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MEASUREMENT
Plane angle: θ = s/r (Radian is the unit of plane angle i.2 2D)
Total plane angle in a circle: 2 radians = 6.28 rad = 1 revolution
i.e The angle subtended by the circumstance of a circle at its center is 2 radians.
1 radian = 57.3 degree
Solid angle: Ω = A/r2 (Steradian is the unit of solid angle i.e 3D)
Total solid angle in a sphere:4 steradian
Solid angle is independent of the shape and radius of the object. It means that any
closed body forms an angle of 4 sr at any of its interior part. Steradian is used in 3D.
Degree is the unit of plane angle in sexagesimal system. 1o = 1/360o
Diameter of earth: 12.7 Mm = 12.7 x 106 m
Error: Difference b/w actual and measured values i.e E = |xmeas – xact|
Personal error: Error due to carelessness, negligence, inexperience of a person,
incorrect reading or parallax error.
Systematic error: Error due to use of faulty apparatus, poor calibration and zero
error instrument.
Random/Accidental/Statistical error: Error due to external environmental
factor and randomly taken values during reading.
An error that can be predicted and removable is called systematic error.
Constant: Having magnitude, unit & dimension. Arithmetic rules are applicable.
No direction & phase. e.g c, G, μo, h, etc.
Ratio: Having magnitude. Arithmetic rules are applicable. No direction &
phase. e.g refractive index, strain, magnification, etc.
Scalar: Having magnitude, unit & dimension. Arithmetic rules are applicable.
No direction & phase. e.g Temp, current, speed, work, etc.
Vector: Having magnitude, unit, direction, phase and dimension. Vector
algebra is applicable. e.g force, velocity, momentum, torque, etc.
Phasor: Having magnitude, unit, phase and dimension. Vector algebra is
applicable. e.g Alternating voltage, alternating current, etc.
Tensor: Having magnitude, unit, direction, phase and dimension. Arithmetic
rules are applicable. e.g moment of inertia.
Minimum number of vectors which can be added by head to tail rule are 2.
Minimum number of equal and opposite vectors in the same plane to result into null
(zero) is 2.
Minimum number of unequal coplanar vectors to result into null is 3.
Minimum number of non-coplanar vectors to result into null is 4.
The number of angles formed by a vector in space (3D) is three (3).
The angle b/w two collinear vectors is zero.
Vector obeys the commutative law and they are added and subtracted according to
Head to Tail rule.
Resolution of Vectors: Splitting of a vector into its components. It is the
reverse process of addition of vectors.
Since infinite no. of vectors are added to give a resultant vector and a vector can
be resolved into infinite no. of components. But the minimum number is three.
Fx = FCosθ & Fy = FSinθ ⇒ θ is the angle which R makes with +ve
x – axis.
If x-component of a vector is equal to its y-component then the angle made by
the resultant is 45o.
Note: We prefer to find angle b/w two vectors by dot product i.e θ = Cos-1 A.B
AB
Torque / Moment of force: The turning effect produced in a body about a fixed
point due to an applied force.
i.e τ = rxF = rFSinθ where ‘r’ is moment arm which is the perpendicular
distance b/w line of action and point of rotation.
Torque is the rotational analogue of force.
Torque produces angular acceleration in a body.
Torque acting on a body will be zero, if it is at rest or moving with uniform angular
velocity.
Direction of Torque:
On the basis of formation of angle, clockwise torque is taken as –ve while
anti-clockwise torque is taken as +ve.
Using Right Hand Rule, curl your fingers in the direction of turning then the
thumb will indicate/show the direction of torque.
The point at which the applied force produces linear motion only is center of
gravity.
Central force: The force exerted on a body always towards a fixed point e.g
electrostatic force, gravitational force, centripetal force, Hooke’s law. It depends
upon only distance b/w two points. The motion produced in a body due to central
force are uniform circular motion, SHM, etc.
A body under central force has constant angular momentum.
