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PHYSICS BY TOM AD_MAN

MEASUREMENT

 Measurement: Comparison of unknown things with a standard.


 Unit: The standard with which things are compared.
 Magnitude: A number or numerical value with a proper unit.
 Remember that unit related with name of scientist cannot be written full with
capital letter like Newton, Joule, etc. But written as newton, joule or J, N, etc.
 Physical quantities: Observed + measureable quantities.
 All the laws of physics are expressed in term of physical quantities.
 Base: mass, length, time, temperature, electric current, light intensity &
amount of substance.
 Derived: Obtain from division or multiplication of base units.

 Plane angle: θ = s/r (Radian is the unit of plane angle i.2 2D)
 Total plane angle in a circle: 2 radians = 6.28 rad = 1 revolution
i.e The angle subtended by the circumstance of a circle at its center is 2 radians.
 1 radian = 57.3 degree
 Solid angle: Ω = A/r2 (Steradian is the unit of solid angle i.e 3D)
 Total solid angle in a sphere:4 steradian
 Solid angle is independent of the shape and radius of the object. It means that any
closed body forms an angle of 4 sr at any of its interior part. Steradian is used in 3D.
 Degree is the unit of plane angle in sexagesimal system. 1o = 1/360o
 Diameter of earth: 12.7 Mm = 12.7 x 106 m

 Resolution: Minimum reading which an instrument can read


 Accuracy: Measure of correctness of measurement.
 Accuracy  1/fractional error or uncertainty
 Precision: Magnitude of error in the measurement.
 Precision  1/absolute uncertainty
 Accuracy and precision are inversely related i.e a more accurate measurement or
instrument is less precise.

 Error: Difference b/w actual and measured values i.e E = |xmeas – xact|
 Personal error: Error due to carelessness, negligence, inexperience of a person,
incorrect reading or parallax error.
 Systematic error: Error due to use of faulty apparatus, poor calibration and zero
error instrument.
 Random/Accidental/Statistical error: Error due to external environmental
factor and randomly taken values during reading.
 An error that can be predicted and removable is called systematic error.

 Uncertainty: The estimate about an error in any measurement


i.e Personal error + systematic error + random error
 Uncertainty in the reading at one end: L.C/2
 Total/absolute uncertainty in reading: ± Least count
 Relative error/relative uncertainty: Error/Measured value
 Percentage uncertainty: Relative uncertainty x 100%
 Fractional error: Uncertainty in quantity/Given quantity (Δx/x)
 In addition & subtraction, uncertainties in measurements are added.
 In division & multiplication, uncertainties in measurements are added.
 In power of quantity, uncertainty in measurement is multiplied with power of given
quantity.

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 In average values of many measurements, uncertainty is the average value of the
deviated values from mean values.
 Uncertainty in time period in timing experiment: Total time/total no. of vibration

 In constant terms, there is infinite no. of significant figures.


 In standard form, figure except power of ten is significant.
 In an integer, if L.C is not given then all zeros to right are not significant.
 No. of significant figures in an integer = Given no./L.C
 In addition & subtraction, result is limited to least precise data.
 In division & multiplication, result is limited to least significant figures.

 Dimension: Power to which a base physical quantity be raised.


 Dimensionless variable: No dimension and variable magnitude, e.g refractive
index, strain, magnification, solid angle, plane angle, etc.
 Dimensionless constant: No dimension and constant magnitude, e.g Reynolds
number, coefficient of friction, , 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, NA, etc.
 Dimensional variable: Having dimension and variable magnitude, e.g velocity,
force, torque, power, pressure, frequency, etc.
 Dimensional constant: Having dimension and constant magnitude, e.g Plank
constant, Rydberg constant, velocity of light, light year, etc.
 Dimension of energy, work and torque is same i.e [M L2 T-2]
 Dimension of Stress, Pressure and Young modulus is same i.e [M L-1 T-2]
 Dimension of frequency, activity, velocity gradient and angular velocity is [T-1]
 Dimension of action, angular momentum and Plank’s constant is [ML2T-1]
 Dimension of heat capacity, entropy & Boltzmann constant is [ML2T-2K-1]
 Dimension of Surface tension, spring constant and stiffness is [M T-2]
 Dimension of intensity of sound, heat flux density and irradiance is [MT-3]
 Dimension of optical power, wavenumber, Rydberg constant & spatial frequency
is [L-1].
 Dimension of gas constant (R) & molar heat capacity is [ML2 T-2 K-1].
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
To understand uncertainty in product & power, let take an example.
Example: Find the K.E & uncertainty in K.E of an object of mass (3±0.2) kg moving with (6±0.01) ms-1.
Solution: Given data
Mass = m = (3±0.2) kg ⇒ m = 3 kg & Δm = 0.2
Velocity = v = (6±0.01) ms-1 ⇒ v = 6 m/s & Δv = 0.01
Required = Percentage & absolute uncertainty in K.E

