

THEORY:
p-n diode is a semiconductor device in which one part is doped with acceptor impurity
forming p type the other part is doped with donor impurity forming n-type semiconductor.
The plane separating these two types is called junction.

A p-n junction is a boundary between p-type region and n-type region of a single crystal
semiconductor-tor. The p-type region has excess of holes and n-type region has excess of
electrons. Due to the existence of concentration gradient of charge carriers some of the
electrons of the n-region diffuse into the p-region where they recombine with an equal
number of holes. Similarly, some holes diffuse from p-region to n-region and combine with
an equal number of electrons. Such a flow of carriers constitutes the diffusion current and
creates positive ions on the n-side and negative ions on the p-side. This region is devoid of
charge carriers. Hence it is called charge depletion layer. A potential barrier exists across
this layer which prevents the further diffusion of charge carriers. When a diode is subjected
to external potential difference it is said to be biased. There are two different ways in which
a diode can be biased. (1) Forward biasing (2) Reverse biasing.

FORWARD BIASING: When the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the p-side
and the negative terminal connected to the n-side the junction is said to be forward biased
figure-1. Under this condition the majority charge carriers are pushed towards the junction.
Due to this the depletion layer becomes thin and the potential barrier is reduced. For small
value of forward bias the diode current is very small and increases rapidly beyond a certain
voltage called cutin, offset or threshold voltage ( 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge).

REVERSE BIASING: When the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the n-side
and the negative terminal is connected to the p-side the junction is said to be reverse biased,
figure-2. Under this condition the majority charge carriers are pulled away from the junction.
Due to this the depletion layer is widened and potential barrier is raised. The current falls
drastically due to the inability of the majority charge carriers to surmount the potential
barrier. The current is due to the minority charge carriers. This is known as reverse saturation
current. It remains almost constant upto a certain voltage, and then increases due to junction
break down. Anyhow its value is µA when
PROCEDURE
FORWARD BIASING: Connect 0 – 15 V source in series with 1 KΩ resistor a milliameter
(0-25mA) and a Silicon diode with its p-side to positive terminal connect a voltmeter
(0 – 1.5) across the diode as shown. Close the circuit and increase the voltage gradually in
steps and note the corresponding currents. Draw a graph between voltage (on x-axis) and
current (on y-axis).
 4

REVERSE BIASING:

Connect a 0 – 15 V source in series with a 1 KΩ resistor, a microammeter

(0 – 250µA) and a silicon diode with its n-side connected to positive terminal, connect a
voltmeter (0 – 15V) across the diode (as shown). Close the circuit and increase voltage
gradually in steps and note the corresponding currents. Draw V – I graph by taking voltage
on the negative x-axis and current on the negative y-axis of the same graph sheet containing
forward biased characteristics. (as shown). Find the cutin voltage. Also find the forward and
reverse bias resistances.
MODEL GRAPH & OBSERVATION
 5

SAMPLE VIVA QUESTIONS

Q.1 What is a diode?

Ans. A diode is a semiconductor device which consists of two electrodes. One is called
Anode and the other is called Cathode.
Q.2 What is the important property of a Diode?
Ans. It is a uni- directional device. It conducts only in one direction

Q.3 What is a P-type semiconductor?

Ans. When third group or trivalent impurities are added to pure or intrinsic semi-
conductors
It is called P-type semiconductor. The majority charge carriers are holes in it.

Q.4 What is an N-type semiconductor?

Ans. When fifth group or pentavalent impurities are added to a pure semiconductor it is
called N-type semiconductor. The majority charge carriers are electrons in it.

Q.5 What is p-n junction diode?

Ans. P-N junction diode is a semiconductor device in which p type semiconductors and
n type Semiconductors are separated by a layer

Q.6 What is p-n junction?

Ans. A junction formed due to p type and n type semiconductor coming in contact is
called p-n junction
Q.7 What is Potential Barrier?
Ans. The potential difference developed across the junction is known as barrier potential.
 6

Q.8 What is Depletion Layer?

Ans. The region existing on either side of junction is called depletion layer. In this layer
electrons and holes do not exist

Q.9 What is cut-in voltage or knee voltage?

Ans. The forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts continues to
increase exponentially, is called the knee voltage or cut-in voltage.

Q.10 What are the applications of Semiconductors?

Ans. Semiconductors are of enormous technological importance because of their special
properties, which can be modified by doping. Some applications include:
Thermistors, Hall Probes, IR Sensors/Optoelectronic devices, Semiconductor
devices like diodes, transistors, FETs, LEDs, solar cells, etc.
 7

2. SOLARCELL
AIM: To plot the I-V characteristics of a solar cell and calculate the fill factor (FF) and
series resistance (Rs)
APPARATUS: Solar cell, Illuminator, Voltmeter, Milliammeter and Potentiometer, etc.