Central force cannot produce torque in a body.
Couple: Two equal, anti-parallel and non-concurrent forces that produce only
angular acceleration (rotation) in a body.
The sum of non – coplanar forces can never be zero.
If P=constant, then K.E 1/m i.e for particles having same momentum,
the lighter one will have maximum K.E (also v).
If K.E of some particles is equal then the heaviest one will have maximum
momentum. (P m )
If m=constant, then P K .E
Linear momentum depends upon frame of reference.
P = h/λ (For particle wave), P = E/c (For photon)
Impulse: ΔP = J = Fave.Δt, where ‘Fave’ is called impulsive force which is
time dependent. It is very large, sudden and immeasurable force.
Law of conservation of momentum: Pi = Pf ⇒ m1v1+m2v2 = m1u1+m2u2
Law of conservation of momentum is accordance to Newton’s 3rd law.
Conservative Field: Field in which work done is path independent and total work
done along the close path is equal to zero i.e ΔW = 0
Position dependent forces are conservative e.g gravitational force.
P.E only exist in conservative field.
Non – Conservative Field: Field in which work done is path dependent and ΔW≠0
Velocity dependent forces are non-conservative e.g Fdrag & Fmag.
Conservative force: Electric force, elastic spring force, gravitational force.
Non – conservative force: Friction force, air resistance, tension in a string, normal
force, propulsion force of a motor and rocket etc.
Renewable energy sources: The sun, winds, tides, geothermal, biomass, farm
and animals waste are non-conventional sources of energy and are renewable
sources of energy.
Mangla Dam on river Jehlum generates about 900 MW.
Nuclear energy provides 16% of the world’s electricity.
Temperature at center of earth is approximately 4000oC.
100 billion watt per year can be obtained from wind energy.
Centripetal force/ center seeking force: Force which compels a body to move in
circular path or which produces radial acceleration in a body. It is non –
conservative force.
Fc = -mv2/r = - r̂ (mv2/r) = -(mv2/r) r̂ = -(mv2/r) r = -(mv2/r2) r = - (mω2) r
r
2
Centripetal acceleration: ac = -v2/r = -(r2ω2/r) = -rω2 = vω = v (rˆ)
r
2
2 v
= v ( r ) = 2 r = -ω2 r
r r r
Centrifugal force / center fleeing force: Force produced due to inertia of body.
Centrifugal force always act on the source of centripetal force.
Roads are banked to balance the centrifugal force and help in taking turns in
high speed given by θ = tan-1 (v2/Rg)
Moment of inertia is a physical quantity which depends on the axis of rotation, mass
of body and distance from axis of rotation.
Iring = mr2, v = gh , K.ERot:K.ETran = 1:1
Idisc = ½ mr2, v= 4 gh , K.ERot:K.ETran = 1:2
3
2
Isphere = mr2, v = 10 gh , K.ERot:K.ETran = 2:5
5 7
1
Irod = mr2, v= 3 gh , K.ERot:K.ETran = 1:12
12 2
Escape velocity: Initial velocity required to put a satellite out of the earth
gravitational field i.e vesc = 2GM = 2gR
R
Minimum escape velocity for a body is 11.20 km/sec.
Relation b/w escape and orbital velocity: vesc = 2 vo
Time period of a satellite: T = 2 ro/vo where ro=R+h & vo= GM
ro
Real weight (W) of a body cannot be zero while apparent weight (T) can be
negative, positive or zero.
T=W ⇒ Fnet = T – W = 0
i.e body is at rest or moving with uniform motion (a=0)
T>W ⇒ Fnet = T – W ⇒ T = W + Fnet = mg + ma
i.e body is moving upward uniformly. (if a = g ⇒ T = 2W)
T<W ⇒ Fnet = W – T ⇒ T = W – Fnet = mg – ma
i.e body is moving downward uniformly.