 K.E = ½ mv2 = ½ x 3 x 62 = 0.5 x 3 x 36 = 54 J


 Percentage uncertainties in m & v
i.e m = 0.2 = 0.067 ⇒ 0.067 x 100 % = 6.67 %
3
& v= 0.01 = 0.0016 ⇒ 0.002 x 100 % = 0.167 %
6
Now percentage uncertainty in K.E = ± [(uncertainty in m) + (uncertainty in v) x (power of v)]
= ± [6.67 + (0.167 x 2)] = ± (6.67 + 0.334) = ± 7.001 or ± 7 %
 Absolute uncertainty in K.E = ± [(percentage uncertainty in K.E) x (K.E of object)] =
± (7% x 54) = ± (7/100 x 54) = ± (0.07 x 54) = ± 3.78 = ± 3.8
o Thus uncertainty in K.E = (54 ± 3.8)

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VECTORS & EQUILIBRIUM

 Constant: Having magnitude, unit & dimension. Arithmetic rules are applicable.
No direction & phase. e.g c, G, μo, h, etc.
 Ratio: Having magnitude. Arithmetic rules are applicable. No direction &
phase. e.g refractive index, strain, magnification, etc.
 Scalar: Having magnitude, unit & dimension. Arithmetic rules are applicable.
No direction & phase. e.g Temp, current, speed, work, etc.
 Vector: Having magnitude, unit, direction, phase and dimension. Vector
algebra is applicable. e.g force, velocity, momentum, torque, etc.
 Phasor: Having magnitude, unit, phase and dimension. Vector algebra is
applicable. e.g Alternating voltage, alternating current, etc.
 Tensor: Having magnitude, unit, direction, phase and dimension. Arithmetic
rules are applicable. e.g moment of inertia.

 Cartesian/rectangular coordinate system: A set of two mutually


perpendicular lines having point of intersection is called origin.
 Magnitude of single vector in 2D: x2  y2
 Magnitude of single vector in 3D: x2  y 2  z 2

 Proper vector: You can assume any direction i.e F , v , a , P etc.


 Axial vector: You can’t assume any direction but according to Right Hand
Rule i.e  , L, etc.
 These are vectors which represent rotational effect and act along the axis of
rotation in accordance with right hand rule. Axial vector will have its direction
along its axis of rotation depending on its anticlockwise or clockwise rotational
effect.
 Equal vectors:Having same magnitude & direction. θ=0o
 Parallel vectors: Having same direction. A = nB (n≥1) & θ=0o
 If A & B are two non-zero vectors & if A= 2 B then vectors are parallel.
 Antiparallel vectors: Having opposite direction. A = -nB & θ=180o
 Opposite vector: Same magnitude but opposite direction. (A=-B) & θ=180o
 Null vector: Sum of opposite vectors i.e if A=-B then A+B=0.
 The magnitude of null vector is zero and direction is undefined.
 Coinitial vector: Having same starting point and help in finding angle b/w
vectors. Angle b/w vectors is always smaller the angle b/w their tails. (0o≤θ≤180o)
 Polar Vector: Vector which has a starting point or a point of application is
called a polar vector. Velocity may be regarded as a polar vector.
 Collinear vectors: Vectors which are parallel or anti-parallel to each other or to
any other line.
 Coplanar vectors: Vectors lie in the same plane.
 Concurrent vectors: Vectors whose line of action passes through common point.
 Resultant vector: Combination of two or more single vector. In graphical
representation it shows the direction & magnitude of a physical entity like force.
 Equilibrant vector: A force vector which brings a body into equilibrium. It is equal
in magnitude but opposite in direction to the resultant of vectors acting on a body.
 Free vectors: Vectors whose tail is not bonded to the origin i.e displacement vector.
 Fixed vectors: Vectors whose tail is bonded to the origin i.e position vector.
 Position vector: Vector which describe the position of a point w.r.t origin.
i.e ˆ
r  xiˆ  yjˆ  zk
 Unit vector: Vector whose magnitude is one. rˆ  r / r

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 Base unit vectors:x ⇒ iˆ , y ⇒ ĵ , z ⇒ k̂
 Normal unit vector: Always perpendicular to plane containing vectors
 Position unit vector: Gives the position of a point w.r.t origin.
 A  cos  iˆ  sin  ˆj gives unit vector i.e 1.

 Minimum number of vectors which can be added by head to tail rule are 2.
 Minimum number of equal and opposite vectors in the same plane to result into null
(zero) is 2.
 Minimum number of unequal coplanar vectors to result into null is 3.
 Minimum number of non-coplanar vectors to result into null is 4.
 The number of angles formed by a vector in space (3D) is three (3).
 The angle b/w two collinear vectors is zero.

