GE1702

THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

AREA

Definition 2.1
If 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 is a function of 𝑘𝑘 and 𝑚𝑚 and 𝑛𝑛 are integers with 𝑚𝑚 ≤ 𝑛𝑛, then
𝑛𝑛

� 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 = 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 + 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚+1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 .

𝑘𝑘=𝑚𝑚
This notation for summation is called the Sigma (Σ) notation. The variable 𝑘𝑘 is the index of summation (or summation
index).

Properties of the Sigma Notation

𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 + 1)
• � 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 • � 𝑘𝑘 =
2
𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘=1
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛𝑛 + 1)
• � 𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 = 𝑐𝑐 � 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 • � 𝑘𝑘 2 =
6
𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘=1
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛2 (𝑛𝑛 + 1)2
• �(𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 + 𝑏𝑏𝑘𝑘 ) = � 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 + � 𝑏𝑏𝑘𝑘 • � 𝑘𝑘 3 =
4
𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘=1
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛+𝑗𝑗 𝑛𝑛−𝑗𝑗 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛𝑛 + 1)(3𝑛𝑛2 + 3𝑛𝑛 − 1)
• � 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 = � 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘−𝑗𝑗 = � 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘+𝑗𝑗 • � 𝑘𝑘 4 =
30
𝑘𝑘=𝑚𝑚 𝑘𝑘=𝑚𝑚+𝑗𝑗 𝑘𝑘=𝑚𝑚−𝑗𝑗 𝑘𝑘=1

Consider a region 𝑅𝑅 in the plane as shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1. Area of Region 𝑅𝑅

The region 𝑅𝑅 is bounded by the 𝑥𝑥-axis, the lines 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏, and the curve having the equation 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), where 𝑓𝑓 is
a function continuous on the closed interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏]. Suppose 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ≥ 0, which means that the curve is above the 𝑥𝑥-axis. The
area under the curve can be estimated using the Riemann sum.

Definition 2.2
Let a closed interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] be partitioned into 𝑛𝑛 subintervals with endpoints 𝑎𝑎 < 𝑥𝑥1 < 𝑥𝑥2 < ⋯ < 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 < 𝑏𝑏. For 𝑖𝑖 =
1, … , 𝑛𝑛, let ∆𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 be the lengths of each interval, that is ∆𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 , where 𝑥𝑥0 = 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏. The Riemann sum for a
given function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is the value
𝑛𝑛

� 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 )∆𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 , (2.1)

𝑖𝑖=1
for any arbitrary 𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 ∈ [𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 , 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ].

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The Riemann sum approximates the area of the region by calculating areas of rectangles. Consider again the area in Figure
2.1. Suppose we partition [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] into 5 subintervals.

Figure 2.2. The Riemann Sum

In Figure 2.2, we can see that the sum of the areas of the rectangles under the curve approximates the area of the region in
Figure 2.1. Consider the first rectangle. It’s width is 𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑥0 = ∆1 𝑥𝑥 and its height is 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐1 ) for arbitrary 𝑐𝑐1 ∈ [𝑥𝑥0 , 𝑥𝑥1 ]. Hence,
the area of the first rectangle is 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐1 )∆1 𝑥𝑥. Similarly, the area of the second rectangle is 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐1 )∆2 𝑥𝑥, the third rectangle is
𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐3 )∆3 𝑥𝑥, and so on. Thus, the total area of the five rectangles is
5

𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐1 )∆1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐2 )∆2 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐3 )∆3 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐4 )∆4 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐5 )∆5 𝑥𝑥 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 )∆𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 .
𝑖𝑖=1

Without loss of generality, throughout this lesson, the subintervals will be of equal lengths and will be denoted by ∆𝑥𝑥. The
value of ∆𝑥𝑥 will be the length of [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] divided by 𝑛𝑛. Hence, for all 𝑖𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛𝑛,
𝑏𝑏 − 𝑎𝑎
∆𝑥𝑥 = .
𝑛𝑛
Since ∆𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 = ∆𝑥𝑥 for all 𝑖𝑖, we can simplify (2.1) further into
𝑛𝑛

∆𝑥𝑥 � 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 ). (2.2)

𝑖𝑖=1

Furthermore, 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 = 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 + ∆𝑥𝑥. Also, without loss of generality, 𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 will take the midpoint of [𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 , 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ] given by
𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 + 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 = .
2
Example 2.1
Approximate the area of the region shown in the image below. The region is bounded by the 𝑥𝑥-axis, the lines 𝑥𝑥 = 1 and
𝑥𝑥 = 5, and the curve 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), where 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 . Use Riemann sum, partitioning the related interval into 4 sub-
intervals.

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Solution:
Since there will be 4 sub-intervals, the length of each sub-interval is
5−1
∆𝑥𝑥 = = 1.
4
Let 𝑥𝑥0 = 1 and 𝑥𝑥4 = 5. Computing for 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 for 𝑖𝑖 = 1, 2, 3,
𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑥𝑥0 + ∆𝑥𝑥 = 1 + 1 = 2 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝑥𝑥1 + ∆𝑥𝑥 = 2 + 1 = 3
𝑥𝑥3 = 𝑥𝑥2 + ∆𝑥𝑥 = 3 + 1 = 4.