T=0 ⇒ Fnet = T – W ⇒ T = W – Fnet = mg – ma = mg – mg
(at a=g) i.e body in free fall motion. T = -ve ⇒ a > g
Fluid: The substance which flow and has no resistance to deformation e.g
liquid, gas and plasma.
Fluid kinematics: The motion of fluid without reference to the external pressure.
Fluid dynamics: The motion of fluid with reference to the external pressure.
Viscosity (η): The internal friction b/w two layers of fluid.
Viscosity of liquids is due to cohesive force (intermolecular force) while viscosity of
gases is due to molecular collision (diffusion).
η intermolecular force (in liquid)
η 1/Temp (in liquid)
η T (in gases)
Unit of viscosity: N s m-2 = kg m-1 s-1 or poise = g cm-1 s-1
Viscosity of air=0.019, water=0.891, benzene=1, blood=1.6, honey=1420.
Coefficient of viscosity: The numerical value of resistance to the flow of fluid
b/w its different layers.
Force b/w identical molecules is called cohesive force & force b/w dissimilar
molecules is called adhesive force.
Drag force/ viscous drag: The retarding/opposing force offered by fluid to a body
moving through it.
Drag force depends upon size, shape, orientation and relative velocity of the object
and viscosity of the medium.
For slow speed (Fd v), For higher speed (Fd v2)
Stock’s law: Fd = 6πηrv
It is only valid on slowly moving spherical object having small radius ‘r’.
Laminar or Streamline flow: If every particle that passes a particular point moves
along exactly the same smooth path followed by previous particle passing that point.
Laminar flow is steady, regular and non-noisy flow.
Different streamlines cannot cross each other.
Turbulent or Chaotic flow: Non-steady, irregular and noisy flow.
Ideal fluid: Fluid having laminar flow, non-viscous (no internal friction) and
incompressible i.e having constant density.
Critical velocity: Velocity at which steady flow changes to turbulent/eddy flow.
Equation of Continuity: For steady state flow, the mass flow into volume
must be equal to mass flow rate out.
i.e A1v1 = A2v2 = Av = Constant
⇒ v 1/A ⇒ v 1/r2 ⇒ v 1/d2
It means larger the cross-section of flow, slower will be its speed & vice versa.
Equation of continuity is based on law of conservation of mass.
s V
Av = constant ⇒ Ax =constant ⇒ =constant
t t
i.e Volume flow rate remains constant.
V 1 m
Av= =constant ⇒ Av= =constant
t t
i.e mass flow rate constant
V m V
Av = = constant ⇒ = = constant
t t t
s m V
P = F.v = ma x = x a.Δs = x a.Δs
t t t
Bernoulli’s Equation: Relationship b/w pressure, flow speed and height for
flow of an ideal fluid is called Bernoulli’s equation.
It is based on law of conservation of energy. It is the equation for motion of fluid.
Mathematically P1 + ½ ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ½ ρv22 + ρgh2
i.e P + ½ ρv2 + ρgh = constant (For horizontal pipes)
mv 2 m
⇒ P + ½ ρv2 + ρgh = constant ⇒ P+½ xo2 x2 v2+ρgh = P+½ + gh
V V
i.e When P=constant then ½ ρv2 + ρgh = constant
Bernoulli’s equation is used in Plumbing system, hydroelectric generation, flight of
aeroplane, reverse swing, filter pump, engine carburetor, etc.
Speed and pressure relation: According to Bernoulli, v 1/P
T1 h h
⇒ T h ⇒ 1 1
T2 h2 h2
Pressure in horizontal pipe: ½ ρ (v22 – v12)
Net thrust or friction on wings of birds and aeroplane: F= ½ ρA(v22 – v12)
Surface tension: F/L (Property of liquid with which the surface behaves as a
stretched membrane & can support small object placed on its surface)
Surface tension = surface energy
Surface energy = W.D due to S.T per unit area.
S.T of pure water = 72 dyne/cm
S.T decreases with rise in temperature.
Edges of a glass become round on heating due to S.T.