 Vector polar form: r  (r , )


 Vector Cartesian form: r  xiˆ  yjˆ
 -1 ≤ Cosθ ≤ 1, -1 ≤ Sinθ ≤ 1, -∞ ≤ Tanθ ≤ ∞
 Sin30 = Cos60 = ½ = 0.5
o o

 Sin60o = Cos30o = 3 / 2 = 1.73/2 = 0.866


 Sin45o = Cos45o = 1/ 2 = 1/1.41 = 0.707
 Sin90o = Cos0o = Cos360o = 1
 Sin0o = Sin360o = Cos90o = 0
 Sin270o = Cos180o = -1
 Tan0o=0, Tan30o=1/ 3 , Tan45o=1, Tan60o= 3 , Tan90o=∞

 Multiplication of a vector by a number or scalar:


 If n=0 then nxA = 0 ⇒ Null vector
 If n=1, then nxA=A ⇒ Neither magnitude nor direction change
 If n=-1, then nxA=-A ⇒ Magnitude remains same but direction
becomes opposite.
 If n>1, then nxA=nA ⇒ Only magnitude change but does not direction.
 If n<1, then nxA=-nA ⇒ Both magnitude & direction change.
 If n=scalar, then nxA ⇒ New quantity is formed.

 Vector obeys the commutative law and they are added and subtracted according to
Head to Tail rule.
 Resolution of Vectors: Splitting of a vector into its components. It is the
reverse process of addition of vectors.
 Since infinite no. of vectors are added to give a resultant vector and a vector can
be resolved into infinite no. of components. But the minimum number is three.
 Fx = FCosθ & Fy = FSinθ ⇒ θ is the angle which R makes with +ve
x – axis.
 If x-component of a vector is equal to its y-component then the angle made by
the resultant is 45o.

 Magnitude of resultant of 2 vectors: F = F12  F22  2F1F2 Cos


Where 0o≤θ≤180o, 0o≤R≤180o, min≤R≤max, F1-F2 ≤ R ≤ F1+F2
 When θ=0o, then F = F + F
 When θ=30o, then F = F12  F22  3F1F2
 When θ=45o , then F= F12  F22  2 F1F2

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 When θ=60o, then F= F12  F22  F1F2
 When θ=90o, then F= F12  F22
 When θ=120o, then F = F12  F22  F1F2
 When θ=120o and if F1 = F2 = F then F = F
 When θ=180 , o then F = F 1 – F2
 When θ=180 o and if F1 = F2 = F then F = 0
 If the angle b/w two equal vectors is 120 , then their resultant magnitude will be
o

equal to one of them.


 When two vectors are added at 0o, then their resultant is equal to double of the
vector. But when two vectors are added at 180o, then their resultant is a null vector,
incase of equal vectors.

 Rules for finding the direction of resultant: φ = Tan-1  Ry 


 Rx 

 If Rx=+ve & Ry=+ve, then θ = φ = Tan-1  Ry 


 Rx 
 Ry 
 If Rx=-ve & Ry=+ve, then θ = 180o – φ = 180o - Tan-1  
 Rx 
 If Rx=-ve & Ry=-ve, then θ = 180o + φ = 180o + Tan-1  Ry 
 Rx 

 If Rx=+ve & Ry=-ve, then θ = 360o – φ = 360o - Tan-1  Ry 


 Rx 
 Angle b/w two vectors: θ = Cos-1  A.B  & θ = Sin-1  A  B 
 AB   AB 

Note: We prefer to find angle b/w two vectors by dot product i.e θ = Cos-1  A.B 
 AB 

 Scalar / Dot Product: A.B = ABCosθ when 0o≤θ≤180o


 A.B = A.Bx (Bx = Projection of B along A) ⇒ Bx = A.B/A
 A.B = Ax.B (Ax = Projection of A along B) ⇒ Ax = A.B/B
 A.B = +ve, when 0o≤θ≤90o
 A.B = -ve when 90o≤θ≤180o
 If A≠0 & B≠0 but A.B=0 then θ=90o ⇒ orthogonally
 The self dot product of any vector gives the magnitude square of the self
vector i.e A.A = A2
 i.i = j.j = k.k = 1 (Where i,j,k are unit vectors)
 i.j = j.k = k.i = 0

 Vector / Cross Product: AxB = ABSinθ n̂ when 0o<θ<180o


 When two non-zero vectors result into maximum vector after cross product,
then these vectors are perpendicular i.e θ=90o
 When two non-zero vectors result into null vector after cross product, then
these vectors are collinear i.e θ = 0o or 180o
 AxB=-BxA
 ixi = jxj = kxk =0, ixj = jxk = kxi =1, jxi=-k, kxj=-i, kxi=-j
i j k
 A x B = Ax Ay Az
Bx B y Bz
⇒ AxB = i (AyBz – ByAz) – j (AxBz – BxAz) + k (AxBy – BxAy)
 If |A|=|B| then |AxB| gives area of square (at θ=90o)
 If |A|≠|B| then |AxB| gives area of rectangle (at θ=90o)

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 If |A|≠|B| then |AxB| gives area of parallelogram (at θ≠90o)
 If the magnitude of cross product is equal to dot product then the angle b/w the two
vectors is 45o.