FIGURE - (a)
Energy band diagram of a p-n junction solar cell under
solar irradiation. (b)
Idealized equivalent circuit of a solar
cell

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM & Model Graph

𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒍𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂
Formula: - Fill Factor = 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂

OR

THEORY:
Solar cell is a shallow p-n junction diode. We know that a built-in-voltage exists
across a p-n junction, but this voltage cannot deliver current in an external circuit. However,
 8

if light is incident on the junction, there is current in the circuit. This effect is called the
photovoltaic effect.
To understand the principle underlying the photovoltaic effect, let the junction be
illuminated. Through under this condition electron-hole pairs are generated in the regions on
either side of the junction through absorption of photons. As the field within the junction is
from n-side to p-side, the excess minority carriers thus generated diffuse to the junction
where they are carried across and become majority carriers - the holes generated on n-side
move towards p-side and the electrons generated on p-side move towards n-side. If the
junction is now open-circuited, the majority carrier excess charge will build up on both sides
of the junction. If the external circuit is closed, the current will therefore flow therein. This
current will continue so long as there is diffusion of excess electrons from n- side and of
excess holes from p-side. This in turn means that the current will flow so long as the
semiconductor regions are illuminated.

This explains how the incident light sets up the current flow in the external circuit. The
current flowing through the p-n junction under non-illumination condition is given by

I= Is [eqv/kT - 1]...................(1)

Where Is - Diode saturation current, V - Junction Voltage

But under illumination condition, the current flowing through the junction is given as
I = Is [ eqV/kT – 1 ] - IL ………… (2)
Where IL - current due to excitation (under illumination) of excess carriers by solar
radiation.
When P-N junction is used in open circuit mode, so that I = 0, V = Voc, (open circuit voltage)
then 0 = IL - Is [ eqVoc/kT – 1 ]
As IL >> Is, then in the above equation, 1 can be neglected and on simplification we get

Voc = kT/q log [IL/Is] ……………(3)

A second limiting case in the solar cell is the one where the output is short circuited i.e.,
R = 0, V = 0; then from equation (2) on simplification, we get
I = IL = ISC ……………………….(4)
i.e. When V = 0, I in the circuit is equal to the ISC (ISC- Short Circuit current)
The I-V curve of solar cell passes through the fourth quadrant. If we know Voc, Isc and
Im, Vm, from graph, then we can calculate series resistance and fill factor
 9

PROCEDURE

Complete the idealized equivalent circuit of solar cell connections. Then place the light
source S at a distance of 15 crn from solar cell. Adjust the potentiometer RL until you obtain
the zero voltage in voltmeter and maximum current in the ammeter (if it shows out of scale
then decrease the light intensity). This maximum current is called the short circuit current
Isc. Then, with the help of potentiometer increase the voltage in equal steps and note down
the corresponding current till you get maximum voltage in the voltmeter. Now remove all
the connections of the circuit and find out the open circuit voltage (Voc) [i.e. connecting +ve
of cell to the +ve of voltmeter and –ve of the cell to the -ve of the voltmeter]. Repeat the
experiment for other intensities placing the light source at 20 cm and 25 cm, plot the graphs
between V and I. Select a point 'P' on each curve and draw perpendicular lines from P onto

both axes, such that the area covered by the rectangle is maximum. Note the Vm and Im from
each curve and calculate the fill factor for each curve, then find out the average fill factor.
To find out the series resistance find the differences between two consecutive Vm and Im.

RESULT:
1. Fill factor (F) =……………
2. Series Resistance (RS) = …………
 10

PRECAUTIONS:
1. See that the light from the source falls normally on the solar cell.
2. Make sure that connections are made properly and ensure good contact.

SAMPLE VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by solar cell?

Ans. Solar cell is a p- n junction device, which converts light energy to electrical energy.

2. What is the difference between Light Emitting Diode P-N junction and solar cell P-N
junction?
Ans. When the light falls on solar cell it generates electricity by using sunlight. When light
reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter in the junction, through the very
thin p-type layer. On the other hand LED is light Emitting Diode. I.e. Solar cell converts
light to electricity where as LED converts electricity to light.

3. What do you mean by Voc and Isc and explain them.

Ans. Voc means open circuit voltage and Isc means short circuit current.
V0c is the difference of electrical potential between two terminals of a device when
disconnected from any circuit. There is no external load connected. No
external electric current flows between the terminals.
Isc is The short-circuit current is the current through the solar cell when the voltage
across the solar cell is zero

4. On which parameter of the semiconductor, the solar efficiency mainly depends?

Ans. The efficiency depends on the spectrum and intensity of the incident sunlight and the
temperature of the solar cell.

Q.5 What is the material used for preparing solar cells?

Ans. Germanium and silicon were the materials which were used widely for solar cell,
but Now a day’s gallium arsenide (GaAs), cadmium arsenide (CdAs) and Indium
arsenide are used.
Q.6 In a p-n junction solar cell, which layer is very thin and why?
Ans. The p material layer is made extremely thin, so that the incident light photons can
reach easily the p-n junction

Q.7 What is fill factor?

Ans. The fill factor is the ratio of the actual maximum obtainable power to the product of
the open circuit voltage and short circuit current.