At x = 0, amin = 0
At x = xo, amax = ω2xo
x = xo cosωt 90 [ x = xo cos(ωt - π/6)m ]
v = vo sinωt 90 180o
a = - ωxo cosωt 90
a - ao cosωt
A body performing SHM, phase difference b/w v & x is 90o i.e v leads x by 90o
A body performing SHM, phase difference b/w a & v is 90o i.e v lags a by 90o
For a body performing SHM, phase difference b/w a & x is 180o.
Conical pendulum, T = 2π h
g
Physical pendulum, T = 2π I
mgl
Torsional pendulum, T = 2π I
k
Wavelength: Distance b/w two successive particles which are exactly in the
same state of vibration.
Time period: Duration which a wave passes through certain point.
Amplitude: Maximum displacement from mean position.
Intensity of wave: Energy transmitted per second per unit area placed
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of waves.
E E 1 Power
i.e I= J m-2 s-1 = (J/s) m-2 = Watt.m-2
tA t A Area
Relation among λ, v & f: v = fλ or c = fλ
All e.m waves have same speed because c = fλ
Relation among intensity, amplitude, tension, speed of transverse wave;
Intensity λ ⇒ Intensity v, Intensity A2 (amplitude)
Velocity T , v 1 , v 1/r, v 1/d
A
Phase: It is the state of oscillator.
Phase difference: Difference b/w initial positions of oscillator.
Relation b/w Phase difference and Path difference:
2
Phase Difference = x Path difference.
Organ pipe: Instrument that produces sound by mean of vibrating air column.
Open Organ Pipe: Open at both ends.
Open end is a seat of nodes.
No phase change at open end.
Fundamental frequency of open organ pipe is f1 = v/2L
fn = nf 1 ⇒ fn = n (v/2L) where n = 1,2,3,4,…….
f2 = 2f 1 ⇒ f2 = 2 (v/2L)
f3 = 3f1 ⇒ f3 = 3 (v/2L)
f4 = 4f1 ⇒ f4 = 4 (v/2L)
All frequencies i.e odd and even are present in open organ pipe.
Open organ pipe is richer in harmonics/frequencies than close organ pipe of
same length.
Produces shrill sound.
Close Organ Pipe: Open at one end and close at other end.
Close end is a seat of nodes.
Phase change of 180 at close end.
Fundamental frequency of close organ pipe is f1 = v/4L
fn = (2n – 1)f1⇒ (2n – 1) (v/4L) n = 1,2,3,……
f2 = 3f 1 ⇒ f2 = 3 (v/4L)
f3 = 5f1 ⇒ f3 = 5 (v/4L)
f4 = 7f1 ⇒ f4 = 7 (v/4L)
Only odd frequencies are present in close organ pipe.
Close organ pipe is lesser in harmonics/frequencies than open organ pipe of
same length.
Produces grave sound.
Doppler’s Effect: The apparent change in the frequency due to relative motion of
source of sound waves and listener. (John Doppler in 1842)
When the distance b/w source and listener decreases, the frequency
increases and pitch of sound is high.
When the distance b/w source and listener increases, the frequency
decreases and pitch of sound is low.
When the source is moving towards the stationary listener:
v
f f ⇒ f >>> f
va
When the source is moving away from the stationary listener:
v
f f ⇒ f <<< f
va
When the listener moving towards the stationary source:
vb
f f ⇒ f >>> f
v
When the listener moving away from the stationary source:
vb
f f ⇒ f <<< f
v
When listener and source both are moving towards each other:
vb
f f ⇒ f >>> f
va
When listener and source both are moving away from each other:
v b
f f ⇒ f <<< f
va
If source or listener moves with a velocity greater than velocity of sound then
Doppler effect cannot be applied.
Audible Frequency: The frequency of sound which can be heard by human ear i.e
b/w 20 Hz – 20 kHz.