 Torque / Moment of force: The turning effect produced in a body about a fixed
point due to an applied force.
i.e τ = rxF = rFSinθ where ‘r’ is moment arm which is the perpendicular
distance b/w line of action and point of rotation.
 Torque is the rotational analogue of force.
 Torque produces angular acceleration in a body.
 Torque acting on a body will be zero, if it is at rest or moving with uniform angular
velocity.
 Direction of Torque:
 On the basis of formation of angle, clockwise torque is taken as –ve while
anti-clockwise torque is taken as +ve.
 Using Right Hand Rule, curl your fingers in the direction of turning then the
thumb will indicate/show the direction of torque.

 Equilibrium: When F=0 then a=0


i.e if the net force acting on a body is zero then there will be no change in
translational as well as rotational motion. It means the body is either at rest or
moving with uniform motion.
 When v=0, then the body will be in static translational equilibrium.
 When v=uniform, then the body will be in dynamic translational equilibrium.
 When ω=0, then the body will be in static rotational equilibrium.
 When ω=uniform, then the body will be in dynamic rotational equilibrium.
 First condition of equilibrium is valid only for coplanar forces.
 Work done in a circular motion is zero when body is moving with uniform angular
velocity.
 Work done in a circular motion is not zero when body is moving with angular
acceleration (variable angular velocity).
 The minimum no. of forces that keep a body in equilibrium are two.

 The point at which the applied force produces linear motion only is center of
gravity.
 Central force: The force exerted on a body always towards a fixed point e.g
electrostatic force, gravitational force, centripetal force, Hooke’s law. It depends
upon only distance b/w two points. The motion produced in a body due to central
force are uniform circular motion, SHM, etc.
 A body under central force has constant angular momentum.
 Central force cannot produce torque in a body.
 Couple: Two equal, anti-parallel and non-concurrent forces that produce only
angular acceleration (rotation) in a body.
 The sum of non – coplanar forces can never be zero.

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MOTION & FORCE

 Distance: Actual path b/w two points/objects and always ≥ 1.


 Displacement:Shortest path/distance b/w two points/objects. Or shortest directed
length. It may be +ve, -ve or zero.
 Distance covered by a body in ‘n’ seconds when vi≠0: Sn = vit + ½ at2
 Distance covered by a body in ‘n’ seconds when vi=0: Sn = ½ at2
v  vf a
 Distance covered by a body in ‘nth’ seconds: Sn=( i )t, Sn= (2n – 1)
2 2
 Speed: The magnitude of velocity is called speed.
 When a body is moving with uniform velocity/speed, its average and instantaneous
velocity/speed remain the same.
 Average velocity when body covers different displacement in different intervals of
S  S  S3  S n
time: <v> = 1 2
t1  t2  t3 .tn
 Average velocity when body covers same displacement in different intervals of time:
2v1v2
<v> =
v1  v2
 Average velocity when body moves with different velocities in different intervals of
time: <v> = v1t1+v2t2+v3t3+…………vntn
 Average velocity when body moves with different velocities in same intervals of
v  v  v .vn
time: <v> = 1 2 3
n
 Tangential/Linear acceleration: Acceleration produced due to change in
v
magnitude of linear velocity i.e a = vˆ
t
 Radial/Centripetal acceleration: Acceleration produced due to change in direction
v̂
of linear velocity i.e a = v
t
 When both magnitude & direction of linear velocity change then net acceleration is:
a= al2  ac2
 Velocity is always in the direction of displacement while acceleration is in the
direction of change of velocity.

 Area of the graph Δabc: A = ½ (base x height)


 Area of the graph abcd: A = length x breadth
 Slope of the graph: Tanθ = Perp/Base (S = y/x)
 Slope of displacement-time graph gives velocity.
 Slope of acceleration-time graph gives jerk.
 Area of velocity-time graph gives distance covered.
 Area of acceleration-time graph gives velocity.
 Newton’s 1st law: Gives qualitative definition of force. Also called law of inertia.
i.e Fext = 0 then a=0 ⇒ v = 0 or v = uniform.
 Inertia depends on mass when v=0 or body is at rest.
 Inertia depends on momentum when v = uniform.
 Inertia is not the property of the body and is not the physical quantity.
 Newton’s 2nd law: Gives quantitative definition of force. F = ma
 Newton’s 3 law:
rd FAB = -FBA, which means force in nature occurs in pairs and act
on different bodies.
 Conditions for equations of motions;
 Motion should be one – dimensional.

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 Acceleration should be uniform.
 Frame of reference should be inertial.

 Linear momentum: P = mv = F.t = L/r (L = rxP & F = ΔP/Δt)


 Relation b/w K.E & P: K.E = P /2m
2

 If P=constant, then K.E  1/m i.e for particles having same momentum,
the lighter one will have maximum K.E (also v).
 If K.E of some particles is equal then the heaviest one will have maximum
momentum. (P  m )
 If m=constant, then P  K .E
 Linear momentum depends upon frame of reference.
 P = h/λ (For particle wave), P = E/c (For photon)
 Impulse: ΔP = J = Fave.Δt, where ‘Fave’ is called impulsive force which is
time dependent. It is very large, sudden and immeasurable force.
 Law of conservation of momentum: Pi = Pf ⇒ m1v1+m2v2 = m1u1+m2u2
 Law of conservation of momentum is accordance to Newton’s 3rd law.