Computing for 𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 for 𝑖𝑖 = 1, 2, 3, 4

𝑥𝑥0 + 𝑥𝑥1 1 + 2 3 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 2 + 3 5
𝑐𝑐1 = = = 𝑐𝑐2 = = =
2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑥𝑥3 3 + 4 7 𝑥𝑥3 + 𝑥𝑥4 4 + 5 9
𝑐𝑐3 = = = 𝑐𝑐4 = = = .
2 2 2 2 2 2
Hence, the Riemann sum is
4

∆𝑥𝑥 � 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 ) = ∆𝑥𝑥 [𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐1 ) + 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐2 ) + 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐3 ) + 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐4 )]

𝑖𝑖=1
3 5 7 9
= 1 ⋅ �𝑓𝑓 � � + 𝑓𝑓 � � + 𝑓𝑓 � � + 𝑓𝑓 � ��
2 2 2 2
3 2 5 2 7 2 9 2
=� � +� � +� � +� �
2 2 2 2
= 41.
Therefore, the area of the region is approximately 41 square units.

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We see in Figure 2.3 that as the number of rectangles increases, that is, as the number of partitions 𝑛𝑛 grows larger, the
approximation becomes closer to the exact area of the region.

Figure 2.3. More Accurate Approximations

The exact area of the region is the limit of the Riemann sum as 𝑛𝑛 diverges to +∞, that is,
𝑛𝑛

lim �� 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 )∆𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 �.

𝑛𝑛→+∞
𝑖𝑖=1

EVALUATION OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS

Definition 2.3
Partition the closed interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] into 𝑛𝑛 subintervals such that the 𝑖𝑖 th subinterval is [𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 , 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ]. If 𝑓𝑓 is a function on the
𝑏𝑏
closed interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏], then the definite integral of 𝑓𝑓 from 𝑎𝑎 to 𝑏𝑏, denoted by ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , is given by
𝒃𝒃 𝑛𝑛

� 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = lim � 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 )∆𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 ,

𝒂𝒂 𝑛𝑛→+∞
𝑖𝑖=1
with 𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 ∈ [𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 , 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ], if the limit exists.

Properties of the Definite Integral

Let 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔 be functions on [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏], then
𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
• � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 • � [𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏
• � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 • � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , where 𝑐𝑐 ∈ [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏].
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐

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Theorem 2.1 (First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus)

Let the function 𝑓𝑓 be continuous on the closed interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] and let 𝑥𝑥 be any number in [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏]. If 𝐹𝐹 is the function
defined by
𝑥𝑥
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥) = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
𝑎𝑎
then, 𝐹𝐹 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) if and only if
𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
� 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥).
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎

Proof:
𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
Suppose 𝐹𝐹 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). Since 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥) = ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, then 𝐹𝐹 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. Therefore, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
Now suppose ∫ 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). Let 𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑥𝑥1 + ∆𝑥𝑥 be numbers in [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏]. By definition,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥1
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥1 ) = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (2.3)
𝑎𝑎
and
𝑥𝑥1 +∆𝑥𝑥
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥1 + ∆𝑥𝑥) = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. (2.4)
𝑎𝑎
Subtracting (2.3) from (2.4) and applying the properties of definite integral,
𝑥𝑥1 +∆𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥1
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥1 + ∆𝑥𝑥) − 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥1 ) = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥1 +∆𝑥𝑥
= � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥1 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥1 +∆𝑥𝑥
=� 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
𝑥𝑥1
By the Mean Value Theorem, there exists 𝑐𝑐 ∈ [𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥1 + ∆𝑥𝑥] such that
𝑥𝑥1 +∆𝑥𝑥
� 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐)∆𝑥𝑥.
𝑥𝑥1
Therefore,
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥1 + ∆𝑥𝑥) − 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥1 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐)∆𝑥𝑥,
which is equivalent to
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥1 + ∆𝑥𝑥) − 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥1 )
= 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐).
∆𝑥𝑥
Taking the limit as ∆𝑥𝑥 approaches 0,
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥1 + ∆𝑥𝑥) − 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥1 )
lim = lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐).
∆𝑥𝑥→0 ∆𝑥𝑥 ∆𝑥𝑥→0
The left side is equal to 𝐹𝐹 ′ (𝑥𝑥1 ). To solve for the limit in the right side, we apply the chain rule. Note that 𝑥𝑥1 ≤ 𝑐𝑐 ≤ 𝑥𝑥1 +
∆𝑥𝑥. Since 𝑓𝑓 is continuous, then
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥1 ) = lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥1 + ∆𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥1 ),
∆𝑥𝑥→0 ∆𝑥𝑥→0
it follows that lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥1 ). Therefore,
∆𝑥𝑥→0
𝐹𝐹 ′ (𝑥𝑥1 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥1 ).
∎

Theorem 2.2 (Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus)

Let the function 𝑓𝑓 be continuous on the closed interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] and let 𝐹𝐹 be a function such that
𝐹𝐹 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
for all 𝑥𝑥 ∈ [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏]. Then
𝑏𝑏
� 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐹𝐹(𝑏𝑏) − 𝐹𝐹(𝑎𝑎).
𝑎𝑎

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Proof:

First, we partition [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] into

𝑎𝑎 = 𝑥𝑥0 < 𝑥𝑥1 < 𝑥𝑥2 < ⋯ < 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏,

𝑏𝑏−𝑎𝑎
where 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 = ∆𝑥𝑥 = for 𝑖𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛𝑛. Note that
𝑛𝑛

𝐹𝐹(𝑏𝑏) − 𝐹𝐹(𝑎𝑎) = 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 ) − 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥0 )

= [𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 ) − 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 )] + ⋯ + [𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥2 ) − 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥1 )] + [𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥1 ) − 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥0 )]

𝑛𝑛

= �[𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ) − 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 )].