Ultrasonic; f > 20 kHz
Infrasonic; f < 20 Hz
Ultrasonic is used in cavitation, drugs, medical diagnosis etc.
Polarization is common in both sound and light waves.
Reflection of radar waves from an aeroplane is an example of Doppler’s effect.
Wave front: A surface of constant phase i.e all the points lying on the surface have
the same state of vibration and phase.
Spherical wave front: A surface of the sphere having constant phase because
light travels in 3D.
Circular wave front: A surface of the circle having constant phase or
the portion of the spherical wave.
Plane wave front: A straight portion of special wave front when we
move away from the source.
Rays: The arrows drawn from the source to indicate the direction of wave
front. They are always perpendicular to the wave fronts.
Coherent Sources: Source which produces waves of same frequency, equal or
comparable amplitude and zero or constant phase difference.
Monochromatic or single color light is specified by a single wavelength.
We get coherent waves by two methods:
Division of wave fronts: Young double slit experiment, Fresnt’s by-prism,
Lioyld’s mirror.
Division of amplitudes: Michelson interferometer, thin film interference,
Newton’s rings.
Interference of Light: Effect produced when two or more than two light waves from
two coherent source passing through the same region, superimpose each other.
Conditions to observe interference of light:
Light wave must come from two coherent sources.
Amplitude of waves must be equal or comparable.
Light waves should be perfectly monochromatic.
Young’s Double Slit Experiment: Describe wave nature of light. It is based on the
principle of wave front division of same monochromatic light (Thomas Young 1801)
Condition for Constructive Interference: dsinθ = mλ
Where d = distance b/w slits & m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4,………..
Condition for Destructive Interference: dsinθ = (m + ½)λ
Position of Bright Fringes: YB = m λL/d
Y1 m1 Y1 1
⇒ ⇒
Y2 m2 Y2 2
Position of Dark Fringes: YD = (m + ½) λL/d
Fringe spacing or fringe width: Distance b/w two consecutive bright or
dark fringes i.e ΔY = λL/d
Y1 d 2
⇒ ΔY λ ⇒
Y2 d1
Y1 L1
⇒ ΔY L ⇒
Y2 L2
Y1 d 2
⇒ ΔY 1/d ⇒
Y2 d1
Bright and dark fringes are of equal width.
If Young’s double slit experiment setup is immersed in water, then fringes
width decreases because wavelength decreases.
If we use white light in Young’s double slit experiment, we obtain the
coloured interference.
If L = 2L (double) ⇒ ΔY = 2ΔY i.e double
If d = 2d (double) ⇒ ΔY = ½ ΔY i.e half
If d = 2d & l = 2L ⇒ ΔY = ΔY i.e not affected.
The minimum distance b/w an object and its real image in case of a concave mirror
is 2f.
An object should be placed b/w F & 2F in front of a convex lens so that to obtain the
image formed on the slide projector.
An object is placed in front of a converging lens at a distance greater than twice the
focal length of the lens. The image obtained is real, inverted and diminished.
An object is situated at a distance of f/2 from a convex lens of focal length f. The
distance of image will be -1/f.
A man is 10 feet away from a plane mirror. His distance from his image will be 20
feet.
A six feet tall lady wants to see her full image in a plane mirror. The minimum length
of the mirror will be 3 feet i.e half of her height.
Internal Energy (U): Sum of all K.E & P.E associated with random motion of
atoms.
U = +ve ⇒ When T increases due to increase in ΔQ = +ve & ΔW = -
ve
U = -ve ⇒ When T decreases due to decrease in ΔQ = -ve & ΔW =
+ve
Zeroeth Law of Thermodynamics: If A&B are in thermal equilibrium & B&C too,
then A&C are also in thermal equilibrium.
Zeroeth law of thermodynamics helps to explain the term temperature.
Newton’s law of Cooling: The rate of cooling is proportional to the ΔT b/w body
and the surrounding provided the ΔT is not very large from the surrounding.
It is a special case of Stefan’s law.