 Head–on–collision (direct or one dimensional collision): Collision of two bodies in


which direction remains the same i.e they move along same line.
 Sidewise collision: Collision in which direction of bodies change.
 Elastic collision: Total energy, P.E, K.E & momentum = conserved
 Inelastic collision: Total energy & P=conserved & K.E, P.E = Not conserved
 Collision of billiard balls and air molecules is perfectly elastic collision.
 Throwing mud on the wall and firing a bullet in the bag is the example of perfectly
inelastic collision.
 Collision b/w atomic & subatomic particles may be elastic.
 Relative velocity: Velocity of two bodies relative to each other.
 Relative velocity in same direction: v = v2 – v1
 Relative velocity in opposite direction: v = v1 + v2
 Relative velocity before the collision is equal to the –ve relative velocity after
collision i.e vrel = - vrel
 Two photons traveling in vacuum has relative velocity equal to c.

 Ballistic: The study of projectile motion


 Projectile motion: Two dimensional motion under constant ‘g’
 Trajectory: Path followed by projectile which is parabolic.
 Position of projectile:x = vi cosθt & y = vi sinθt – ½ gt2
vx2  v y2
 Velocity of projectile: v =
vx
 Horizontal motion: Fx = 0, vx = constant, ax = 0
 Vertical motion: F = gravity, vy = change, ay = -g
v sin 
2 2
 Height of projectile: H= i
2g
 Maximum height of projectile: Hmax is at θ = 90o
2v sin 
 Time of projectile: T= i
g
v sin 
 Time of summit of projectile: T1/2 = T/2 = i
g
vi2 sin 2
 Range of projectile: R =
g

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vi2
 Maximum range of projectile: Rmax = (at θ = 45o)
g
 R = Rmax sin2θ
 Rmax = 4 Hmax (at 45o), Rmax = 3 Hmax (at 52o)
 Rmax = 2 Hmax (at 63o), Rmax = Hmax (at 76o)

 Relation b/w height & time of flight: H = gT2/8, T= 8H g


 Relation b/w height & time to summit: H = gT2/2, T= 2H g
 Ratio of momenta at summit point & projection point: Ps/Pp = cos2θ
 Ratio of K.E at summit point & projection point: K.Es/K.Ep = cos2θ
 Ratio of P.E & K.E at summit point: P.Es/K.Es = tan2θ
⇒ K.Es = P.Es at θ=45o
 Hpole < Hequator because gpole > gequator (H  1/g)
 Tpole < Tequator because gpole > gequator (T  1/g)
 gmoon = 1/6 gearth ⇒ Hmoon = 6 Hearth & Tmoon = 6 Tearth
 T  H max

 Brownian motion: The random motion of particles of fluid.


 Regular motion: Motion which continues constantly e.g motion of earth.

 Force: An agent which accelerates or decelerates an object. Kg.m.s-2


(newton) is the unit of force. Force is categorized as following;
 Contact Forces: Those type of forces which result when two interacting
objects are physically contacting each other, are called contact forces.
For example frictional forces, tensional force, normal forces, air resistance,
spring force and pull or push forces.
 Action – at – a – Distance Forces: Those type of forces which result even
when the two interacting objects are not in physical contact with each other,
are called non – contact forces.
For example gravitational force, electric force, magnetic force, nuclear force,
force due to gravity.
 There are there types of motion in nature i.e translatory, rotatory & vibratory.
 There are four basic force in nature i.e gravitational force, electrostatic force, strong
nuclear force and weak nuclear force.
 If charge on interacting particles remains unchanged during collision, then the
process is termed as scattering.
 Impulsive force acting during collision is internal and hence total P = conserved.
 Pseudo Force: A physically apparent but non-existent force felt by an observer in a
non-inertial frame. (e.g centrifugal force)
 Friction: Independent of surface area. Depends upon nature of material of
surface in contact, roughness, smoothness and inclination.
 Normally friction b/w two smooth bodies is more.
 In practice, 0 < μ < 1 but μ > 1 is observed.
 Note that μstatic > μkinetic > μrolling

 Graph: Presentation of quantities on 2D or 3D coordinate system.


 Equation of circle (with center at origin): x2 + y2 = a2
 Equation of circle (with center at h,k): (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2 a
x2 y 2
 Ellipse:  1
a 2 b2

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x2 y 2
 Hyperbola:  1
a 2 b2
 Rectangular hyperbola: y = 1/x (xy = k)
 Straight line (with +ve intercept on y-axis): y = mx + c
 Straight line (with –ve incept on y-axis): y = mx – c
 Straight line (passing through origin): y = mx

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WORK & ENERGY

 Work: W = F.s = Fs cosθ (if F is constant)


 If 0 ≤θ<90 , then work done will be +ve.
o o

 If 90o<θ≤180o, then work done will be –ve.