𝑖𝑖=1

Since 𝐹𝐹 is an antiderivative of 𝑓𝑓, 𝐹𝐹 is differentiable on (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏) and continuous on [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏]. By the Mean Value Theorem, we
then have for each 𝑖𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛𝑛,

𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ) − 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 )
= 𝐹𝐹 ′ (𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 )
𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 )−𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 ) 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 )−𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 )
for some 𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 ∈ (𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 , 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ). But = and 𝐹𝐹 ′ (𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 ). Hence,
𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 −𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 ∆𝑥𝑥

𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ) − 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 )
= 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 ).
∆𝑥𝑥

Or equivalently,

𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ) − 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 )∆𝑥𝑥.

Therefore,
𝑛𝑛

𝐹𝐹(𝑏𝑏) − 𝐹𝐹(𝑎𝑎) = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 )∆𝑥𝑥 .

𝑖𝑖=1
Taking the limit of both sides as 𝑛𝑛 → ∞,
𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏
𝐹𝐹(𝑏𝑏) − 𝐹𝐹(𝑎𝑎) = lim � 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 )∆𝑥𝑥 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑎
𝑖𝑖=1
∎

The expression 𝐹𝐹(𝑏𝑏) − 𝐹𝐹(𝑎𝑎) shall be denoted as 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥)|𝑏𝑏𝑎𝑎 , read as “𝐹𝐹 of 𝑥𝑥 evaluated from 𝑎𝑎 to 𝑏𝑏.”

Example 2.2
2 1
Evaluate ∫1 𝑥𝑥 4 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and ∫2 𝑥𝑥 4 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
Solution:
1
The antiderivative of 𝑥𝑥 4 is 𝑥𝑥 5 . Hence,
5
2
1 52
� 𝑥𝑥 4 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑥𝑥 �
1 5 1
1 5 1 5
= 2 − 1
5 5
31
= .
5
By properties of the definite integral,
1 2
31
� 𝑥𝑥 4 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − � 𝑥𝑥 4 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − .
2 1 5
02 Handout 1 *Property of STI
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 GE1702

Area Between Curves

Let the functions 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔 be continuous on the closed interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] such that for all 𝑥𝑥 ∈ [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏], 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) ≤ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). The area
of the region bounded by the lines 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏, and the curves 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) is
𝑏𝑏
� �𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)�𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝑎𝑎

Example 2.3
Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = (𝑥𝑥 + 1)2 and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = (2𝑥𝑥 − 3)2 . Find the area of the shaded region below.

Solution:
2
The shaded region is bounded by 𝑥𝑥 = on the left, 𝑥𝑥 = 4 on the right, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) above and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) below. Therefore,
3
the area of the shaded region is
4 4
� �𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)�𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � ((𝑥𝑥 + 1)2 − (2𝑥𝑥 − 3)2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2/3 2/3
4
= � �(𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 + 1) − (4𝑥𝑥 2 − 12𝑥𝑥 + 9)�𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2/3
4
= � (−3𝑥𝑥 2 + 14𝑥𝑥 − 8)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2/3
= (−𝑥𝑥 3 + 7𝑥𝑥 2 − 8𝑥𝑥)|42/3
2 3 2 2 2
= �−43 + 7(42 ) − 8(4)� − �− � � + 7 � � − 8 � ��
3 3 3
500
= .
27

INTEGRALS YIELDING TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

Integrals Yielding Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
𝑢𝑢
𝑎𝑎𝑢𝑢
• � 𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = + 𝐶𝐶,
ln 𝑎𝑎
where 1 < 𝑎𝑎

• � 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐶𝐶

1
• � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ln|𝑢𝑢| + 𝐶𝐶,
𝑢𝑢
where 𝑢𝑢 ≠ 0

02 Handout 1 *Property of STI

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 GE1702

Example 2.4
Evaluate the indefinite integrals below.
a. ∫ √103𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑒𝑒 √𝑥𝑥
b. ∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
√𝑥𝑥
1
c. ∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
3𝑥𝑥−1

Solution:
3𝑥𝑥 3 2
a. Let 𝑢𝑢 = . Then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 or 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. Therefore,
2 2 3

� �103𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 103𝑥𝑥/2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

2
= � 10𝑢𝑢 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�
3
2
= � 10𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
3
2(10𝑢𝑢 )
= + 𝐶𝐶
3 ln 10
2√103𝑥𝑥
= + 𝐶𝐶.
3 ln 10
1 1
b. Let 𝑢𝑢 = √𝑥𝑥. Then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 or 2𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. Therefore,
2√𝑥𝑥 √𝑥𝑥

𝑒𝑒 √𝑥𝑥 1
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑒𝑒 √𝑥𝑥 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
√𝑥𝑥 √𝑥𝑥

= � 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 (2𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)

= 2 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= 2𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐶𝐶
= 2𝑒𝑒 √𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶.
1
c. Let 𝑢𝑢 = 3𝑥𝑥 − 1. Then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 3𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 or 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. Therefore,
3
1 1 1
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�
3𝑥𝑥 − 1 𝑢𝑢 3
1 1
= � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
3 𝑢𝑢
1
= ln|𝑢𝑢| + 𝐶𝐶
3
1
= ln|3𝑥𝑥 − 1| + 𝐶𝐶.
3

In the case of the last item in Example 2.4, the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator. If the
case is otherwise, we rewrite the expression as a sum of a polynomial function and a rational function with degree of
numerator less than that of the denominator.