It is used in lab for determination of specific heat of liquids.
Thermal process may be cyclic or irreversible.
Fraunhofer lines: Dark lines in the spectrum of sun which are explained on the
basis of Kirchhoff’s law.
Thermometer, its principle & range;
Thermometer Principle Temperature Range
Mercury thermometer ΔL ΔT -35 to +500 oC
Contt pressure gas thermo ΔV ΔT 0K to 500 K
Constt volume gas thermo ΔV ΔT 0 K to 500 K
Platinum resistance thermo ΔR ΔT 500K to 2300K
Thermocouple thermo ε = αT + βT2 500K to 2300K
Pyrometer E = σT4 (Stefan’s law) T > 2000 K
Alcohol thermometer Linear expansion -200 to 78 oC
q1q2
Electric P.E: U= k = qV
r
1
Energy associated with E: U=
2 o 2 dV o E 2 dV
2
q
Electric potential: V = U/q = k = EΔr
r
Permittivity: The property of a medium which affects the magnitude of force
b/w two point charges at rest.
Relative permittivity/Dielectric constant/Specific inductive capacity:
med
k = εr = Where εr > 1 & εo = 8.85 x 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2
vac
Relative permittivity (dielectric constant) = 1 for vacuum (air)
1 eV = K.E = hP = 1.6 x 10-19 J = 1.6 x 10-12 erg
Net electric field intensity b/w two oppositely charged particles is maximum.
Net electric potential b/w two oppositely charged particles is zero.
Dipole moment: p = qd (show net polarity)
Unit of p in atomic scale, 1 Debye = 3.3 x 10-33 C.m
Direction of p is from negative to positive i.e against E.
Torque experienced by a Dipole in uniform E: τ = p x E = pE Sinθ
P.E due to Dipole: U = – pE Cosθ
Equipotential Surfaces: Any surface with same electric potential at every point.
Electric field is always perpendicular (at 90o) to an equipotential surface.
Work done in moving a charge b/w two points on an equipotential surface is 0.
Electric displacement (D) also known as electric flux density, is the charge per
unit area that would be displaced across a layer of conductor placed across
an electric field. It is vector quantity. Its unit is C/m2.
Dielectric: It is an insulator having two types i.e polar and non-polar.
Polar dielectric having permanent dipole moment like water (εr = 80)
Dielectric Strength: Measure of electrical strength of an insulator. It is the
maximum voltage required to produce a dielectric breakdown through the
material. Its unit is Volt/meter.
Electric Pressure: P = dF/ds = σ2/2εo
In the region where electric field is zero, the electric potential is always constant.
The ratio of electrostatic force to the gravitational force b/w two charges is 1038.
The electric flux through the surface of hollow sphere containing a point charge
at its center depends upon magnitude of charge. (φ = q/εo)
When the dielectric is homogeneous, then potential gradient is uniform.
Terminal P.D: The voltage across the terminals of the source when electric
current is being drawn from it to an external circuit. i.e VT = emf – Ir
Flux linkage: NΦ = LI = MI
Faraday’s law: є=N ( for magnitude of induced emf)
t
Lenz’s law: є = -N ( for direction of induced emf)
t
emf may be induced in two different basic process i.e Motional emf & induced
electric field.
In motional emf, coil is varied with time but B remains fixed.
In induced electric field, coil remains fixed but B varies with time.
Motional emf: є = VBLsinθ
emf for generator: є = NωABsinθ (θ=ωt)
Back emf: V = є+IR ⇒ I = V
R
Energy stored in B of inductor: E = ½ LI2 (magnetic energy)
Energy density (magnetic energy per unit volume): B2/2μo
I
Self-induced emf: є=L
t
d di
Self-induction: ΦB i or ΦB = iL or ℰ=- =-L
dt dt
t
Self-inductance: L= = = (ℰ = ∆Φ/∆t)
I I I
t
L = μon2AL = μoN2A/L Where n=N/L, N=no. of turns, L=length of coil & A is
are of cross section.
