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CHAPTER 4

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ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE OF
UTTTARAKHAND
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4.1. HOUSEHOLD ARCHITECTURE

4.2. TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

4.3. CONCLUSION
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Although Uttarakhand is still in its infancy as a separate state, it is

historically one of the oldest and archaeologically richest parts of
India. From the architectural point of view, Uttarakhand has an
extremely rich past. Uttarakhand developed its own style of
architecture based on abundantly available materials - wood and
stone. Uttarakhand always had constant give and take relations with
the other regions in terms of technologies, so it both imparted and
received knowledge from other regions through reciprocal movement
of people and cultural exchange. The point we are making in this

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thesis is that Uttarakhand was never a cul de sac but was actively
interacting with the Ganga valley as also with other regions of the
country. The people also maintained a symbiotic relationship with the
environment and tried to develop technologies suited to the local
conditions. For example, there are many wood and stone temples
which are unique in terms of durability, grandeur and artisanship.
Uttarakhand is rich in terms of its remarkable domestic architecture as

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well, a heritage of the people of this region. It was based on locally

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available materials like stone, wood and clay. In traditional village
houses, one can find abundant use of stone and wood. As a unique
feature, the wooden temples of this region are made of deodar wood
(Cedrus deodara) according to the tradition. We also find some stone
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temples in the Ganga valley area which are built in the same style.

To further emphasise the continuous interaction between Uttarakhand

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and the rest of the country, I propose to explore the influence of the
Pal, Parihar and such styles on the hill architecture. Traditional village
houses, made of stone quarried from the nearby places, are cost
effective and long lasting, and they are best known for their resistance
to adverse climatic conditions. Their life span can even stretch well
over hundred years. These traditional houses and temples are
architectural wealth of this region and it is as diverse as Uttarakhand
itself. The secular architecture hardly gets noticed in literature, so we
will go into some details about it. For detailed description, the
traditional architecture of this region can be classified as follows.

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4.1. HOUSEHOLD ARCHITECTURE
Ever since humans appeared on the planet earth, the primary
requirement was food followed by shelter. The earliest humans
during their hunting and gathering period used to live in caves, open
sites and even on branches of trees for protection from wild animals,

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adverse weather conditions and fury of nature. Gradually, in the
course of evolution, human beings started making makeshift shelters.

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Later on, they started making permanent shelters. Initially, they used
grass and branches of trees for this purpose and afterwards began to
use stone. In the course of time, they gained perfection in this craft
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and used different architectural styles.

Gradually, they improved the technique of house construction. Artistic

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improvements took place during the evolution of house construction.

Although this art of house construction goes back thousands of years,
it is still practised. The huts, of local tribes of the region, present
examples of ancient building structures, which are unique and
significant in their style. They are mostly made of wood, clay, and
stone. In Uttarakhand, historical evidence of first pucca houses have
been found from the Kuninda‟s period (200 BCE). The traditional
buildings of Uttarakhand are known generally for their stability, long
life span and resistance to adverse weather conditions, as is quite clear
in old shrines and village houses. Above all, the traditional houses
could withstand earthquakes due to their extraordinary features. Such
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constructions have great relevance for designing modern houses in
seismic regions.

There are many outstanding domestic buildings in this region. Well-

dressed and sometimes decorated stones were used for the
construction of double storied houses (residential houses). These

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houses belong to the Pal dynasty and are found in Askot, some 70 km
from Pithoragarh district headquarters. The buildings of Chand rulers

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in Champawat are popularly known as Chand buildings.
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In the village Takadi in Pithoragarh district, Samanti Bhawan of
Kumod locality is an outstanding example of the architecture of the
medieval period. Old traditional houses are still abundant in this
region. Deodar, pine, sal, rose wood, tun and other wood varieties
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were used for woodwork in the houses. Mainly, the doors and
windows were made of kedar (deodar), sal, rose wood, and had
beautiful ornate carvings. Some carvings are 350 years old and give
lots of information about the past of the people here. The old houses
of this region are full of rich wood carvings. Wood carving was the
sign of prosperity in olden days. Therefore, the prosperity is reflected
on wooden doors, windows, enclosures, and pillars.

The stone walls of the buildings are erected on the foundation which
is about half a metre thick. The bhumi puja is performed before the
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foundation stone is laid and as a ritual a coin is kept under the
foundation stone. The breadth of foundation is made according to the
height of the building. Big and strong stones are used for the
foundation.

The flooring was done with wooden planks as base and then it was

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smeared with the paste of cow dung and clay mixed together on every
second or third day. These types of houses were constructed until the
last century.

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The traditional domestic architecture of Uttarakhand is relevant even
today due to its following features:

 Mostly wood and stone were used for construction which was
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locally and easily available.

 Cost-efficiency
 Stability
 These houses are earthquake proof due to the non-rigidity of
joints.
 Artistic magnificence
 These buildings can endure the adverse weather conditions.

Until few decades back, traditional houses were built in this region
keeping in view the geographical conditions of the site. In ancient
times, cement was not available so the people used ground lentil or
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horse bean as mortar. Wood was used only for making doors,
windows etc. to minimize its consumption. The indigenous common
folk evolved a technique in which extensive use of stone was made
under the economic pressure.

The architectural styles of Kumaun and Garhwal regions of

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Uttarakhand are similar due to the same geographical and economic
conditions. Both the styles are stone-based with minimum use of

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wood. Stone slates were used as roofing material for the house. These
houses had insulation properties and were earthquake proof. These
houses were made in a linear pattern and this linear pattern is known
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as Bhakli in local parlance( Fig:4.1). For the plastering of walls (both
outer and inner surfaces), mud paste is used.
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Walls of these houses were whitewashed occasionally with kamet. A

notable characteristic of the houses of Uttarakhand is their rectangular
layout. The houses are separated into two equal haves with a straight
flight of stairs (khutkuni) in the center and are used as living rooms.
Mostly, two storey houses are found in the region, but a few three-
storey houses are also found in some parts.