02 Handout 1 *Property of STI

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 GE1702

Example 2.5
𝑥𝑥 2 +2
Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝑥𝑥+1

Solution:
Since the degree of the numerator (2) is greater than the degree of the denominator (1), we rewrite the integrand. Using
long division,
𝑥𝑥 −1
𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑥𝑥 2 +2
2 +𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥
−𝑥𝑥 +2
−𝑥𝑥 −1
3

and therefore,
𝑥𝑥 2 + 2 3
= 𝑥𝑥 − 1 + .
𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑥𝑥 + 1
Finding the indefinite integral,
𝑥𝑥 2 + 2 3
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � �𝑥𝑥 − 1 + � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑥𝑥 + 1
1
= �(𝑥𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 3 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝑥𝑥 + 1
Let 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 + 1, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. Therefore,
𝑥𝑥 2 + 2 1
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = �(𝑥𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 3 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑢𝑢
1
= 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 3 ln|𝑢𝑢| + 𝐶𝐶
2
1
= 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 3 ln|𝑥𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶𝐶.
2

Integrals Yielding Inverse Trigonometric Functions

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• � = sin−1 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐶𝐶 • � = sec −1 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐶𝐶
√1 − 𝑢𝑢2 𝑢𝑢√𝑢𝑢2 − 1

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• � = tan−1 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐶𝐶
1 + 𝑢𝑢2

These formulas can further be generalized.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑢𝑢
• � = sin−1 + 𝐶𝐶, where 𝑎𝑎 > 0 • � = sec −1 + 𝐶𝐶, where 𝑎𝑎 > 0
2
√𝑎𝑎 − 𝑢𝑢 2 𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢√𝑢𝑢2 − 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑢𝑢
• � = tan−1 + 𝐶𝐶, where 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑢𝑢 2 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎

Consider the first formula. Let 𝑎𝑎 > 0. Then

𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢 1 𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢
�sin−1 + 𝐶𝐶� = ⋅ � �.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎
�1 − 𝑢𝑢2
𝑎𝑎

02 Handout 1 *Property of STI

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 GE1702

1 1 𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢 1
Now, = = . Also, � � = . Therefore,
2 2 2 √𝑎𝑎2 −𝑢𝑢2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
�1−𝑢𝑢2 �𝑎𝑎 −𝑢𝑢
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎2

𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢 𝑎𝑎 1 1
�sin−1 + 𝐶𝐶� = ⋅ = .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎 √𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑢𝑢2 𝑎𝑎 √𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑢𝑢2
Hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢
� = sin−1 + 𝐶𝐶, where 𝑎𝑎 > 0.
√𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑢𝑢2 𝑎𝑎
The other two (2) formulas are proven similarly.

Example 2.6
Evaluate the following indefinite integrals:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
a. ∫
√4−9𝑥𝑥 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
b. ∫ 2
3𝑥𝑥 −2𝑥𝑥+5
6𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
c. ∫
(2−𝑥𝑥)√𝑥𝑥 2 −4𝑥𝑥+3

Solution:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
a. First, we rewrite ∫ into a form wherein we can easily determine 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑢𝑢. Rewriting the integral,
√4−9𝑥𝑥 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� =� .
√4 − 9𝑥𝑥 2 �22 − (3𝑥𝑥)2
1
Let 𝑎𝑎 = 2 and 𝑢𝑢 = 3𝑥𝑥. Then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 3𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 or 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. Therefore,
3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� = �
√4 − 9𝑥𝑥 2 3 √𝑎𝑎 − 𝑢𝑢2
2

1 −1 𝑢𝑢
= sin + 𝐶𝐶
3 𝑎𝑎
1 3𝑥𝑥
= sin−1 + 𝐶𝐶.
3 2
b. We first apply completing the square of the denominator. Note that
2 5
3𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 5 = 3 �𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + �
3 3
2 1 5 1
= 3 �𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + + − �
3 9 3 9
2 1 14
= 3 �𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + + �
3 9 9
2
1 2 √14
= 3 ��𝑥𝑥 − � + � � �.
3 3
Therefore,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� =� 2
3𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 5 1 2 √14
3 ��𝑥𝑥 − � + � � �
3 3

1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= � 2 .
3 1 2
√14
�𝑥𝑥 − � + � �
3 3
02 Handout 1 *Property of STI
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 GE1702

√14 1
Let 𝑎𝑎 = and 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 − . Then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and
3 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� = � 2
3𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 5 3 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑢𝑢2
1 1 𝑢𝑢
= � tan−1 � + 𝐶𝐶
3 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
1 𝑢𝑢
= tan−1 + 𝐶𝐶
3𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
1
1 𝑥𝑥 −
= tan −1 3 + 𝐶𝐶
√14 √14
3� � 3
3
1 3𝑥𝑥 − 1
= tan−1 + 𝐶𝐶.
√14 √14
c. We first apply completing the square. Note that
𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 3 = (𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 4) − 1 = (𝑥𝑥 − 2)2 − 1.
Therefore,
6𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� = −6 � .
(2 − 𝑥𝑥)√𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 3 (𝑥𝑥 − 2)�(𝑥𝑥 − 2)2 − 1
Let 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 − 2. Then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and
6𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� = −6 �
(2 − 𝑥𝑥)√𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 3 𝑢𝑢√𝑢𝑢2 − 1
= −6 sec −1 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐶𝐶
= −6 sec −1 (𝑥𝑥 − 2) + 𝐶𝐶.

Definition 2.4
The hyperbolic sine function, denoted by sinh, and the hyperbolic cosine function, denoted by cosh, are defined as
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥
sinh 𝑥𝑥 = , cosh 𝑥𝑥 = ,
2 2
where 𝑥𝑥 is any real number.
Taking the derivatives of sinh 𝑥𝑥 and cosh 𝑥𝑥,
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥
sinh 𝑥𝑥 = � � cosh 𝑥𝑥 = � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
1 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑 −𝑥𝑥 1 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑 −𝑥𝑥
= � 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒 � = � 𝑒𝑒 + 𝑒𝑒 �
2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1 1
= (𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 ) = (𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 )
2 2
= cosh 𝑥𝑥. = sinh 𝑥𝑥.