 If θ = 90o, then work done will be zero.
 If K.Ef > K.Ei & P.Ef > P.Ei, then W = +ve
 If K.Ef < K.Ei & P.Ef < P.Ei, then W = -ve
 Work done by Fc = 0
 Satellite revolving around the earth and electrons revolving about the
nucleus does no work.
 Work done by force of friction is always negative.
 Work done in lifting a body up (against gravity), W is positive.
 W=0, if the body is in static or dynamic equilibrium.
 In lowering the bucket in well (in the direction of gravity), W is negative.
 Area under the force vs displacement graph is called work.
 In case of spring, W = ½ kx2
 Unit of work: 1J = 1N.1m = 107 erg = 107 dynes.cm (1 erg = 1 dyne cm)
1.36 J = 1 ft.lb & 1kWh = 3600000 J
 Work – Energy theorem: W = ΔK.E = K.Ef – K.Ei

 Conservative Field: Field in which work done is path independent and total work
done along the close path is equal to zero i.e ΔW = 0
 Position dependent forces are conservative e.g gravitational force.
 P.E only exist in conservative field.
 Non – Conservative Field: Field in which work done is path dependent and ΔW≠0
 Velocity dependent forces are non-conservative e.g Fdrag & Fmag.
 Conservative force: Electric force, elastic spring force, gravitational force.
 Non – conservative force: Friction force, air resistance, tension in a string, normal
force, propulsion force of a motor and rocket etc.

 Power:P = E/t = F.s/t = F.v = Fv Cosθ


 Unit of power: 1Watt = 1J/s, 1hp = 746 Watt = 550 ft-lb/sec
 The food we eat in one day has same energy as 0.33 liters of petrol.
 Average power of a man walking upstairs is 0.33 kW.

 Energy: Ability/capacity/capability of a body to do work.


 K.E = ½ mv = P2/2m
2 & P.E = Wh = mgh
 When momentum is increased by 10% then K.E increases by 21%.
⇒ ΔP = 10% then ΔK.E = (10+10) + 1x1 = 20 + 1 = 21%
 When momentum is decreased by 10% then K.E decreases by 19%.
⇒ ΔP = 10% then ΔK.E = (10+10) – 1x1 = 20 – 1 = 19%
 When momentum is increased by 20% then K.E increases by 44%.
⇒ ΔP = 20% then ΔK.E = (20+20) + 2x2 = 40 + 4 = 44%
 When momentum is decreased by 20% then K.E decreases by 36%.
⇒ ΔP = 20% then ΔK.E = (20+20) – 2x2 = 40 – 4 = 36%

 Efficiency: η = Output/input = WxD/Pxd


 Input: effort + distance through which effort acts
 Output: load + distance covered by the load
 Percentage efficiency: η = (output/input) x 100%
 Ideal machine has 100% efficiency i.e output = input

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 Efficiency of automobiles is only around 15% and light bulb is 2% efficient in
lighting and 98% efficient at heating the room.
 Efficiency of petrol engine is 25-30% & diesel engine is 35-40%.
 Efficiency of an electric motor is 95%.

 Absolute gravitational P.E: P.E = -GMm/R


 Absolute Gravitational Potential: U = W/m = -GM/R
 Absolute gravitational force: F = W/R = -GMm/R2 (W=F.R ⇒ F=W/R)
 Absolute gravitational field intensity: g = -GM/R2
 Escape Velocity for earth: vesc = 2GM e = 2 g e Re = 11.20 km/sec
Re

 Escape velocity for moon: vesc = 2GM m = 2 gm Rm = 2.3 km/sec


Rm
 If a body is thrown with a speed less than escape speed, then it will follow a
parabolic path.

 Law of conservation of energy: Total energy remains constant in a process.


 Law of conservation of energy is valid only in classical mechanics.
 P.E loss = K.E gain + work done against friction
 Relation b/w K.E & P.E: K.E = P.E ⇒ v = 2gh
 The moon pulls the land up and down by 0.25m.
 Over 85% of the energy used in the world is from non-renewable supplies.
 Nearly 16% of the world’s electricity is provided by nuclear energy.
 Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) are the most commonly used types of non-
renewable energy sources.
 Wave energy is a stored and concentrated form of solar energy.
 Lignite: The softest coal (about 50% carbon) has the lowest energy output.
 Per annum, 5 billion metric tons of coal is consumed.

 Renewable energy sources: The sun, winds, tides, geothermal, biomass, farm
and animals waste are non-conventional sources of energy and are renewable
sources of energy.
 Mangla Dam on river Jehlum generates about 900 MW.
 Nuclear energy provides 16% of the world’s electricity.
 Temperature at center of earth is approximately 4000oC.
 100 billion watt per year can be obtained from wind energy.

 CNG: Compressed Natural Gas ⇒ Methane (6% contain of ethane, propane


& heavier hydrocarbons)
 LPG: Liquefied Petroleum Gas ⇒ Propane, Butane & isobutene.
 LNG: Liquefied Natural Gas ⇒ 85-95% Methane & 4% Ethane & 1%
Butane & Propane & trace amount of nitrogen.