Stone masonry in mud mortar is used for the walls. The walls are
plastered from both outer and inner sides with paste of dung and clay
mixed in certain proportion. The mud mixed with dung is also used as
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flooring material for ground floor. For the first floor, wooden planks
are first laid then the mud mixed with dung paste is evenly applied
over it. Stone slates are used as the roofing material, these are quarried
from some nearby sites, and this kind of stone is very hard and rough.
The stone quarried from the site is of irregular size but before using, it
is dressed into rectangular shape. Clay and dung were abundantly
used because of their insulation properties - thereby the rooms keep

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warm in winters and cool during the summer season.

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They had designed and erected even multi-storied houses with non-
rigid joints between wooden and stone members; such houses are
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found mostly in Garhwal region. Such houses, known as pherols
(Fig. 4.2), have stood the ravages of time and earthquakes; this
architecture is called Koti Banal Style (Das, 2007).
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Locally, ground floor is called goth, pand or goshal (Fig: 4.3) and at
some places it is called kachar (in Betalghat). It holds a significant
place in the traditional houses of Uttarakhand; the height of this floor
is kept low (about 1m). It is used for keeping animals and for storage
of fodder and grains. The roofing of the goth is called pal. Above the
goth the first floor is called math (living floor); at some places it is
called bawad or chakh. Above the goth the walls of chakh are
erected. The doors and windows are erected in front of the chakh.
Small recesses, ventilators, almirahs and windows are made into the
walls according to the needs. The height of first floor is kept about 6
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to 7 ft (~2m). At some places, artistic masonry can be seen above the
windows and doors. The main door is commonly known as muhav or
mwal (Fig:4.4) . Vertical wooden elements of muhav were known as
kham and the wooden lintel is called patav, covered with
anthropomorphic motifs. It was considered essential to have an image
of Ganesha or Shiv in the middle of patav. Generally, the goth is used
for storage, though at some places it is used as a kitchen. According to

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the tradition, all the religious sacraments and social ceremonies are

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performed in the goth. No religious functions were performed on the
upper floors. Therefore, we can say that the goth is a multi-functional
area and the family lived on the upper floor. Normally windows were
not made in the goth, but ventilating openings were provided.
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A staircase leads one to what is known as chhaja or chhaj on the
math(Fig:4.5) . No formal entrance is provided to goth and one is free
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to enter through any suitable side. Flooring of goth is done with stones
animals are kept, but if the goth is used as kitchen then stone flooring
is coated with cow dung and mud.

Rooms were made on both sides of the staircase that opens into the
chajja or chhaj. The staircase is locally known as khutkuni and it is
also used for sitting. The outer room is called chak and the middle
room is known as bhanar, which means storage room. A door
connects the chak and the bhanar.

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The room next to the chak was used as kitchen. Kitchen is usually
under the gable roof on the top floor. In the middle of the kitchen, a
cooking platform is erected. This is made of stone, is open from two
sides, and is layered with cow dung and mud paste. It is locally known
as chul. Fuel wood is placed under the chul and a cooking pot is put
over this cooking „plate‟. The chul is very common in Uttarakhand

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region; but now it has gone out of fashion with the advent of cooking
gas.

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Chajja or chajj is a very interesting part of the traditional building
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architecture. It was ornamented by complex carvings on wood, which
is a Muslim contribution to the Kumauni architecture according to
O.C. Handa. (Handa 2008: 147-148). People used different types of
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wood in their houses. The most common wood species are tuni or tun,
and pine. Wood was used for making beams, joints, doorframes.
Besides tun and pine, deodar, shisham, sagaun are also used for
making planks.

The gabled roof of the house was known as pakhoo. It is covered with
stone slates. According to O.C. Handa, the stone slates used in the
Kangra valley are different from the stone slates used in Uttarakhand.
The rectangular stones of roof are called Pather.

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 4.2. TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
Ancient societies fulfilled all their requirements from nature. As
people were entirely dependent on nature for their survival, they were
often tormented by the inescapable presence of the mysterious forces
around them in the form of nature‟s fury. To pacify such forces (real
or imagined) humans started worshiping different elements of nature
and even offering them sacrifice. In order to save themselves from the

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routine hassles they often installed their temples at a safe distance

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from their settlements, on mountain tops, in forlorn caves, under old
and mighty trees or somewhere near mountain cliffs and avoided
proximity to them. Therefore, many temples and shrines were built by
the people of this region far from the villages and in between distant
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villages for such ill disposed deities.
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Uttarakhand is often known as Dev Bhumi (land of gods). The

presence of wonderful stone and wooden temples of this region proves
that the architectural skills were highly developed. A large number of
stone and wooden temples are located at different places, mostly in
the interiors. The most artistic temples were built by the Katyuris
during their ruling period and these temples are mostly found in
clusters. The architecture of Uttarakhand is based on locally and
easily available materials like stone and wood. It not only reflects the
intimate relation between common people and nature but also the
socio-cultural history of this region. Wood and stone were the staple
building materials in ancient times.

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There are many temples in this region. During a recent survey, the
remains of an ancient temple were found in Yandhura, 6 km from
Sana Pani in Champawat district. The vadika stambhs are present
here, which are made of red sandstone. The stambh has some
engraved pictures of humans, such as mithun, yaksh-yakshni and
gana. These stambh members are similar to that of the Mathura

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region. The Yandhura stambh is believed to have been erected in the

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first century BCE. These remains prove that the construction of
temples was started around two thousand years ago. The giant images
of Yakshas had been recovered from the sites of Podhar, Dashyu and
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Dwarahat in Almora district, and Baijnath in Bageshwar district.
Because of abundant forests in this region, the ancient temples were
made of wood. The entrance door of the Katarmal temple is the
evidence of wooden temple that has been displayed at the National
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Museum of Delhi. The wooden temples of Uttarakhand have got

ruined, so stone temples have been built in place of wooden temples.
The temples that were made in pre-medieval period (about 700 to
1000 CE) are still intact. The pre-medieval period is also known as
Katyuri period. The Katyuris ruled over whole of Uttarakhand mainly
between 6th to 8th century CE. It is believed that initially temples were
made with flat roofs, known as the pidha style. According to the
recent surveys 85 per cent of temples belong to the pre-medieval
period. The squire type of garbhgriha and antral were made in the
basement. Jageshwar, Katarmal. Saijgram, Tilari Gram, Kanra,
Kaihargown, Bamansuyal in Almora district, Khatikhan, Majhpipal,

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Chamdeyol in Champawat district, Kotali (Bankot), Bhatyura
(Bungachina) in Pithoragarh district and Gadhshair in Bageshwar are
the main sites of this type of temples.