Q.8 What are the most important parameters of a semiconductor material for solar cell
operation?
Ans
 11

 Band gap
 Number of free carriers (electrons or holes) available for conduction
 Generation and Recombination of free carriers (electrons or holes) in response to
light

Q.9 What is the effect of series resistance of solar cell?
Ans. Series resistance of the solar cell could seriously reduce the fill factor. For an ideal
solar cell, series resistance equals to 0 ohms

Q.10 What are the Applications of solar cell?

Ans. The Application of a solar cell are as follows:
 These are used in satellites to recharge their batteries.
 The engineers and scientists are planning a large number of cells outside the
Earth’s atmosphere for electricity production.
 12

3. ENERGY BAND GAP OF

SEMICONDUCTOR
13
 14

SAMPLE VIVA QUESTIONS

Q.1 What is energy band gap?

Ans. The band gap generally refers to the energy difference (in electron volts) between
the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band in insulators and
semiconductors

Q.2 Name the three classes of materials with respect to motion of electron through
them?
Ans. The three classes of material are Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductor.

Q.3 What is energy band?

Ans. The collection of very closed space energy level is called energy band.

Q.4 What is valence band?

Ans. The highest energy band which is completely filled at zero Kelvin is called valence
band.
 15

Q.5 What is conduction band?

Ans. The band lying next two valence band which may be partially filled or completely
empty is called conduction band.

Q.6 What is forbidden energy gap?

Ans. The energy gap between the valence band and conduction band of a semiconductor
is called forbidden energy gap.

Q.7 What is Fermi Level?

Ans. Fermi level is the highest level occupied by the electrons at 0 Kelvin.

Q.8 What is Fermi Energy?

Ans. The energy corresponding to the electron of highest energy level at 0 Kelvin.

Q.9 What is the value of conductivity of a semiconductor at 0 Kelvin?

Ans. At zero Kelvin conductivity of pure semiconductor is zero.

Q.10 What is the effect of temperature on conductivity of semiconductor?

Ans. With increase in temperature the conductivity of semiconductor increases.

Q.11 How does resistance of semiconductor vary with temperature?

Ans. The resistance of semiconductor decreases exponentially with increase in
temperature.

Q.12 What is Semiconductor?

Ans. Semiconductor are materials whose electrical properties lies between Conductor
and Insulator.
 16

4. TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS OF A THERMISTOR

AIM: To draw the temperature verses resistance characteristics of a thermistor and to evaluate the
constants.
APPARATUS: Thermistor, Wheatstone bridge, test tube containing oil, water bath, and heater.

PRINCIPLE: A thermistor is a device sensitive to temperature variation. It consists of a mixture

of oxides of cobalt, magnesium, manganese, nickel with finely divided copper. The mixture is
embedded in a ceramic base. It is provided with two platinum leads. Thermistors are available in
many shapes such as discs, beads and rods etc. The fundamental property of a thermistor is its
temperature dependence of resistance. The resistance of a thermistor has a non-linear variation
with temperature. With the increase in temperature the resistance of a thermistor decreases
exponentially as given by the relation
B/T
R = Ae ............................ ( 1 )
Where A and B are constants and T is the absolute temperature. The present experiment is to study
‘R’ as a function of ‘T’ and to evaluate the constants A and B.

FORMULA :

𝟏 ∆𝑹
Temperature coefficient of resistance of thermistor α= ( ∆𝑻 ) 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠: 1/𝐾
𝑹
Thermistor constants A and B are given by
A = 𝒆−𝒙 where x is the value of negative Y- intercept and

𝑑𝑦 1
B= (B is the slope of the line drawn between vs loge R)
𝑑𝑥 𝑇

MODEL GRAPH AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

 17

PROCEDURE:

A wheatstone bridge is set up as shown in the figure. The thermistor is connected in the fourth arm
of the bridge, while P, Q and R form the other three arms. P and Q represent the ratio arms. Both
of them have equal resistance. The resistance ‘R’ is a variable resistance. The thermistor is placed
in a tube containing transformer oil or groundnut oil. The test tube is placed in a water bath. The
temperature is noted. The variable resistance ‘R’ is adjusted such that the galvanometer shows no
deflection. The resistance of ‘R’ is equal to resistance of thermistor. The water bath is heated until
the water boils. Now the water is allowed to cool down. The resistance of the thermistor is
0
measured at different temperatures at regular intervals of 10 C. The resistance and corresponding
temperatures are noted in the table No.1. Plot a graph between resistance and absolute temperature
as shown in model graph. From the graph it can be seen that ‘R’ decreases exponentially with
increase in temperature. To evaluate the temperature coefficient of resistance a tangent is drawn
to the curve at a suitable value of R as shown.

RESULTS:

1. Temperature coefficient of resistance α =.................. /K

2. The value of constant A =....................... Ω

3. The value of constant B =........................ K

 18

SAMPLE VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is a thermistor?
Thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly with the temperature.

2. How a thermistor is fabricated?

Thermistors are fabricated by simply the mixture of oxides of cobalt, magnesium,
manganese, nickel etc.