Definition 2.5
The hyperbolic tangent (tanh 𝑥𝑥), hyperbolic cotangent (coth 𝑥𝑥), hyperbolic secant (sech 𝑥𝑥), and hyperbolic cosecant
(csch 𝑥𝑥) functions are defined as
sinh 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 cosh 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥
tanh 𝑥𝑥 = = 𝑥𝑥 , coth 𝑥𝑥 = = ,
cosh 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 sinh 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥
1 2 1 2
sech 𝑥𝑥 = = 𝑥𝑥 −𝑥𝑥
, csch 𝑥𝑥 = = 𝑥𝑥 ,
cosh 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 + 𝑒𝑒 sinh 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥
where 𝑥𝑥 is any real number.

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Hyperbolic Function Identities

1
• tanh 𝑥𝑥 = • 1 − tanh2 𝑥𝑥 = sech2 𝑥𝑥
coth 𝑥𝑥

• csch2 𝑥𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥𝑥 = 1 • 1 − coth2 𝑥𝑥 = csch2 𝑥𝑥

• cosh 𝑥𝑥 + sinh 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 • cosh 𝑥𝑥 − sinh 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥

• sinh(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) = sinh 𝑥𝑥 cosh 𝑦𝑦 + cosh 𝑥𝑥 sinh 𝑦𝑦 • cosh(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) = cosh 𝑥𝑥 cosh 𝑦𝑦 + sinh 𝑥𝑥 sinh 𝑦𝑦

• sinh 2𝑥𝑥 = 2 sinh 𝑥𝑥 cosh 𝑥𝑥 • cosh 2𝑥𝑥 = cosh2 𝑥𝑥 + sinh2 𝑥𝑥

Derivatives of Other Hyperbolic Functions

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
• tanh 𝑥𝑥 = sech2 𝑥𝑥 • coth 𝑥𝑥 = − csch2 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
• sech 𝑥𝑥 = − sech 𝑥𝑥 tanh 𝑥𝑥 • csch 𝑥𝑥 = − csch 𝑥𝑥 coth 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
sinh 𝑥𝑥
These formulas can be proven by applying properties and identities. Consider the first formula. Since tanh 𝑥𝑥 = , then
cosh 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 sinh 𝑥𝑥
tanh 𝑥𝑥 = � �.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 cosh 𝑥𝑥
Applying the quotient rule of differentiation,
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 cosh 𝑥𝑥 sinh 𝑥𝑥 − sinh 𝑥𝑥 cosh 𝑥𝑥
tanh 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
cosh 𝑥𝑥
cosh2 𝑥𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥𝑥
= .
cosh2 𝑥𝑥
1
But cosh2 𝑥𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥𝑥 = 1 and = sech2 𝑥𝑥. Therefore,
cosh2 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑 1
tanh 𝑥𝑥 = ⋅ (cosh2 𝑥𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥𝑥) = sech2 𝑥𝑥.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 cosh2 𝑥𝑥
The proofs for the other formulas are similar.

Integrals Yielding Hyperbolic Functions

• � sinh 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = cosh 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶 • � cosh 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = sinh 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶

• � sech2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = tanh 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶 • � csch2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − coth 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶

• � sech 𝑥𝑥 tanh 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − sech 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶 • � csch 𝑥𝑥 coth 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − csch 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶

Example 2.7
Evaluate
a. ∫ sinh 𝑥𝑥 cosh2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, and

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1
b. ∫0 tanh2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
Solution:
a. Let 𝑢𝑢 = cosh 𝑥𝑥. Then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = sinh 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. Therefore,
1 3 1
� sinh 𝑥𝑥 cosh2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑢𝑢2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐶𝐶 = cosh3 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶.
3 3
b. Note that tanh2 𝑥𝑥 = 1 − sech2 𝑥𝑥. Hence,
1 1
� tanh2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � (1 − sech2 𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 0

= (𝑥𝑥 − tanh 𝑥𝑥)|10

= 1 − tanh 1 + tanh 0
𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒 −1 𝑒𝑒 0 − 𝑒𝑒 0
=1− +
𝑒𝑒 + 𝑒𝑒 −1 𝑒𝑒 0 + 𝑒𝑒 0
2
= .
𝑒𝑒 2 +1

Definition 2.6
Let 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ ℝ.
• 𝑦𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥𝑥 if and only if 𝑥𝑥 = sinh 𝑦𝑦
(sinh−1 is the inverse hyperbolic sine function);
• 𝑦𝑦 = cosh−1 𝑥𝑥 if and only if 𝑥𝑥 = cosh 𝑦𝑦, where 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 1
and 𝑦𝑦 ≥ 0
(cosh−1 is the inverse hyperbolic cosine function);
• 𝑦𝑦 = tanh−1 𝑥𝑥 if and only if 𝑥𝑥 = tanh 𝑦𝑦, where |𝑥𝑥| < 1
(tanh−1 is the inverse hyperbolic tangent function); and
• 𝑦𝑦 = coth−1 𝑥𝑥 if and only if 𝑥𝑥 = coth 𝑦𝑦, where |𝑥𝑥| > 1
and 𝑦𝑦 ≠ 0
(coth−1 is the inverse hyperbolic cotangent function).