L = μoμrn2AL (When a core having relative permeability is introduced)
d di
Mutual induction: ΦB i or ΦB = iM or ℰ=- =-M
dt dt
I
Mutually induced emf: є=M
t
t
Mutual inductance: M= = =
I I I
t
Inductance in series: L = nL
Inductance in parallel: L = L/n
Unit of inductance: Henry (H)
Vs N I
Transformer: s p
Vp N p I s
Step-up transformer: Vs > Vp, Ns > Np, Is < Ip
Step-down transformer: Vs < Vp, Ns < Np, Is > Ip
Efficiency of transformer: η = Vs I s 100 %
Vp I p
In step-up transformer, voltage increase while current decreases to keep power
constant & in step-down transformer, voltage increases while current decreases.
Losses in transformers may be divided into 2 categories;
1 dB
Eddy current: Ieddy = (Current induced in conductor due to changing flux)
R dt
Eddy current produces thermal energy in conductor which comes at the cost of KE
of the conductor. This effect is called e.m damping.
Two solenoid carrying current in same direction will repel each other because
inside BT = B1 + B2
Two solenoid carrying current in opposite direction will attract each other because
inside BT = B1 – B2
Two wires carrying current in same direction will attract each other.
Two wires carrying current in opposite direction will repel each other.
Two like charge moving in the same direction will repel as Felec > Fmag.
Magnetic Dipole moment (M): Product of pole strength (m) & length of magnet (l)
Magnetic dipole moment of earth is 8x1022 J/T.
If a magnetic is cut along the length, its pole strength decreases (m A)
If a magnet is heated, its pole strength decreases.
Magnetizing Field: H = B/μo (SI unit = Am-1 & CGS unit = Oersted = 80 Am-1)
The direction in which a current carrying conductor experienced no force is the
direction of B (magnetic induction).
Hall Effect: ℰH = - vd x B (sign of emf will decide the nature of charge)
Impedance of RL circuit: Z= R2 X L2
Power dissipation in RL circuit: P = Irms Vrms cosφ
Phase angle: tanθ = VL/VR = XL/R = ωL/R = 2πfL/R [θ = tan-1 (Lω/R)]
2
X
Q – factor (energy storing ability of coil): Q = I 2X L = L
I R R
Impedance of RC circuit: Z= R2 X C2
Power dissipation in RC circuit: P = Irms Vrms cosφ
Phase angle: tanθ = VC/VR = XC/R = 1/ωCR = 1/2πfCR [θ = tan-1 (1/RCω)]
є = 1 =
BA
Faraday’s law:
2 r t 2 r t
E
Ampere – Maxwell law: Id = є.A (Drift current)
t
Relation b/w E & B: Eo = Bo c
Oscillating charges produce e.m radiations.
Diffraction λ and hence more in radio waves.
Scattering and refraction frequency and hence more in gamma rays.
Gamma rays produce from nuclear transition.
X – rays produce from inner shell transition.
UV and visible rays produce from valence shell transition.
Infrared are heat rays.
Microwaves are produced from oscillating LC circuits.
Radio waves produce from oscillating charge in circuits.
Unit cell: Smallest geometric figure or unit whose periodic repetition in two or
three dimensions form a crystal.
Lattice: Collection of infinite no of points in periodic arrangement.
Point: Dimensionless and shapeless entity.
Lattice sites: Points which are forming lattice.
Lattice constant: Distance b/w consecutive neighbor sites.
Lattice translational vector: Vector used to show the direction of lattice constant.
Crystal = crystal lattice + basic structure
Hooke’s law: under elastic limits, stress strain ⇒ stress/strain= elastic modulus
K = stress / strain
The stress required to cause actual fracture of a material is called breaking/ultimate
/tensile stress.
Isotropic: Homogeneous particles/bodies having identical properties in all
directions.
Polycrystalline solids and amorphous solids are isotropic.