The third type of temple was made in the Nagar style or Rekha
Shikhar style (Indo-Aryan style). Temples of this type are found at

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Jageshwar in Almora district and old Shiv temple of Thal in
Pithoragarh district. The Bharsoli‟s Shiv temple is notable because

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this temple is made in the Pidha and Triratha Nagara style and is
placed between 9th to 10th centuries.
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Besides, Ballavi or Gajprethakriti temples were also built. These
temples are found at Jageshwar, Bamansuyal, Shakuni Gram in
Almora district, Patal Bhuwaneshwar in Pithoragarh district and
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Devidhura in Champawat district of Uttarakhand. According to some

archaeologists, the Pallavi style temples were originally made in
South India and architects from South India were hired to build these
temples in the region during the Katyuri Period, indicating interaction
of Uttarakhand even with the deep South.

4.2.1. Stone Temple Architecture

The introduction of stone temple architecture marks the emergence of

the Brahmanical culture in Uttarakhand. These temples are mostly
made of stone and stone slates, well known for their durability and
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strength. Many stone temples are found in Kumaun region, built
mostly during the Katyuri rule. The Baijnath temple complex, The
Jageshwar temple complex,The Dwarahat temples, The Stone Temple
of Nanda Devi at Almora etc are some stone temple complexes, which
indicate the rich architectural heritage of Uttarakhand ( Fig:4.6, 4.8,
4.9, 4.15)The stone temples are built in the classical architectural style
under feudal patronage. The stone temple architecture of

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Uttarakhandfollowed the style of post-Gupta renaissance under the

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Pals, Gurjarasand Pratiharas, indicating a continuous interaction with
theGanavalley.
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Such a temple building enterprise on the trade and pilgrimage routes
had a telling psychological effect on the native population. The local
people adopted into their pantheon many Brahmanical deities,
particularly Shiva. The standing stone temple of Bhagawati exists on
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the west bank of Jamuna, there is no standing stone temple of ancient

times in the western part of Uttarakhand in Garhwal. Only wooden
temples are found here. All the wooden temples were destroyed due to
harsh climatic conditions, and could not be rebuilt because the temple
required the best quality of stone, which was not easily available. The
quality of the available schist stone in this region was very poor. That
is why most of the temples have been rebuilt replacing stones with
wood.

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The famous temple of Katarmal located around 25 km from Almora
town locally known as “Bara Aditya” or the great Sun God (c. a 12th-
13th century CE) is surrounded by 44 subsidiary shrines of different
shapes and sizes. Adibadri (Chamoli) is the ancient group of temples
and is known as Adibadridham, which is one among the five Badris
(Adibadri, Dhyanbadri, Yogabadri, Bhavishatbadri and Vishalbadri).
It can be dated back to between 8th -12th centuries CE. The residual

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evidence of the early stone temples indicate that various stone temples
belonged to the time between 8th and 12th centuries and these temples

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were raised on the existing stone sub-structures. About 1000 old
temples are found in the Jageshwar, Baijnath, Balsa, Katarmal,
Narayankoti, Bharsolo, Kali Kumaun, Mazpepli villages. At many
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places inscriptions are found in brahmi lipi, which give key
information about these temples. The six century inscription of
Kasardevi refers to a Rudreshwar temple, which had been built by the
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son of Vatila, is worthy of mention. The clusters of temples built at

many places of this region are remarkable. These are as follows:

4.2.1.1. The Jageshwar Temple Complex

Phulli Jageshwar is a small and isolated village surrounded by dense

forests of deodar. It is located about 30 km from the Almora district
headquarters, on Almora-Pithoragarh State Highway on the left bank
of the river Jatganga. It is a group of temples, which is popularly
known as Jageshwar Complex. According to the Brihat-Samhita the
gods always play where nature presents itself in its grandeur and the
groves (natural forests) are there near mountains, rivers and springs.
Thus, Jageshwar meets all these conditions. In the Jageshwar group
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of temples, there are about 124 small and big temples built by the
Katyuri kings between the 6th and 8th century. Some of the temples
of the Jageshwar group are dedicated to lord Siva and others to the
goddesses e.g. Jageshwar, Mrityunjay, Kedareshwar, Baleshwar,
Pushti devi, Chandika, Durga and Lakshmi etc. This temple complex
is spread over an area of about 2 sq km on both the banks of the river
Jatganga. There are classical stone temples of different types and

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sizes, which date back to different times. The historical evidence

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indicates that Shalivahan, who was the king of Ayodhya, built the
temple of Gangnath and King Vikramaditya built the temple of
Mahamirtyunjay.
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Jageshwar is considered sacred because according to a local belief
when the Pandavas were on their way to the Himalaya for
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Swargarohana they performed their last rites at Jageshwar on the

bank of the river Jatganga, since then the dead bodies are brought here
from nearby areas for cremation. It is believed that the people
cremated here find place in the heaven.

Kedarnath , Neelkantheshwar, Jageshwar, Mahamirtyunjay, Hanuman

and the Devil temples are some famous ones of this group. Located in
three clusters, these temples are magnificent in their unique
architectural style. Each temple is devoted to a prominent deity; so on
this basis, these temples can further be divided into three groups:

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  The Dandeshvar Cluster
 The Tarun Jageshwar Cluster
 The Kuber Cluster

These temples are made in different architectural styles so we can also

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divide them into various groups depending on their style of

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architecture.