3. What are the shapes of thermistor?

The shapes of thermistor are
 Rod shape
 Disc shape and
 Bead shape
4. How many types of thermistors are available?
There are two types of thermistors.
i. Positive temperature coefficient thermistor(PTC)
ii. Negative temperature coefficient thermistor (NTC).

5. What is the principle of wheatstone’s bridge?

A wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical
resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown
𝑃 𝑅
component. When the bridge is balanced, then =𝑆
𝑄
6. What is temperature measurement range of thermistor?
The range of temperature of thermistor is -1000 C to +3500 C.
7. What is temprature coefficient of resistance?
The fractional change in resistance for 10 C change in temperature is called temperature
coefficient of resistance. Its units are /0C or /K. The temperature coefficient α of electric
resistance of thermistor expresses a drop in the resistance with a small increase in temperature
(usually 1oC), defined by:

8. What are physical constants (A and B) of a thermistor?

The constant A is thermistor resistance at considerably high temperature and B is material
 19

constant (K)

9. What is a material constant?

The thermal conductivity is the material constant. It's a material property describing the
ability to conduct heat.
10. What are the applications of thermistors?
 To measure the wind velocity and altitudes.
 In temperature control units.
 To protect the windings of motors, transformers and generators.
 In voltage stabilizers.
 To protect electronic circuits etc.
 Thermistors are widely used as inrush current limiters, temperature sensors, self-resetting
over current protectors, and self-regulating heating elements.
 20

5. LASERS
AIM: To determine the wavelength of a given laser source by using diffraction grating.

APPARATUS: Laser diode module, grating, scale and screen etc.

𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽
FORMULA: 𝝀= cm (0r) 𝑨𝟎
𝒏.𝑵

Where λ is the wavelength of light; θ is angle of diffraction

n is order of maximum; N is grating element= number of lines per/cm on a grating, i.e.

No. of lines per inch

𝐍=
2.54

Diagram:

MODEL GRAPH: n=4

n=3
n=2
X
n=1

PROCEDURE:
D
The laser diode module is mounted horizontally. A diffraction grating (2500LPI) is placed on a
stand at the same height and adjusted for normal incidence. When laser is switched on, we get
diffraction maxima on a scale placed at about 0.5m distance (D) with respect to grating. The
 21

distances between different orders on left and right side (2x) are measured and tabulate. This
procedure is repeated for different values of D and the results are tabulated as follows

Distance Distance Distance wavelengt

between Order of between between 𝑋 h
θ = tan−1 ( )
S.N grating diffractio correspondin centre and 𝐷
o and n g order maximum sin 𝜃 Sinθ
screen (2X) (X) λ=
n. N
(D) (n)
cm

1
2
1 30cm
3
4

1
2
2 40cm
3
4

1
2
3 50cm
3
4

1
2
4 60cm 3
4

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Now draw graph between X and D for a given order. A straight line graph is obtained.

The slope of the graph gives tanθ. i.e., Slope = tan θ or θ = tan-1(slope)

Sinθ
The wavelength λ can be calculated as λ = n.N
 22

Draw graph for other order maxima also.

RESUTLS: The wavelength of the given laser beam is λ= ………………cm

Sample viva questions

Q.1 What does the word 'LASER' stand for?
Ans. The word LASER is an acronym of "light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation" .
Q.2 What is spontaneous emission
Ans. The light emitted due to the transition of electron from higher energy level to lower
energy level on its own its called spontaneous emission.
Q.3 What is the principle of LASER
Ans. Stimulated Emission.

Q.4 What is stimulated emission

Ans. Light emitted due to the transition of electron from higher energy level to the lower
energy level under the influence of another photon.
Q.5 What are the characteristics of laser light
Ans. The characteristics of a laser light are as follows:
 It is highly monochromatic.
 It is highly coherent.
 It is highly directional (unidirectional)
 1t has high intensity
Q.6 What do you mean by monochromatic
Ans. Light having single wavelength (color) is called monochromatic.
Q.7 What are coherent sources?
Ans. Two sources are said to be coherent if they vibrate in the same phase or have constant
phase difference.
Q.8 What is meant by laser action? What are the conditions to achieve it?
 23

Ans. Laser action means the amplification of light by stimulated emission of radiation. To get
laser action there should be population inversion and stimulated emission should take
place.
Q.9 What is meant by threshold condition for laser oscillation?
Ans. The minimum amounts of population inversion from which laser oscillation start is called
threshold condition. Therefore the gain coefficient should exceed the threshold value.
Q.10 What is population inversion?
Ans. Population Inversion is a situation in which, by some means, more number of atoms are
made available in higher levels .In other words the upper levels are more populated than
lower level.
Q.11 What is pumping?
Ans. Pumping is a process of achieving population inversion by exciting the medium with
suitable form of energy.
Q.12 What are the important components of a laser?
Ans. The important components of a laser are
 Active medium.
 Pumping source.
 0ptical cavity.
Q.13 What is active medium
Ans. The medium in which population inversion is achieved.
Q.14 What are meta stable states
Ans. Meta stable states are excited states in which the life time is greater than 10-8 sec
Q.15 What are the aplications of LASERS?
Ans.
 Lasers are used in optical communication.
 By the use of LASERS, the storage capacity of information in computers is improved.
 Lasers have wide industrial applications. They can make holes in diamonds and hard
steels.
 They are used for military purposes.
 They have wide medical applications.
 Lasers can be used in air pollution control, by analyzing the size of dust particles.
 24

6. DETERMINATION OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF

DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
AIM: - The objective or aim of the experiment is to determine the dielectric constant of dielectric
materials such as rubber, glass and plywood.