 Angle of Banking: Tanθ = v2/rg (r = radius of curvature)


 Acceleration on an inclined plane: a = -g sinθ

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ROTATIONAL & CIRCULAR MOTION

 Difference b/w Circular & Rotational Motion:


 Circular motion is a type of rotational motion. All circular motion is
rotational but every rotational motion cannot be circular.
 In circular motion center is fixed while in rotatory motion sometime center is
fixed and sometime varies such as in case of rolling body.
 In rotational motion, the axis of rotation and center of mass could change
whereas in circular motion, the axis of rotation and center of mass does not
change.
 In circular motion, the axis of rotation is inside the body while in rotational
motion, the axis of rotation either passes through the body or lies outside the
body.
 Motion of earth around sun is rotational as well as circular while motion of
earth about its own axis is only rotational.
 Revolution/ orbital motion: Type of rotational motion in which axis of
rotation lies outside the body e.g motion of electron around the nucleus.
 Spin motion: Type of circular motion in which axis of rotation lies inside the
body e.g motion of electron about its own axis.

 Relation b/w linear & rotational displacement: s = θ x r = rθ sinθ


 Relation b/w linear & rotational velocity: v = ω x r = rω sinω
 Relation b/w linear & rotational acceleration: a = α x r = rα sinθ
 Relation b/w linear & rotational force: τ = F x r = rF sinθ
 Relation b/w linear & rotational momentum: L = r x P = rP sinθ
 Relation b/w linear & rotational mass: I = mr2
 W = F.s ⇒ W = τ.θ
 K.E = ½ mv2 ⇒ K.E = ½ Iω2
 P = F.v ⇒ P = τ. ω
 S = vt (proper vector) ⇒ θ = ωt (axial vector)
 vf = vi + at (proper vec) ⇒ ωf = ωi + αt
 S = vit + ½ at2 (proper vec) ⇒ θ = ωit + ½ αt2
 2as = vf2 – vi2 (proper vec) ⇒ 2αθ = ωf2 – ωi2
 v = rω ⇒ v r (ω = constant)
 v = rω ⇒ ω  1/r (v = constant)
 v = rω ⇒ v ω (r = constant)
 ωrot of earth = 2 rad/24 hr = rad / 12 hr
 ωrev of earth = 2 rad/1 year = 2 rad/12 month = rad / 6 month
 ωhour = 2 rad / 12 hr = rad / 6 hr
 ωmint = 2 rad / 60 min = rad / 30 min
 ωsec = 2 rad / 60 sec = rad / 30 sec

 In rotatory motion, the direction of linear velocity is along tangent.


 In rotatory motion, the direction of linear momentum is along tangent.
 The period of circular motion is, T = 2 /ω
 When a body is slowing down then angle b/w its angular velocity & angular
acceleration is 180o.
 In curvilinear motion; F≠0, τ≠0, ac≠0, a≠0, α≠0.
 In uniform circular motion, ac≠0, a=0, α=0, speed=constant
 A body moving in a circle of radius ‘r’ with variable speed ‘v’. The acceleration of the
body is said to be centripetal/tangential/angular acceleration.

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 When a steady torque is acting on a body, the body gets angular acceleration (τ=I α)
 The moment of inertia of a rigid body depends upon mass & distance from axis of
rotation. (I = mr2)

 Centripetal force/ center seeking force: Force which compels a body to move in
circular path or which produces radial acceleration in a body. It is non –
conservative force.
Fc = -mv2/r = - r̂ (mv2/r) = -(mv2/r) r̂ = -(mv2/r) r = -(mv2/r2) r = - (mω2) r
r
2
 Centripetal acceleration: ac = -v2/r = -(r2ω2/r) = -rω2 = vω = v (rˆ)
r
2
2 v
=  v ( r ) =  2 r = -ω2 r
r r r
 Centrifugal force / center fleeing force: Force produced due to inertia of body.
 Centrifugal force always act on the source of centripetal force.
 Roads are banked to balance the centrifugal force and help in taking turns in
high speed given by θ = tan-1 (v2/Rg)

 Moment of inertia is a physical quantity which depends on the axis of rotation, mass
of body and distance from axis of rotation.
 Iring = mr2, v = gh , K.ERot:K.ETran = 1:1
 Idisc = ½ mr2, v= 4 gh , K.ERot:K.ETran = 1:2
3
2
 Isphere = mr2, v = 10 gh , K.ERot:K.ETran = 2:5
5 7
1
 Irod = mr2, v= 3 gh , K.ERot:K.ETran = 1:12
12 2

 Bodies revolving in horizontal circle, tension in string remains constant.


 Bodies revolving in vertical circle, tension in string at the top is less and is given by,
T = m (v2/r – g)
 Bodies revolving in the vertical circle, tension at the bottom is high and is given by,
T = m (v2/r + g)
 Gravitational force on a body at height ‘h’: W = F = GMm/(R+h)2
 GPS (Global positioning system) is a system of 24 satellites which gives us exact
location (position) of a thing on the earth.

 Critical velocity: Minimum required velocity to put satellite into orbit.