Most of the temples are built in the Rekha–Sikhara or Nagara style

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(Indo-Aryan style). The Jageshwar and Mirtunjay temples are the best
examples of this style (Fig: 4.7).
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 The second group consists of temples which are built in pidha or

pyramidal style. Lakulisha, Nataraja and Baleshwar temples are
excellent examples of this type.

 The third style of temples is known as Gajapristhakriti. The temples

of Navdurga and of Chandika are the excellent examples of this
style(Fig:4.10, 4.11 ). It has been seen that Gajprithakriti (Ballavi,
Dholkakar) temple is dedicated to various manifestations of Shakti.
Some other Gajprithakriti temples have also been seen at Baman
Suyal (Almora), Patal-bhuvanesvar (Pithoragarh), Shakuni (Almora),
Devidhura (Champawat) and other places of this region. The dome

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of these temples was made in the Dholakar shape. The Dholakar
shape is given to these temples to enhance the loftiness of temples
(Pant and Chauhan. In press). The temples of this style are found in
south India. It is said that the south Indian architects were invited by
the Katyuris to Kumaun region during their reign.

The Dandeshwer temple group is situated at a distance of about 1km

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from Jageshwar, on the right bank of Dandeshvar gad. The

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Dandeshvar cluster has 14 temples in all. This is one of the biggest
temple complexes of Uttarakhand. It has a shivaling which is
different from the shivalings of the Jageshwar Group as it is un-
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carved.

In the Dandeshwer temple group, there is an incomplete temple

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which is related to a myth. According to it when this temple was being

erected, a goddess came in the dream of the builder and said to him
“the temple should be so loft that the temple of Bageshwer could be
seen from the top of this temple otherwise I will kill you”. This task
was nearly impossible for him so he quit its construction midway.

According to a belief, some people prayed to god to find solutions to

their problems and once it was done they built temples in return. But
after some time many temples were washed away by the floods in the
river Jatganga. Now only 124 of them are remaining. All these

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temples are on the left bank of the Jatganga. Tarun Jageshwar is also
known as Yogeshwar. It is believed that that this temple was built by
Lord Vishnu himself.

The Kuber cluster consists of three temples on the right bank of the
Jatganga River, on the hillock opposite the main Jageshwar (Tarun

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Jageshwar). The image of the chief deity is carved above the
doorframe of the entrance door of every stone temple. Nevertheless, in

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the Kuber temple at Jageshwar the Shiva image has been carved
above the doorframe of the entrance door. Indeed, there is a
controversy about the temple and some people believe the idol in the
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temple is of Ekmukhi lingam of Shiva, but still the temple has been
devoted to Kuber, the god of wealth.
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Mythology: According to the Manaskhanda, once upon a time Shiva

sat in deep meditation on the Tankar hillock, 3 km from Jageshwar in
Darun Patti. At that time, Vashishta and many other Rishis were living
there. The wives of Rishis were so influenced by the presence of the
meditating Shiva that they started ignoring their husbands. The Rishis
were so angry and held Shiva responsible for it and cursed him. As a
result, his lingam fell off his body on the earth. Shiva returned this
curse by transforming all of them into Saptarishis.

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On the other hand, goddess Prithvi (Earth) found the lingam of Shiva
too heavy to bear; so she requested the Rishis to relieve her of this
great burden, whereupon Vishnu cut the lingam into nine khandas and
cast each of them at different places on the earth. Eventually, these
places got associated with the faith of the people and turned into
centres of worship. Four of these khandas came to be known as
Himadri Khand, Manas khand, Kedar and Kailash khand are located

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in Himachal Himalayas. The others are Patalkhand, Kashikhand, Reva

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khand, Brahmottar khand and Nagar khand. The place where Shiva sat
in meditation on Tankor hillock began to be known as Briddh Kedar
or Budha Jageshwar. The Jatganga originated from this place.
However, a small portion of that lingam could not go very far, it fell
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nearby and that place began to be known as Jageshwar after the name
of Tarun lingum, Tarun – the younger Jageshwar. The Jageshwar Nath
temple is also known as Nagesh Jyortirling because it is considered
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one of the 12 Jyotirlingas, according to some historians.

Jageshwar, the chief deity of this group of temples, commands

proverbial respect of the entire region, as the saying goes-

“Devta dekhana Jageshwar, Ganga Nahana Bageshwar”.

According to another myth, in Dwapar Yuga, the Pandavas sat in

deep meditation and during their meditation Lord Shankar came near
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the Pandavas and gave them information about the conspiracy of
Duryodhan. After this event, the Pandavas gave the name of this place
as jag+ishwar (the God who woke up), later on it was called
Jageshwar.

This temple has always possessed a lot of wealth because of the

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liberal grants made to it by the royal families belonging to the Katyuri
and Chand dynasties. The Archaeological Survey of India has

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established 44 architectural museums all over the country; and one of
them is at Jageshwar. The idol of Paun king, made of Astadhatu, is
the main attraction of the architectural museum of Jageshwar. At this
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Museum 174 idols from the Jageshwar, Dandeshvar, Kuber temple
groups and other sculptures from nearby places have been displayed.
In the room no. 1 of this museum, 33 valuable idols are kept for
exhibition. In this room the main idols are of Navgrahs,
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Umamaheshwar, Surya, Durga, Lakshmi, Narayan, Gajalakshmi,

Mahishashurmardani and Ganga etc (Fig: 4.14).

In the second room, eleven idols are kept of which Parvati, Surya,
Chamunda, Ganesh and Shiva are the main ones (Fig: 4.13)

In the third room also eleven idols are kept, of which Shiva,
Umamaheswar, Vishnu, Parvati, Surya, Kartikeya, Chamunda are the
main ( Fig.4.12) In this room the idol of Paun king ( Fig. 3.1 ) is
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kept. This image is made of brass. This can be considered the oldest
king of this region, who ruled all over Kumaun and Garhwal. It is said
that king Paun in Garhwal built the temple of Gopeshwar. The image
of Deep Chand has also been kept here.