APPARATUS:- C.R.O, dielectric constant kit; dielectric cell -2 sets ( 75mm gold plated brass
disk and 25 mm gold plate brass disk ) and dielectric materials

FORMULA:

Dielectric constant ∈𝑟 = capacitance with dielectric / capacitance without dielectric = C1/ C

εo×A
Capacitance without dielectric (C) =
𝑑
Where 𝜀𝑜 = 8.825 × 10−12 F/m and
A = area of the plate = Π r2 (r = radius of the plate, d = thickness of the plate)

𝑉𝑠𝑐
Capacitance with dielectric (C1) = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 × 𝑆𝑐
Where VSC = Voltage across standard capacitor
VDC = Voltage across dielectric
SC = Standard capacitence

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 25

PROCEDURE:

(1). Connect C.R.O. (in external mode) to the terminals provided on the front panel of the main
unit. If no sinusoidal waveform appears on C.R.O. then adjust CAL‟ such that waveform appear.
(2). Connect the dielectric cell assembly to the main unit and insert the sample in between the SS
plates. Do not put extra pressure, as glass is brittle and may be damaged.
(3). Switch ON the unit.
(4). Choose the standard capacitor (with the help of switch S2) SC1 for materials having low
dielectric constants (like Bakelite, Glass, Plywood etc.) or SC2 for material having high dielectric
constant (PZT sample).
(5). Throw S1 towards DC to measure the voltage across dielectric cell, say VDC and towards SC
to measure voltage across standard capacitor, say VSC. Again rechecking the sinusoidal waveform
on C.R.O. and if necessary, adjusting the waveform, we can take more observations about VDC
and VSC and record them in a tabular form.
(6). Measure thickness of the sample using screw gauge and radius of the sample by slide calipers.

OBSERVATION:

Dielectric materials Vsc VDC C1 C Dielectric constant

∈𝑟 = 𝐶 1 /𝐶

Glass

Rubber

Plywood

Measurement of radius (r) of dielectric materials

The least count (LC) of Vernier caliperse = ……………………

Dielectric materials MSR VSR= Total Reading (MSR+VSR) Radius(r)

(cm) V.C x L.C (Diameter) cm cm
Glass

Rubber

Plywood

Measurement of thickness (d) of dielectric materials

The least count (LC) of screw gauge = ……………………
 26

Dielectric materials PSR HSR=H.C x L.C Thickness(d)

mm mm mm
Glass
Rubber
Plywood

RESULTS:

Dielectric constant of Glass ------------

Plywood ------------
Rubber -------------

Sample viva questions

Q.1 What are Dielectrics?
Ans. Dielectrics are the materials having permanent electric dipoles having the ability to produce
enormous induced dipoles in the presence of applied electric field. These are used to store electrical
energy and as insulators. Generally the dielectrics are non-metallic materials of high specific
resistance and have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

Q.2 Define polarization in dielectrics?

Ans. The process of separation of charge centers (the nucleus being the positive charge center
and the electron cloud being the negative charge centre) within the atoms of a material by
applying an electric field across the material is known as “polarization”

Q.3 What is dielectric constant?

Ans. Dielectric constant is the measure of the polarization produced in a material. It is also
called relative permittivity (𝜖𝑟 ) of the material.
 27

Q.4 What are the applications of dielectric materials?

Ans. The dielectric materials are used
 In capacitors to store electrical energy.
 Vacuum, air and gases are used in radio frequency and frequency measuring circuits where
high precision is desirable.
 Oil dielectrics are used in high voltage applications because these capacitors will have high
capacitance and high dielectric loss.
 Paper films of synthetic materials, glass, mica etc are used for power factor correction in
electric power distribution system.

Q.5 What is dielectric breakdown?

Ans. When a dielectric loses its insulation resistance and permits large current to pass through
it, then it is known as dielectric break down.

Q.6 Explain the important properties associated with the dielectrics?

Ans. The dielectrics have the following important properties
 Ferroelectric
 Piezoelectric and
 Pyroelectric.

Q.7 What are Dielectrics, Ferroelectrics, Piezoelectric and Pyroelectrics?

Ans.
 Materials having electric dipole moment permanently or temporarily by the applied field
are called dielectrics.
 Materials having dipole moment at the atomic or molecular level even without the
applied electric field is called Ferroelectrics.
 Materials which produces electrical voltage when there is a perpendicular mechanical
stress are called piezo electrics
 Materials, which are polarized by the absorption of the thermal energy, are called
Pyroelectrics.
 28

Ferroelectrics are spontaneously polarized, but are also piezoelectric, in that their
polarization changes under the influence of a stress. This is because while all ferroelectrics
are piezoelectric, not all piezoelectric are ferroelectric.