The functions in Definition 2.6 can be expressed in terms of natural logarithms as follows:
• sinh−1 𝑥𝑥 = ln�𝑥𝑥 + √𝑥𝑥 2 + 1� for any real number 𝑥𝑥;

• cosh−1 𝑥𝑥 = ln�𝑥𝑥 + √𝑥𝑥 2 − 1�, for 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 1;

1 1+𝑥𝑥
• tanh−1 𝑥𝑥 = ln � �, for |𝑥𝑥| < 1; and
2 1−𝑥𝑥
1 𝑥𝑥+1
• coth−1 𝑥𝑥 = ln , for |𝑥𝑥| > 1.
2 𝑥𝑥−1

Consider the first equation. Let 𝑦𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥𝑥. From the definition, this implies that 𝑥𝑥 = sinh 𝑦𝑦, that is
𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑦𝑦
𝑥𝑥 =
.
2
Multiplying the numerator and denominator of the right side of the equation by 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 ,
𝑒𝑒 2𝑦𝑦 − 1
𝑥𝑥 = .
2𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦
Equivalently, 0 = 𝑒𝑒 2𝑦𝑦 − 2𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 − 1. By the quadratic formula,
2𝑥𝑥 ± √4𝑥𝑥 2 + 4
𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 = = 𝑥𝑥 ± �𝑥𝑥 2 + 1.
2
Thus, 𝑦𝑦 = ln�𝑥𝑥 ± √𝑥𝑥 2 + 1�, and therefore, sinh−1 𝑥𝑥 = ln�𝑥𝑥 + √𝑥𝑥 2 + 1�.

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Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Let 𝑢𝑢 be a differentiable function of 𝑥𝑥, then
𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• sinh−1 𝑢𝑢 = ⋅ • tanh−1 𝑢𝑢 = ⋅ , |𝑢𝑢| < 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 √𝑢𝑢 + 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
1 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• cosh−1 𝑢𝑢 = ⋅ , 𝑢𝑢 > 1 • coth−1 𝑢𝑢 = ⋅ , |𝑢𝑢| > 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 √𝑢𝑢 − 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
1 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

These derivatives can easily be proven by expressing the function in terms of natural logarithm and differentiating.
Consider the first derivative,
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
sinh−1 𝑢𝑢 = ln �𝑢𝑢 + �𝑢𝑢2 + 1�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1 𝑑𝑑
= ⋅ �𝑢𝑢 + �𝑢𝑢2 + 1�
𝑢𝑢 + √𝑢𝑢2 + 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑢𝑢
1+ 2
= √𝑢𝑢 + 1 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑢𝑢 + √𝑢𝑢2 + 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
√𝑢𝑢2 + 1 + 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= ⋅
√𝑢𝑢2 + 1�𝑢𝑢 + √𝑢𝑢2 + 1� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= ⋅ .
√𝑢𝑢2 + 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Integrals Yielding Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢
• � = sinh−1 + 𝐶𝐶
2
√𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎 2 𝑎𝑎
= ln �𝑢𝑢 + �𝑢𝑢2 + 𝑎𝑎2 � + 𝐶𝐶, 𝑎𝑎 > 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢
• � = cosh−1 + 𝐶𝐶
√𝑢𝑢2 − 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎
= ln �𝑢𝑢 + �𝑢𝑢2 − 𝑎𝑎2 � + 𝐶𝐶, 𝑢𝑢 > 𝑎𝑎 > 0
1 𝑢𝑢
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 tanh−1 + 𝐶𝐶, |𝑢𝑢| < 𝑎𝑎
• � 2 =� 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
𝑎𝑎 − 𝑢𝑢2 1 𝑢𝑢
coth−1 + 𝐶𝐶, |𝑢𝑢| > 𝑎𝑎
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
1 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑢𝑢
= ln � � + 𝐶𝐶 , 𝑢𝑢 ≠ 𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
2𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑢𝑢

Example 2.8
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Evaluate ∫ .
√𝑥𝑥 2 −6𝑥𝑥+13

Solution:
First, we complete the square of the radicand,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� =�
√𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 13 �(𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 9) + 4
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=�
�(𝑥𝑥 − 3)2 + 4

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Let 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 − 3, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. Then

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥 − 3
� =� = sinh−1 + 𝐶𝐶 = sinh−1 � � + 𝐶𝐶.
√𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 13 √𝑢𝑢2 + 22 2 2

DOUBLE INTEGRALS
The area problem in ℝ2 can be extended into a volume problem in ℝ3 .

Figure 2.4. ℝ3 Extension

Double integrals are extensions of definite integrals in the three dimensional space. As the definite integrals solve the area
problem, double integrals solve the volume problem. Consider the surface defined by the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦).

Consider an arbitrary region 𝑅𝑅 on the 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥-plane. Region 𝑅𝑅 is known as the region of integration.

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Projecting the surface on this region gives the solid shown below.

The volume problem then is to solve for the volume of this solid. The volume is referred to as the volume under the surface
over the region 𝑅𝑅. The method in solving the volume problem is similar to the way the area problem is solved. Consider
subdividing region 𝑅𝑅 into closed rectangular subregions as shown in the image below.

Consider the rectangles within region 𝑅𝑅. For each of these rectangles, a corresponding parallelepiped will be produced in
such a way that:
• the base of the parallelepiped is the rectangle; and
• the parallelepiped is bounded by the surface 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦).

The sum of the volume of these parallelepipeds approximates the volume under the surface. Suppose ∆i 𝑥𝑥 and ∆𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦 are the
lengths of the 𝑖𝑖 th partition on the 𝑥𝑥-axis and the 𝑗𝑗 th partition on the 𝑦𝑦-axis, respectively, such that the region shown below
is within 𝑅𝑅.

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Let us refer to this rectangle as subregion 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 . Let ∆𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 𝐴𝐴 be the area of 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 . Then ∆𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 𝐴𝐴 = ∆𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥∆𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦. Take any point �ℎ𝑖𝑖 , 𝑘𝑘𝑗𝑗 �
within 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 . If we will take 𝑓𝑓�ℎ𝑖𝑖 , 𝑘𝑘𝑗𝑗 � as the height of the parallelepiped, then the volume of the parallelepiped will be
𝑓𝑓�ℎ𝑖𝑖 , 𝑘𝑘𝑗𝑗 �∆𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 𝐴𝐴.