The Jageshwar temple complex can be dated to between the 7th to 16th

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centuries CE. It is said that this temple was among the twelve
jyotirlingas. However, this identity may not be valid because

Kurnool in Andhra la
according to the Shatrudra Samhita of the Shiva Mahapurana, the
twelve Jyotirlingas are Somnath in Saurashtra, Mallikarjun near
Pradesh on the banks of the river Krishna,
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Omkareshwar in Madhya Pradesh, Mahakaleshwar in Ujjain, Madhya
Pradesh, Vaidyanath temple at Deogarh Bihar, Kedar in Himalaya in
Uttarakhand, Bhimshankar in Dakini, near Pune, Maharashtra,
Nageshwaran in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Rameshwar is the southern
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most of the twelve Jyotirlingas of India; the others are

Tryambankeswar near Nasik, Maharashtra, Grishneshwar near Ellora,

Maharashtra. According to some historians, Shankracharya discovered
the temple of Mirtunjaya. It has been seen that an image of
Gajsinghmurti is placed on the top of suknasa in the Jageshwar temple
in which a lion is sitting over the elephant. A legend is related to this
figure, according to which when Mahishasur came to kill Durga, he
turned himself into a giant Gaj (elephant) and to counter this the
vehicle of Ma Durga (Lion) changed itself into a giant form and killed
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the Gaj (Mahishasur). This story is related to the image of
Gajsinghamurti. Since that time, this is considered as a sign of defeat
of evil and thus this motif is made on almost all stone temples.

4.2.1.2. The Dwarahat Temple Complex

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Dwarahat, located 75 km from Almora District Headquarters, is the
home to the ancient temples of Uttarakhand. This is a very important

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site from the architectural and historical point of view. Situated in the
backdrop of a beautiful natural setting, it has a great spiritual
significance. There are about 30 temples of the Katyuri period here,
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which are excellent in terms of architecture. In Uttarakhand, temples
are not only dedicated to Lord Vishnu but also to Lord Shiva.
Although many deities are generally known by their traditional names,
they are the local manifestations of Shiva. Mahamirtunjay temple of
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Dwarahat is one of them and is a unique example of the Katyuri

architecture. The historians assign it to the 11th century. This temple
is made in the Nagara style (Curvilinear). A flat roof covers the
mandap of this temple. The Lord Shiva is worshiped here in the
lingam form. Badrinath temple of Dwarahat is best examples of the
tri- ratha shrines.

4.2.1.3. The Almora Temples

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Situated between the Kosi and Suyal rivers, Almora is a very old town
in Uttarakhand. The city was established by King Kalyan Chand in
1560 CE when Chand rulers transferred their capital from Champawat
to Almora. The town has a historical importance since ancient times.
It is located at a height of about 1660 m above sea level and is spread
over an area of 12 sq km.

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Till 1815 Almora was the capital of Kumaun region of Uttarakhand,

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the Chand kings ruled all over Kumaun from here for about 230 years.
Talla Mahal, Malla Mahal and Lal Kila Mandi are the sites developed
by the Chand dynasty. According to historians, Chand king
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Vishamchand wanted to transfer the capital of Kumaun in 1560 from
Champawat to Almora. At first Vishamchand came to Khagmara,
where the famous Khakmara temple is located. But after some time
King Gajua reached here and killed King Vishamchand when he was
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sleeping. Therefore, the dream of Vishamchand to make Almora the

capital of Kumaun did not materialise.

After this, King Kalyan Chand built a fort in Lalkila Mandi (present
Chhawani) at the site of Khagmara fort. The British Government
changed the name of Lal Kila Mandi into Fort Mayra. During the
ruling period of King Rupchand a new royal house was built, which
was known as Malla Mahal (at present the local court is here, also the
Ram Shila temple). Now the defense walls of Malla Mahal (Royal
Palace) and the Ramshila temple are the only remains. Other buildings
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have turned into ruins. Here the British government built new
buildings where the present kachheri (court) is located. According to
Atkinson, Raja Vijay Chandra built the main Gate of Almora.

The Talla Mahal built by the Chand rulers in Deudipokhar is in ruins

now. It is said that many of the queens lived at this palace. At present,

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it is also the center of worship for the local people. The present

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generation of the Chand dynesty comes here for worshiping Nanda on
Nandashtami every year. The campus of Raja Anand Singh Balika
Inter College is adjacent to the Mahal. The Chand rulers were
contemporary to the Mughal dynasty.
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The king of the Chand dynasty Baj Bahadur (1638-78 CE) started the
tradition of celebrating the Nadashtami festival and worshiping
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goddess Nanda. Nandadevi mela (fair) has made its special identity
among the famous, historical and cultural fairs of Almora and
Uttarakhand. This fair has a deep impact among common people that
is why this festival is organized in different parts of Kumaun and
Garhwal.

Nanda is considered venerable in Uttarakhand. Nanda is the daughter

of Himalaya that is considered holy in the Vedas. Worship of Nanda
is done with the Tantrik Vidhividhan (rituals) and a large number of
people come here to join the worship Nanda Devi. The Nanda Jagar is
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a special tradition of the folk culture of Kumaun. Nanda Devi is also
the Kul Devi of the Chand dynasty. It is said about Nanda Devi that
her Tantrik teacher gave a suggestion to King Baj Badhur Chand that
he should bring Nanda from Garhwal to Almora with Tantra-Mantra
then he will succeed in Garhwal. Therefore, King Baj Badhur Chand
brought the idol of Nanda (which was made of gold) from the fort
of Badhan Gadh to Almora. On the way when her dola was kept on

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the ground it became immobile and nobody could lift it up so the king

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worshipped Nanda and promised to make her their Kul Devi and then
onwards it was worshipped as a Ranchandi. But according to a local
legend, Nanda and Sunanda got married to Shiva, and when they were
returning to their sasural (husband‟s home) on the way a bull killed
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them. After some time they appeared in the dream of Nanda‟s
brother and said, “Make a temple of mine and every year a bull should
be sacrificed and if it is not done then I will destroy your kingdom and
your family”. So their brother established Nanda as a Kuladevi. At
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present too, the local people of this region celebrate the festival of
Nanda Devi and Nanda and Sunanda are worshiped. In 1699, king
Gyanchand and in 1710 King Jagatchand renovated the temple. The
English commissioner Trail (1816-1830) transferred Nandadevi from
the Malla palace to its present place. Ganesh, Bhairav and Shiv
temples are also present in the Nanda devi temple complex. The idols
of Nanda and Sunanda are made with the trunks of banana tree and
they are put on a (palanquin). On the day of Nandashtami the idols are
submerged in the river.