Q.8 Mention three important liquid dielectric materials?

Ans. Silicon liquid, Askarels and Transformer oil are the three liquid dielectric materials.

Q.9 What are different types of dielectric polarization?

Ans. The polarization occurs due to several microscopic mechanisms.
 Electronic Polarization
 Ionic Polarization
 Orientation Polarization
 Space charge polarization
Q.10 What are the polar and non-polar dielectrics?
Ans. Polar dielectrics have permanent electrical dipole moment without the application of
electric field. Ex: HCl.H2 0

(a) Polar Molecules

Non polar dielectrics are the materials having induced electrical dipole moment on the application
of electric field.
 Polar dielectrics: CO,H20 etc
 Non –polar dielectrics 02, H2, N2 etc.

(b) Non-Polar Molecules

 29

7. B-H CURVE

AIM: To trace the B-H loop (hysteresis loop) of a ferromagnetic specimen using a cathode ray
oscilloscope(CRO) and to evaluate the energy loss in the specimen.

APPARATUS: CRO, capacitors, resistors, multi meter and core of the transformer.

FORMULA & CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Where
No. of turns in the primary coil N1 = 200
No. of turns in the secondary coil N2 = 400
R1 and R2 are the resistances in the circuit given by
R1 = 5Ω, 22Ω and 47 Ω R2 = 4.5 k Ω=4.5 x103 Ω
Horizontal sensitivity S = ............volt / m
H
Vertical sensitivity Sv = ............ volt / m
Length of the specimen L = 23 cm=0.23 m
Area of cross-section A = 2 x 1.4 sq. cm =2.8x 10−4 sq. m
Capacitance C2 = 4.7 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜 F = 4.7 x 10−6 F
Area of the loop = ............ sq.cm = ............ x 10−6 sq.m
 30

THEORY : The hysteresis of ferromagnetic materials refers to the lag of magnetization (B) behind
the magnetising field (H). When a ferromagnetic specimen is subjected to a changing magnetizing
force its intensity of magnetization also changes. As the magnetizing field is changed from Hs to
-Hs and back again we get the hysteresis loop ‘abcdefgb’ A hysteresis loop is a curve showing the
change in magnetization of a ferromagnetic material to which an external field is applied. When
the magnetizing field is reduced to zero, the magnetization of the material does become zero, and
this value of intensity of magnetization is called residual magnetism or retentivity. Thus retentivity
of a specimen is defined as the magnetization retained by the specimen when the magnetizing field
is reduced from saturation value to zero. Similarly, coercive force or coercivity of a magnetic
specimen is the magnitude of the demagnetizing field required to reduce the residual magnetism
to zero after saturation. In the figure the residual induction, coercive field are shown.

Hysteresis loss is a loss of energy in taking a ferromagnetic body through a cycle of magnetization
and this loss is represented by the area enclosed by the hysteresis loop. A study of the hysteresis
loop of different magnetic materials helps us, to know their magnetic properties. For example let
us see the hysteresis curves for soft iron and steel.
 31

PROCEDURE :
a) Connect the primary terminals of the specimen to P.P. and secondary to S.S terminals.
b) Adjust the CRO to work on external mode (the time base is switched off). Adjust the
horizontal and vertical position controls such that the spot is at the centre-of the CRO screen.
c) Connect terminal marked GND to the ground of the CRO. Connect terminal H to the
horizontal input of the CRO. Connect terminal V to the vertical input of the CRO. Switch on
the power supply of the unit. The Hysteresis loop is formed.
d) Adjust the horizontal and vertical gains such that the loop occupies maximum area on the
screen of the CRO. Once this adjustment is made do not disturb the gain controls.
e) Trace the loop on a translucent graph paper. Estimate the area of the loop.
f) Remove the connection from CRO without disturbing the horizontal and vertical gain controls.
g) Determine the vertical sensitivity of the CRO by applying a known AC voltage say 1 volt
(peak
to peak). If the spot deflects by X cms for 1 volt, the vertical sensitivity is 10 2 / X (volt/m).
Let it be Sv).
h) Determine the horizontal sensitivity of CRO by applying AC voltage say 1 volt (peak to peak).

RESULT : The energy loss per unit volume per cycle is ... joule/m3/cycle.
 32

Sample viva questions

Q.1 Explain hysteresis?
Ans. The lagging of the magnetic induction (B) or intensity of magnetization (I) behind
magnetizing field (H) of a ferromagnetic material is called hysteresis.

Q.2 What is hysteresis loss?

Ans. Hysteresis loss is loss of magnetic energy in taking a ferromagnetic sample through a
cycle of magnetization .This loss is represented by the area enclosed by the hysteresis
loop.

Q.3 Define retentivity or residual magnetization?

Ans. It is defined as the magnetization retained by the sample when the magnetizing field is
reduced from saturation value to zero.

Q.4 Define coercivity?