Suppose there are 𝑚𝑚 partitions in the 𝑥𝑥-axis and 𝑛𝑛 partitions in the 𝑦𝑦-axis. Let
∆ 𝑥𝑥∆ 𝑦𝑦 if 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 is within 𝑅𝑅
∆𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 𝐴𝐴 = � 𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗
0 otherwise.
Then the sum then of the volume of the parallelepipeds is given by
𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑚

𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚,𝑛𝑛 = � � 𝑓𝑓�ℎ𝑖𝑖 , 𝑘𝑘𝑗𝑗 �∆𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 𝐴𝐴.

𝑗𝑗=1 𝑖𝑖=1
Example 2.9
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2
Approximating the volume under the surface of 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) where 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = − − + 10 over a circular region 𝑅𝑅 on
10 10
the 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥-plane with radius 6 and center on the origin. (Partition the region into four [4] subregions.)

Solution:
Partition the 𝑥𝑥-axis using vertical lines which are four (4) units apart from each other and the 𝑦𝑦-axis using horizontal lines
which are also four (4) units apart from each other. We see from the figure below that 16 rectangular subregions are
formed.

Figure 2.5. The Subregions of 𝑅𝑅

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The volume under the surface is then given by

4 4

𝑆𝑆4,4 = � � 𝑓𝑓�ℎ𝑖𝑖 , 𝑘𝑘𝑗𝑗 �∆𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 𝐴𝐴

𝑗𝑗=1 𝑖𝑖=1
4

= ��𝑓𝑓�ℎ1 , 𝑘𝑘𝑗𝑗 �∆1,𝑗𝑗 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑓𝑓�ℎ2 , 𝑘𝑘𝑗𝑗 �∆2,𝑗𝑗 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑓𝑓�ℎ3 , 𝑘𝑘𝑗𝑗 �∆3,𝑗𝑗 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑓𝑓�ℎ4 , 𝑘𝑘𝑗𝑗 �∆4,𝑗𝑗 𝐴𝐴�
𝑗𝑗=1
𝑓𝑓(ℎ1 , 𝑘𝑘1 )∆1,1 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑓𝑓(ℎ2 , 𝑘𝑘1 )∆2,1 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑓𝑓(ℎ3 , 𝑘𝑘1 )∆3,1 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑓𝑓(ℎ4 , 𝑘𝑘1 )∆4,1 𝐴𝐴
𝑓𝑓(ℎ1 , 𝑘𝑘2 )∆1,2 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑓𝑓(ℎ2 , 𝑘𝑘2 )∆2,2 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑓𝑓(ℎ3 , 𝑘𝑘2 )∆3,2 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑓𝑓(ℎ4 , 𝑘𝑘2 )∆4,2 𝐴𝐴
=
𝑓𝑓(ℎ1 , 𝑘𝑘3 )∆1,3 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑓𝑓(ℎ2 , 𝑘𝑘3 )∆2,3 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑓𝑓(ℎ3 , 𝑘𝑘3 )∆3,3 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑓𝑓(ℎ4 , 𝑘𝑘3 )∆4,3 𝐴𝐴
𝑓𝑓(ℎ1 , 𝑘𝑘4 )∆1,4 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑓𝑓(ℎ2 , 𝑘𝑘4 )∆2,4 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑓𝑓(ℎ3 , 𝑘𝑘4 )∆3,4 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑓𝑓(ℎ4 , 𝑘𝑘4 )∆4,4 𝐴𝐴.
But in Figure 2.5, it is observed that only four (4) subregions are contained in within the region 𝑅𝑅. Hence, for 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 not
entirely contained within 𝑅𝑅, ∆𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 𝐴𝐴 = 0. Thus,
𝑆𝑆4,4 = 𝑓𝑓(ℎ2 , 𝑘𝑘2 )∆2,2 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑓𝑓(ℎ3 , 𝑘𝑘2 )∆3,2 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑓𝑓(ℎ2 , 𝑘𝑘3 )∆2,3 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑓𝑓(ℎ3 , 𝑘𝑘3 )∆3,3 𝐴𝐴.
Since ∆𝑖𝑖 = ∆𝑗𝑗 = 4, then ∆2,2 𝐴𝐴 = ∆3,2 𝐴𝐴 = ∆2,3 𝐴𝐴 = ∆3,3 𝐴𝐴 = 16. Therefore,
𝑆𝑆4,4 = 16𝑓𝑓(ℎ2 , 𝑘𝑘2 ) + 16𝑓𝑓(ℎ3 , 𝑘𝑘2 ) + 16𝑓𝑓(ℎ2 , 𝑘𝑘3 ) + 16𝑓𝑓(ℎ3 , 𝑘𝑘3 )
= 16�𝑓𝑓(ℎ2 , 𝑘𝑘2 ) + 𝑓𝑓(ℎ3 , 𝑘𝑘2 ) + 𝑓𝑓(ℎ2 , 𝑘𝑘3 ) + 𝑓𝑓(ℎ3 , 𝑘𝑘3 )�.
For each subregion, choose a point that will determine the height of the parallelepiped corresponding to the subregion.
Consider the points in the figure below.