Anisotropic: Heterogeneous particles having different properties in different
directions.
Crystals are anisotropic.
Young’s modulus: Y = tensile stress/tensile strain = σ/ε = FL/Ax
A thick and a thin both steel wire has same Young’s modulus.
For perfect plastic material ⇒ Y=0
For perfect rigid material ⇒ Y=∞
P
Bulk/volume modulus: B = volumetric stress/volumetric strain = =
V
V
PV/ΔV = FV/AΔV (P = F/A)
Bisothermal = P & Badiabatic = γP (γ = Cp/Cv)
Bsolid > Bliquid > Bgas
Compressibility is the reciprocal of Bulk modulus i.e C = 1/B
Shear/rigidity modulus: η = (F/A) / (Δx/y) = F/Aθ
Strain energy: Es = ½ force x stretch = ½ stress x strain x volume = ½ Cθ2
AY
Elastic P.E: U = ( l ) 2 in stretched wire
2l
r
Poison’s Ratio: σ=
lateral strain
= r = rl
longitudinal strain l lr
l
Potential barrier:
Depletion region: The region b/w P and N-type semiconductor which is free of
mobile charges.
Width of depletion region depends on carrier concentration.
P to P & N to N decreases depletion barrier and is called forward biased.
P to N and N to P increases depletion barrier and is called reverse biased.
Forward biasing: Reduces potential barrier & decreases depletion layer width.
Reverse biasing: Increases potential barrier & also depletion layer width.
Knee voltage: Voltage at which majority charge carriers cross junction and
current flows.
Knee voltage for Ge = 0.3V & Si = 0.7V
Drift current of minority carriers: Id = Ie + Ih
Emitter current: IE = IB + IC (Ie ≈ Ic)
BE junction is forward biased & BC junction is reverse biased.
NPN is electron majority carriers & PNP is holes majority carriers.
Active region (Amplifier): BE junction is forward & BC junction is reverse.
Isotopes: Same Z but different A (e.g 6C12 & 6C14, 17Cl35 & 17Cl37, etc)
Isobars: Same A but different Z (e.g 6C14 & 7C14, 18Ar40 & 20Ca40, etc)
Isotones: Same N but different Z & A (e.g 1H3, 2He4, 6C14 & 8O16, etc)
Nuclear radius: R = Ro A1/3 (Ro = 1.1 fm)
Mass defect: Δm = (ZMp + NMn) – ZXA
Nuclear binding energy: EB = Δm x c2 ⇒ EB = 931 x Δm
Packing fraction/binding fraction: fB = EB/A = Δmc2/A
Iron have highest binding energy (A=56)
Elements with A<56 are unstable because of surface effect.
Elements with A>56 are also unstable because of nuclear repulsion.
Nuclei with low mass shows fusion reaction to attain stability.
Nuclei with high mass shows fission reaction to attain stability.
Alpha particle: Doubly positive charged helium nuclei with Z=2 & A=4, emit
due to columbic force of repulsion and is the property of heavy nuclei.
i.e ZXA ⇒ Z-2XA-4
Beta particle: Negatively or positively charged with Z=1 & A=0, emit due to
weak nuclear force from lighter or heavy nuclei.
β+ emission decreases Z by 1 and has no effect on the mass number (A).
i.e ZXA ⇒ Z-1XA + neutrino
β– emission increases Z by 1 and has no effect on the mass number (A).
i.e ZXA ⇒ Z+1XA + anti neutrino
Gamma particle: Neutral particle (radiation) having nature of photon, emit due
to transition of electron from unstable nuclei.
Gamma rays bring no change in A & Z of an element.
Ionization power of radiations mass i.e α > β > γ
Penetrating power Energy/mass.
Range and penetrating power: γ>β>α
Deflection: β>α (γ = not deflected)
Mα = 7000 Me
Ionization power of β is 100 times less than α – particles.
Range of β is 100 times greater than α – particles.
temperature.