Ans. It is the magnitude of demagnetizing field required to reduce the residual magnetism to
zero after saturation.
Q.5 What is magnetic induction (B)?
Ans. It is the number of lines of magnetic force passing perpendicularly through unit area.
Units:- Wb/m2 or Tesla.

Q.6 What is magnetic moment?

Ans. In case of magnetic dipole or bar magnetic, the magnetic moment associated with that is
the product of its pole strength (m) and magnetic length(2l).
P=2l m
Units:- amp.m2.

Q.7 What is intensity of magnetization (M or I)?

Ans. Its is the magnetic moment per unit volume
Units:- amp/m.

Q.8 What is magnetic field intensity (H)?

Ans. It is the ratio between the magnetic induction and the permeability of the medium in
which magnetic field exist.
H=B/µ
Units- amp./m.

Q.9 Define magnetic permeability (µ) and magnetic susceptibility (χ)?

Ans. It is the ratio of magnetic induction(B) to the applied magnetic field intensity(H).
µ=B/H
Units:- henry/m.
Magnetic susceptibility of a material is the ratio between intensity of magnetization
𝑀
produced in the sample and intensity of applied magnetic field. χ= 𝐻
It has no units
Q.10 What are soft and hard magnetic materials?
 33

 In soft magnetic materials domain wall can easily migrate and can be easily magnetized
at low magnetic field.
Coercivity Hc is low, permeability is high.

 In hard magnetic materials domain wall is difficult to migrate, magnetization occurs only
when high magnetic field is applied. In other words, these types of ferromagnetic
materials are difficult to magnetize, but once magnetized, it is difficult to demagnetize.
Coercivity Hc is high, permeability is low
 34

8. CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTOR BY FOUR PROBE

METHOD

AIM: To determine the resistivity and energy band gap of a semi conductor by four probe
method.
APPARATUS: Digital volt meter, digital ammeter and constant current source, heating mantle
and semiconductor sample.
Formula:-
𝑽 𝝅𝒅
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝝆) = 𝑿 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔: 𝛀𝒎
𝑰 𝒍𝒏𝟐
𝟏
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝝈) = units: Ω-1m-1
𝝆

Where
‘I’ is the current passing through the outer probes ;’V’ is the voltage developed across the inner
probes
d is the thickness of the specimen i.e. 1mm.

‘S’ is distance between the probes; ‘ρ’ is the resistivity of semi-infinite sample
‘2πS’ is known as the geometric factor

Arrangement of Four Probes:-

 35

Model graph:-

log 𝑒 𝜌 1⁄
𝑇

∆𝑦
slope= ∆𝑥

Theory:-
Four probe apparatus is one of the standard and most widely used apparatus for the measurement
of resistivity of semiconductors. This method is employed when the sample is in the form of a thin
wafer, such as a thin semiconductor material deposited on a substrate. The sample is millimeter in
size and having a thickness w. It consists of four probe arranged linearly in a straight line at equal
distance S from each other. A constant current is passed through the two probes and the potential
drop V across the middle two probes is measured. An oven is provided with a heater to heat the
sample so that behavior of the sample is studied with increase in temperature.
Procedure:-
1. Connect the outer pair of probes leads to the constant current power supply and inner pair
to the voltage terminals.
2. Place the four probe arrangement in the oven.
3. Switch on the power supply and keep the digital panel meter in the current measuring
mode through the selector switch. In this position the LED facing mA would glow.
Adjust the current to a desired value.
4. Now change the digital panel meter in the voltage measuring mode. In this position the
LED facing mV would glow and the meter would read the voltage between inner probes.
5. Record the observations in the tabular column.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-
 36

I = ……………mA

Temp Temp Voltage 𝑽 𝝅𝒅 𝟏

𝝆= 𝑿 𝝈=
S.No. (t°𝑪) (K) 1/T V(mV) 𝑰 𝒍𝒏𝟐 𝝆 Loge 𝝆

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

CALCULATIONS:
1
1. Draw a graph between versus log e ρ
T
∆𝐲
2. Find the slope of the curve plotted in step 1 i.e. obtain the value of ∆𝐱
Result:

1. The conductivity of given semiconductor is ______________ _ohm−1 m−1

2. The Energy band gap of a given semiconductor is ______________ eV
 37

Sample viva questions

1. What is conductivity? What are the units for conductivity?
Ans: Conductivity defines a materials ability to conduct electricity.
Conductivity is measured in Siemens per meter ( σ).

2. What is resistivity?
Ans: It is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow of electric current.

3. What is specific resistance?

Ans: Specific Resistance is the inherent property of a material. It is defined as the
resistance offered per unit length and unit cross sectional area of that material.
. Units: ohm-meter (Ω-m)

4. What are the applications of four probe method?

Ans:
1. Remote sensing areas
2. Resistance thermometers
3. Induction hardening process
4. Accurate geometry factor estimation

5. What is a semi conductor ? What is the effect of temperature on conductivity of a semi

conductor ?

Ans. Semiconductor is a substance whose conductivity lies between conductor and insulator.

Conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increase in temperature.

6. What is meant by intrinsic semi conductor ?

Ans. A pure semiconductor completely free from impurities is called intrinsic semiconductor.