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The Udyot Chandreshwar Shiv temple is also within the Nanda Devi
temple complex which was built by King Udyot Chandra around
1690-1691. There is a Shivaling installed here. It is said that Deep
Chandeshwar brought this Shivaling but before he could install it he
died and this remained aprathisthita (unsanctified). It could be a
centre of Tantrik Upasana because its main door is to the south and
the outer walls are carved with sexual themes, as in Khajuraho. This

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temple was built in the Nagara or Indo-Aryan style and the sikhara

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rises up to four-bhumi amalaka succeeded by the neck and the
amalaka. An image of Gajsinghamurti is placed above the sukanasa
(sanctum). This temple is open from four sides; this type of temple is
known as sarvathabhadra. One more temple made on the eastern side
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is similar in style, and is dedicated to Lord Shiva and is known as
paravateshvara. The amalaka (apex) of the Paravateshvara temple has
around 52 segments and on every alternate segment there are
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engraved human facial motifs. As this temple is dedicated to Lord

Shiva it is supposed that these facial motifs represent the ganas of
Shiva. Such features in temple architecture have not been found
anywhere else. There is a common feature between the Udyot
Chandresvar and Parvatesvar temples. Both the temples have
depictions of lotus flowers, elephant, horse, lion and human figures
and some creepers ( Fig. 4.16).The Parvatesvar temple also has some
images of Varun (the wind god), Agni (fire) and Yama (god of death)
in meditation postures. All these are in an exact sequence on the outer
faces of the walls. King Udyot Chandra built it in 1690-1691.
According to some scholars, Raja Deep Chandreshvar repaired it in
1760 and this temple was named as Deepchandreshwar.
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 4.2.1.4. The Bageshwar Temples

One of the most important temples of Lord Bageshwar is located in

the town of Bageshwar, on the confluence of the sacred rivers Saryu
and Gomati. This temple is dedicated to lord Shiva and is a famous
pilgrimage site of the Danpur area. This temple is famous in the

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Kumaun region and is one of the most ancient sites in the Central

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Himalayan region that has commanded spiritual importance through
the ages.
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According to Manaskhanda, a Surya tirth is near Bageshwar. It is
considered as a triveni sangam because of the confluence of the three
rivers i.e. Saryu, Gomati and Bhagirathi. Four big fairs are held here
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every year, which indicate the religious importance of this place.

These fairs are held on Kartik Purnima, Ganga-Dushahra, Shivratri
and Uttarayani Sankranti. People in large numbers reach here from
far off places to attend the fair and to have a glimpse of Lord
Bageshwar (Shiva).

At present, there are seven large and seven small temples in the
Bageshwar temple group. Five temples are situated inside the
enclosed area and the temples of Bhairavnath and Baneshvarnath are
situated outside this area; the first on the front and the other on the

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backside of the main temple. The names of only four temples are
known: Bageshwar, Badrinath, Bhairavnath, and Baneshvarnath.

The structure of the Bageshwar temple is bulky constructed in the

classical architectural style. This is the temple of lord Bagnath (Shiv
Shankar). According to a local belief, the name of the presiding deity

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(Bagnath) indicates the Tantrik link of the deity. According to this
legend, once upon a time a saint sat on the bank of Saryu for

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meditation and he was disturbed by the sound of flowing water in the
river. Being angry he, by his spiritual power, stopped the flow of the
Saryu River. Fearing the consequence, the people of the region
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approached Shiva and Parvati for help. Shiva transformed himself into
a lion and Parvati transformed herself into a cow and went near the
river bank for grazing where the saint was meditating. After some
time Shiva (in the form of a lion) came there and pounced upon the
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cow. Because of loud roar of the lion the trance of the saint broke,
interrupting his meditation and the river started flowing again.

4.2.1.5. The Katarmal Temple

Katarmal is situated 14 km west of Almora town, on the right bank of

the river Kosi. The Nayak community lives in Katarmal. The origin of
the Nayak community can be traced to 12-year long war between
Bharati Chand, the ruler of Kumaun and his suzerain, the Rainka of
Doti. Bharati Chand raised a large army. Soldiers established

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temporary matrimonial relations with local women. The women came
to be known as Khatkwali i.e. the women who lived in army camp.
Their children were first known as Khatakwalar but later they were
called Nayaks. In the Nayak community the girls were earlier known
as patas and were trained as dancing girls.

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Katarmal is known for the sun temple. This is one of the famous
temples of Uttarakhand dedicated to lord Surya (Sun God). The idol

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of Lord Surya (Sun) is the main idol of this temple complex built in
the 12th century. Besides Surya, the image of Shiva-Parvati, Laxmi-
Narayan, Narsingh, Kuber, Mahishasurmardani etc are kept in the
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garbhgrah. The beautifully engraved main doors of this temple are
kept at the National Museum of Delhi. One can reach Katarmal which
is 12 km to Kosi by road and two km rough track on foot. This temple
is remarkable and the place was named so after the Katyuri prince
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Katarmal, who built the temple, son of Basantan Dev, the founder of
the Katyuri Kingdom. This temple is roughly dated to between 9 th-10th
century. It is one of the most significant sun shrines of early India and
has been noted for its construction, stone and metal figures, a unique
image of the Lord Sun and beautifully and richly carved wooden
pillars, doors etc (quoted from the District Gazetteer Almora 1981 in
Kumar and Rawat 1996: 34).