Evaluating 𝑓𝑓 at these points,

(−2)2 (−2)2 46 (−1)2 12 49
𝑓𝑓(−2, −2) = − − + 10 = 𝑓𝑓(−1,1) = − − + 10 =
10 10 5 10 10 5
12 (−2)2 19 32 12
𝑓𝑓(1, −2) = − − + 10 = 𝑓𝑓(3,1) = − − + 10 = 9
10 10 2 10 10
and hence,
46 19 49
𝑆𝑆4,4 = 16 � + + + 9� = 600.
5 2 5

Example 2.10
Approximate the volume under the surface of 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) where 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 over the rectangular region
{(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)|𝑥𝑥 ∈ [−4,4] and 𝑦𝑦 ∈ [−4,4]}.

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 GE1702

Solution:
Partition the intervals [−4,4] in the 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 axes into four (4) subintervals, thus creating 16 subregions each with area
of 4 square units. Choose a point �ℎ𝑖𝑖 , 𝑘𝑘𝑗𝑗 � within each subregion 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 , for 𝑖𝑖 = 1,2,3,4 and 𝑗𝑗 = 1,2,3,4 as shown below.

The volumes of the lower-most parallelepipeds are shown below.

∆1,1 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(−3, −3) = 4((−3)2 + (−3)2 ) = 72 ∆1,3 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(1, −3) = 4(12 + (−3)2 ) = 40

∆1,2 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(−1, −3) = 4((−1)2 + (−3)2 ) = 40 ∆1,4 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(3, −3) = 4(32 + (−3)2 ) = 72

Suppose all volumes are computed, then the volume under the surface over the said region is approximately 𝑆𝑆4,4 , where
4 4

𝑆𝑆4,4 = � � 𝑓𝑓�ℎ𝑖𝑖 , 𝑘𝑘𝑗𝑗 �∆𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 𝐴𝐴 = 160.

𝑗𝑗=1 𝑖𝑖=1

As the number of rectangles increases, as observed in the figure below, 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 becomes closer and closer in value to the volume
under the surface.

Hence,
𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑚

lim 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚,𝑛𝑛 = lim � � 𝑓𝑓�ℎ𝑖𝑖 , 𝑘𝑘𝑗𝑗 �∆𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 𝐴𝐴.

𝑚𝑚,𝑛𝑛→+∞ 𝑚𝑚,𝑛𝑛→+∞
𝑗𝑗=1 𝑖𝑖=1

Definition 2.2
Let 𝑓𝑓 be a function of two (2) variables defined on a closed rectangular region 𝑅𝑅. The double integral of 𝑓𝑓 on 𝑅𝑅, denoted
by ∫ ∫𝑅𝑅 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is defined by
𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑚

� � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = lim � � 𝑓𝑓�ℎ𝑖𝑖 , 𝑘𝑘𝑗𝑗 �∆𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 𝐴𝐴.

𝑅𝑅 𝑚𝑚,𝑛𝑛→+∞
𝑗𝑗=1 𝑖𝑖=1

From the definition itself, double integrals solve the volume problem. Since 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) is a function in two (2) variables, then
the method of integration is somehow similar to partial differentiation. Consider the surface 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) over a closed
rectangular region 𝑅𝑅 defined by the coordinates (𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 ) and (𝑏𝑏1 , 𝑏𝑏2 ) such that 𝑎𝑎1 ≤ 𝑏𝑏1 and 𝑎𝑎2 ≤ 𝑏𝑏2 .

02 Handout 1 *Property of STI

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 GE1702

The volume of the solid under the surface and over 𝑅𝑅 is

𝑏𝑏2 𝑏𝑏1 𝑏𝑏2 𝑏𝑏1
� � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � �� 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝑅𝑅 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎1
To integrate double integrals with respect to two (2) different variables, simply integrate with respect to one of the variables
first then integrate the result with respect to the other variable. Let us go back to Example 2.10 and find out the exact volume
under the surface over the specified region.

Example 2.11
Find the volume under the surface of 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) where 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 over the rectangular region
{(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)|𝑥𝑥 ∈ [−4,4] and 𝑦𝑦 ∈ [−4,4]}.
Solution:
The rectangular region is defined by the points (−4, −4) and (4,4).

Therefore, the volume under the surface over the specified region is
4 4 4 4
� � (𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � �� (𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
−4 −4 −4 −4
First, we solve for the inner integral with respect to 𝑥𝑥, treating 𝑦𝑦 as constant. Hence,
4 4
1
� (𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 ��
−4 3 −4
128
=− − 8𝑦𝑦 2 .
3
Therefore,
4 4 4
128
� �� (𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 = � �− − 8𝑦𝑦 2 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
−4 −4 −4 3
128 8 3 4
= �− 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 ��
3 3 −4
2,048
= .
3

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 GE1702

Example 2.12
Evaluate the following double integrals.
5 3
a. ∫1 ∫2 (3𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 6𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + 2𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
3 5
b. ∫2 ∫1 (3𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 6𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + 2𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Solution:
a.
5 3 5 3
� � (3𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 6𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + 2𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � �� (3𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 6𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + 2𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1 2 1 2
5
= � [(𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 )|32 ]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1
5
= � (19𝑥𝑥 + 15𝑥𝑥 2 + 5)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1
5
19
= � 𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 3 + 5𝑥𝑥��
2 1
= 868
b.
3 5 3 5
� � (3𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 6𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + 2𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � �� (3𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 6𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + 2𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 1 2 1
3 5
3
= � �� 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 3 𝑦𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥�� � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 2 1
3
= � (36𝑦𝑦 2 + 256𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2
= (12𝑦𝑦 3 + 128𝑦𝑦 2 )|32
= 868
Notice that the answers for both sub-items are equal.

REFERENCES:
Leithold, L. (1996). The calculus 7. Boston, USA: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
Minton, R. & Smith, R. (2016). Basic calculus. Philippines: McGraw Hill Education.

02 Handout 1 *Property of STI

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