7. What is energy gap ?

Ans. The gap between conduction band and the valence band is called energy gap. To move the
electrons from the valence band to conduction band the supplied external voltage must be equal to
energy gap.

8. What is valence band?

Ans: The range of energy which is possessed by valence electrons is known as valence band.
Here the electrons which are situated at outer most orbits are called valence electrons. The
valence band consists of valence electrons which are having highest energy.
 38

Q. What is conduction band ?

Ans. The range of energies possessed by conducting electrons is known as conduction band.

The conduction electrons are responsible for the conduction of current in a conducting

material.
9. What is the order of energy gap in a pure semiconductor ?

Ans. Energy gap for Silicon is 1.1 eV and Germanium is 0.7 eV

10. What do you mean by an extrinsic semiconductor ?

Ans. It is a semiconductor to which an impurity from group 3 or group 5 has been added.
 39

9. MEASUREMENT OF NUMERICAL APERTURE OF

OPTICAL FIBER
AIM: To determine the numerical aperture (N.A) and acceptance angle of an optical fiber.

APPARATUS: Optical fiber kit, D.C. power supply, 1 & 3 meter optical fiber cable, N.A. Jig,

adapter (9V) and connectors.

PRINCIPLE: Total Internal reflection

W
FORMULA: Numerical apperture N. A. =
(√4L2 +W2 )

Acceptance angle( θmax ) = Sin−1 (N. A. )

where W is diameter of the spot and L is distance between jig and screen
 40

PROCEDURE: The experimental arrangement is shown below.

The step by step procedure is as follows:

Step1: Insert one end of either one meter length plastic Optical Fiber cable in the allotted knob
until you feel that the fiber is touching micro lens of kit. Do not push by applying undue force
that may damage micro-lens. Gently tight the nut that holds the inserted fiber firmly. Similarly
connect another end to N.A. Jig nut.

Step2: Connect power adapter pin into the Socket ‘Vin’ and plug to 230V AC Line. Switch on
ON/OFF switch. Red light will appear at the end of the fiber in the NA kit. To set maximum
output power turn ‘SET Po / IF’ knob in clockwise direction. The red light intensity will increase
to it is the maximum FO LED O/P Power.

Step3: Hold the provided Scaled screen at a distance of 10mm (L) on N.A. kit. A red spot
appears on the Screen, measure the diameter (W) of the spot.
(DARK ROOM WILL FACILITATE BETTER VIEWING).
Substitute the measured values (L) and (W) in the N.A. formula.
Repeat the experiment for the distance of 15mm, 20mm, and 25mm etc., and note down the
readings in the observation table.
 41

OBSERVATIONS:

L W
S. No. N.A. θmax (Degree)
(mm) (mm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

RESULTS: Numerical Aperture N. A --------------

Acceptance angle 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 --------------

SAMPLE VIVA QUESTIONS

Q.1 What is an optical fiber?
Ans. The optical fiber is a wave guide which carries information in the form of light.

Q.2 What are the disadvantages of conventional cable system?

Ans. The conventional cable system has limited bandwidth, so will not meet the
requirements of the modern communication.

Q.3 What is the principal involved in light communication in fibers?

Ans.
“When light travels from denser medium to rarer medium, if the angle of incidence is greater
than critical angle then the ray bounces back into denser medium”. Such a phenomenon is
known as total internal reflection.
 42

Q.4 What is critical angle?

Ans. It is the angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the light ray grazes the
surface of separation.

Q.5 What are the major parts of the optical fiber?

Ans. There are three parts:
1. Core: It is the inner most region, which guides the light rays.
2. Cladding: It is the region around the central core region.
3. Sheath: It is the outer most region of a fiber. The sheath protects the core and
Cladding from moisture, dust, abrasion, contamination and also gives the strength.

Q.6 What is the basic purpose of cladding?

Ans. The basic purpose of the cladding is to confine the light to the core.

Q.7 Define acceptance angle of the fiber.

Ans. The maximum angle of incidence relative to the axis of the fiber that light undergoes total
internal reflection and propagates down the fiber.
.
Q.8 Define numerical aperture
Ans. The numerical aperture gives the light gathering ability of the fiber and the
amount of light accepted by the fiber.
Q9. What are single mode and multimode fibers?
Ans. A single mode fiber has a smaller core and can support only one mode of propagation .
The multi mode fiber has a large core so it can support a large number of modes.
 43

Q.10 What is step index Fiber?

Ans. The refractive index of the core is uniform throughout the core in the fiber and changes in
a single at core cladding interface.

Q.11 What is graded index fiber?

Ans. It is a multimode fiber, which has concentric layers of refractive indices which means
that the refractive index of the core varies with distance from the fibers axis .It has high
value at the center and falls rapidly as the radial distance increases from the axis.

Q12. What are the applications of optical fiber?

Optical fibers are used

 In long distance communication for transmission lines,

 Large no of signals can be accommodated,

 44

 In local area networks (LAN)

 As temperature sensors.

 In endoscopy, optical instruments are used to inspect /view the internal parts of human body which
are not visible to the eyes normally