The Baraditya temple complex is located a little away from the

village. The temple complex comprises 45 large and small temples.
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The presiding deity of the main temple in the complex is known by
different names i.e. Buraditya, Vriddhaditya and Baraditya. There is
another Baraditya temple in village Marh also. The Sun temples also
exist at villages Bisang, Patuva and Devi Dhura. In the Himalayan
interior the Sun worship has been one of the most dominating and
ancient traditions. There are many standing temples in Uttarakhand
region which are dedicated to the Lord Sun. The prefixes such as

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Burha, Vriddha and Bara with the sun god at Katarmal may be

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indicative of its relative antiquity and wide spread popular tradition of
Sun worship in the region.
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The Baraditya temple complex area, measuring about 50 m in length
and 30 m in breadth, is spread over an undulating and terraced ground
of an irregular shape. According to the U.P. Tourism Department,
there are 44 temples in the complex and according to Nautiyal
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(Nautiyal 1969) there are about 50 subsidiary shrines clustering

around the main shrirne. Nevertheless, out of 45 stone temples only
12 can be defined as temples, not others. The remaining ones are thin
spire-like structures surmounted by the fluted amalakas. Most of such
temples never had any image in them. Some of the mini-temples in
the complex are architecturally quite similar to the temples of Ratan
Dewal complex at Dwarahat.

4.2.2. Wooden Temple Architecture

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Wooden architecture is a unique kind of architecture of the Himalayan
region. This style was developed in the region by its early inhabitants
as the region had extensive forest cover and wood was abundantly
available. The wooden architecture is restricted to the high altitude
areas only which have cold climatic conditions as wood keeps the
structure warm during the harsh winters. There are many temples in
the region whose architecture is purely wood based.

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The wooden temples are mainly confined to the mountainous region
of Uttarakhand, to the west of Jamuna. The temples are mainly made
of deodar wood (Cedrus deodara) according to the tradition. The
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wood of deodar is used for making vital structural parts of temples
because deodar is traditionally regarded as „the wood of the gods‟.
The wood of deodar is easily available in the Himalayan region; it has
traditionally been the most popular construction material. The wood
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of deodar lasts for at least a thousand years in water; it may last for
five to ten times longer in air. Such wooden temples are also found in
Himachal Pradesh. This popular practice is well illustrated by the
ancient wooden temples of Chamba which date back to around 7 th
century CE.

As a rule, all the wooden temples of Uttarakhand follow the

„Canopied Composite-roofed‟ architectural style. These types of
wooden temples are commonly found in the Himalayan region.

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 4.2.2.1. The Mahasu Devta Temple

The rich culture of Uttarakhand is the soul of India. It is said that

Uttarakhand is the land of many gods and goddesses who reside in its
trees, rivers, birds and the very nature itself. Mahusu is the principal
god of the Yamuna region. There are many temples dedicated to

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Mahasu Devta, but most of the Mahasu temples are located in the

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village Bankali, above Lakhamandal in the Yamuna Valley and others
are in the Shimla region, Sirmour district of Himachal Pradesh.
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According to historians and sociologists, Mahasu is the synonym for
the Lord Shiva. The people of this region are the followers of the
Shaiv sect, because the impact of Shiva‟s cult has been here since
ancient times. Kullu and Kashmir can be considered the original seats
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of Mahasu. Mahasu is the famous name of the god Shiva in Himachal

and Jaunsar-Bawar.

The famous temple of Mahusu Devta is situated in the Hanol village

in Jaunsar-Bawar paragana of Uttarakhand. Hanol is a very small
village, which is situated on the left bank of the Tons River.
Duryodham, Karna, Someshwar, Sandkure, Vishasan, Kevalnang,
Kapil Muni, Shiranunag, Pokhu, Kaliknag, Bokhnag, Maheshwar,
Raghunath, Ranuka, Jamdagani are some famous wooden temples of

146
the Jamuna valley. Many local myths, historical and archeological
evidences are associated with these temples.

The Hanol Mahasu temple‟s original mula-prasada is 4 sq m from

outside and is laid out on the tri-ratha plan. Made of dressed stone
masonry, the Bandhar, Antaral and Sabha Mandap are later additions

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of this temple, which expanded over an area of 17.98 x 7.32 sq m.
Internally, the Garbhagriha measures 1.83 sq m. The Bhandhar and

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Antral are covered with a three-tired pent roof and the Sabha Mandap
is covered with two-tired pent roof. Internally, the Shabha Mandap
mesures 4.67 x 6.40 sq m. An open Mukh-mandap is made in front of
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the Sabha-Mandap, which measures 4.44 x 3.045 sq m. The main door
is decorated with floral woodcarvings. The internal measurement of
the Bhandhar is 3.76 x 6.40 sq m. An Antral is provided in front of the
Bhandhar, which internally measures 4.67 x 6.40 sq m. An ornate and
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gilded door is made on the left wall of the Bhandhar, which is

embossed with human and animal figures. A multi-element kalasha is
provided on the top and this temple provides an arresting look (Handa
2008: 148).

According to an old legend there was a furious demon called Kabir

Danav, also known as Kirmat Danu. He had spread terror and
destruction everywhere. He entered villages and killed innocent
people indiscriminately. There was a Brahman named Huna who lived
at Mandarath in Bawar. He had seven sons, six of them had already
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been devoured by the demon and the end of the seventh son was
imminent. Once he dreamed of four great warriors in the army of Raja
of Kashmir. He thought that he might get help from them to destroy
the demon. Huna Bhat thought he should go immediately to Kashmir
but he had no idea about the way to Kashmir. One person told him
about Nag, a Brahman of Hatkoti, who had been to Kashmir and who
might tell him about the way to Kashmir. Nag advised him not to go

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to Kashmir as the way was dangerous and he might not return in time

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to save his son. Nevertheless, the Huna remained resolute.

Departing from the Nag, Huna took the first step out and within a
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blink, he was in Kashmir. He was standing near a natural spring where
Mahasu Devta was supposed to live. It may indicate that Mahasu
originally had been a Nag deity of Kashmir. Huna Brahaman prayed
for divine indulgence and soon came to the guardian of the spring, the
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warrior of Mahasu Devta named Shedkulia. Huna addressed him as

mama. Huna narrated his objective to him and he was moved with
pity for him, and led him to his master. Huna explained his story to
Mahasu. Mahasu promised him help. He gave some instructions and
advised him to return to his village and act accordingly. He gave him
a handful of rice and a wooden staff and an earthen pot to cook rice.
He told him that whenever he felt hungry he should strike the staff on
ground and water would come out for him to cook rice in the pot.

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After reaching his village Mandarth, Huna Brahamin fearing that the
Karvir demon may attack, threw rice in the Tons valley. He employed
a new calf to plough the field that had never been ploughed before.
Huna Brahamin ploughed the field five times in the same way as
Bashir had told. In the first instant, the figure of Basuki cobra came
into the view. Similarly, the figures of Pawasi and Botha Chalda
appeared. While the ploughing was going on the plough changed into

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silver and then gold in the field in the second, third and fourth

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ploughing. Similarly, the figures of many warriors of Mahasu kept on
appearing. While the process of ploughing the field was going on the
thighs of Basuki, ears of Pawsi, the eyes of Bodha were injured.
Chalda was the only one who was not hurt. Mahasu started living on
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the left bank of the Tons river and therefore this place is known as
Hanol after the name of Huna Brahamin.
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4.2.2.2. The Karan Temple

The Karan temple is dedicated to Karna who was the brother of the
Pandavas. This temple is the oldest among the wooden temples. One
Karan temple is located at Deorah in Uttarakhand region and the other
at Bakhara in Himachal Pradesh.

The temple structure is laid out in a rectangular plan and measures

12.80 x 7.0 sq m. The temple is raised on massive deodar beams and
the thickness of the external wall of the temple is 61 cm, and is made

149
of rubble stone masonry, laid in courses between the wooden wall
planks, a practice not common in Uttarakhand region. However, this
type of wall is common in Himachal Pradesh. A mandap has been
built in front of the garbhgrih, which is internally 3.48 x 3.05 sq m
with a 46 sq cm sacred fire pit in the middle. The 61 cm thick wall has
been built around the 3.42 x 3.35 sq m garbh-grih. This temple is
enclosed by wooden planks and a gabled roof has been provided over

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the mandap and the veranda. A U-shaped veranda is provided with

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high rails between the wooden posts in the forepart of the temple. The
pradakshina path is made around the garbh-grih. An independent roof
has been built over the garbh-grih and pradakshina path. This roof
overlaps the gabled roof over the mandapa and is gabled. A multi-
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element Kalash is provided on the top and this temple thus provides
an impressive and sober look. The following temples are found in this
region:
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Table 4.1
The Main Temples of Uttarakhand
Name of Temple District

Hanuman temple and Bhramari Almora

Devi Temple in Katyur
Badrinath temple in Almora Almora

Nandakeshwar Mahadev temple in Almora

Bhikiyasen

Shiva temple at Lakeshmeshwar Almora

in Almora

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 Temple of Kapileshwar at Dol Almora

Badrinath temple at Kuwali Almora

Gujjar Dev temple and Almora

Mahamirtyunjay templeat
Dwarahat
Chitai Temple (Temple of Golu Almora
Devta also known as the god of

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Justice in the Kumaunregion)
Temple of Gananath (Shiv Almora

of 1980 m

north of Almora)
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Temple) near Takula,at an altitude

The temple of Kasar Devi ( 7 km

Hat Kalika temple in Gangolihat

Almora

Pithoragarh
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Maharudreshwar temple group at Pithoragarh
village Khut

Kapileshwar Mahadave temple at Pithoragarh

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Saij Gram

Neel Kameshwari temple at Tehri Tehri

The temple of Shiva in Garhwal Tehri

Temple of Gulara Sidha at Ram

Nagar Nainital

Naina Devil temple at Nainital

Nainital

An old temple of Lakshmi Chamoli

Narayan
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 in Meen Gandhera
Karana Temple Mahabharat(Karn Chamoli
Prayag)
A temple of Mahadev (Joshi Chamoli
Math)

A Vishnu temple (Joshi Math) Chamoli

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Lakshmi Narayan temple at Chamoli
Narayan Koti

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Tungnath temple at Chopata Chamoli
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Rudranath temple at Rudranath Chamoli
Tirth

Shakti, Vishwanath, Annpurna,

Parshuram, Dattatreaya Jar Bharat
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Uttarkashi
temples at Uttarka
The temple of Mahadeva (Askot
Malla) Uttarkashi

Someshwar Mahadev and Shani

Devata Temples at Kharsali
Uttarkashi
Village
Kamaleshwar Mahadev temple at
Raun Gawn Uttarkashi

Kapil Muni Ashram at Gundiyar

Gawn Uttarkashi

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 Baleshwar,Nagnath and Champawat
Barahi Devi temples at Devidhura

Koteshwar Mahadev, Rudraprayag

TungnathOmkareshwar, Triyugi
Narayan,Madmaheshwar and
Kartikay, Raghunath, Bharat,
Rudraprayag,Aadh Vishweshwar
and Tundishwar temples.

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Source: Personal Communication with Some Peoples.
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4.3. CONCLUSION
I have tried to elucidate the rich past of the traditional household and
temple architectural knowledge of the region through the above-
mentioned examples. I think that we should document this knowledge
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of traditional architecture and it is high time to make some serious

efforts in the direction of its conservation and documentation.
Otherwise, the day will not be very far when we would be left devoid
of this treasure of the traditional knowledge which our ancestors
gained through generations. A detailed study of the household
architecture can prove helpful for the housing schemes in the
Uttarakhand region because they would prove cost-effective and can
provide shelters to the economically weaker people of this state.

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The next chapter will highlight the traditional hydraulic technologies
of the region which are quite relevant even today and can prove a
boon for the region reeling under severe water scarcity especially
during summers. These technologies also evolved through consistent
efforts and reciprocal movement of the people.

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