 Orbital velocity: Velocity required to put satellite into an orbit (v  1/ r )
 Satellite in higher orbits moves slowly while in lower orbits it moves faster.
 When satellite falls from higher orbit to lower, it gains speed. When it jumps
from lower to higher orbit, it losses speed.
 Critical velocity for a satellite is GM = 7.9 km/sec.
R

 Geostationary / Geosynchronous satellite: These satellites has the same


period as earth i.e take exactly 24 hr to orbit the earth.
 Whole surface of the earth is covered by 3 geostationary satellites each
covers a longitude of 120o.
 Orbital radius measured from center of the earth for geostationary satellite
is, ro = 42300 km.
 Geostationary satellite has an altitude of 22,400 miles (36000 km)
 Orbital speed = 6880 miles per hr (11070 km/hr)

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 Orbital speed of a satellite: vo = GM where ro = R+h
ro
 If vi < vo ⇒ projectile motion
 If vi = vo ⇒ uniform circular motion
 If vo < vi < vesc ⇒ elliptical path
 If vi ≥ vesc ⇒ rectilinear path

 Escape velocity: Initial velocity required to put a satellite out of the earth
gravitational field i.e vesc = 2GM = 2gR
R
 Minimum escape velocity for a body is 11.20 km/sec.
 Relation b/w escape and orbital velocity: vesc = 2 vo
 Time period of a satellite: T = 2 ro/vo where ro=R+h & vo= GM
ro

 Gravity: g depends on planet, altitude, radius, depth.


 gplanet  Rplanet at ρplanet = ρearth = constant
 gplanet  1/Rplanet at Requator = Rpole + 21km
 Requator > Rpole ⇒ gp (spin independent) > geq (spin dependent)
 At height gravity on the satellite: g = g (1 – 2h/R)
 At depth gravity on the satellite: g = g (1 – x/R)
 Gravitation of the earth is due to its heavy mass, not due to spin motion.
 The polar radius of the earth is smaller than its equatorial radius by 21km.
 If earth stops suddenly spinning, the value of ‘g’ across the pole remains constant
but ‘g’ across the equator will increase (geq = gp – acentrifugal)
 The increase in angular velocity of the earth, the value of ‘g’ and weight of a body
will decrease at all places except poles.
 At a height equal to radius of earth (i.e R=h), the weight of a body will decrease with
a fraction of one – forth (1/4).
 If the radius of the earth orbit is doubled, the year on the earth will be 730x 2
days.
 If distance of the earth from the sun is halved (½), then number of days in one year
will be 129.
 The depth at which the value of ‘g’ reduces to one-half (½) of its value on the earth’s
surface is R/2.

 Real weight (W) of a body cannot be zero while apparent weight (T) can be
negative, positive or zero.
 T=W ⇒ Fnet = T – W = 0
i.e body is at rest or moving with uniform motion (a=0)
 T>W ⇒ Fnet = T – W ⇒ T = W + Fnet = mg + ma
i.e body is moving upward uniformly. (if a = g ⇒ T = 2W)
 T<W ⇒ Fnet = W – T ⇒ T = W – Fnet = mg – ma
i.e body is moving downward uniformly.
 T=0 ⇒ Fnet = T – W ⇒ T = W – Fnet = mg – ma = mg – mg
(at a=g) i.e body in free fall motion. T = -ve ⇒ a > g

 Artificial gravity: To produce artificial gravity, the satellite should be rotated or


accelerated with this frequency, f= 1 g
2 r
 Satellites work on microwaves.
 Geostationary satellite is used for communication.
 Polar satellite moves from north to south at an altitude of 600 km.
 Earth rotates from west to east counter clockwise (anti-clockwise).

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FLUID DYNAMICS

 Fluid: The substance which flow and has no resistance to deformation e.g
liquid, gas and plasma.
 Fluid kinematics: The motion of fluid without reference to the external pressure.
 Fluid dynamics: The motion of fluid with reference to the external pressure.
 Viscosity (η): The internal friction b/w two layers of fluid.
 Viscosity of liquids is due to cohesive force (intermolecular force) while viscosity of
gases is due to molecular collision (diffusion).
 η  intermolecular force (in liquid)
 η  1/Temp (in liquid)
 η T (in gases)
 Unit of viscosity: N s m-2 = kg m-1 s-1 or poise = g cm-1 s-1
 Viscosity of air=0.019, water=0.891, benzene=1, blood=1.6, honey=1420.
 Coefficient of viscosity: The numerical value of resistance to the flow of fluid
b/w its different layers.
 Force b/w identical molecules is called cohesive force & force b/w dissimilar
molecules is called adhesive force.

 Drag force/ viscous drag: The retarding/opposing force offered by fluid to a body
moving through it.
 Drag force depends upon size, shape, orientation and relative velocity of the object
and viscosity of the medium.
 For slow speed (Fd  v), For higher speed (Fd  v2)
 Stock’s law: Fd = 6πηrv
It is only valid on slowly moving spherical object having small radius ‘r’.

 Terminal velocity: Maximum uniform velocity attained when the drag


force becomes equal to weight of the body i.e Fnet=0 at Vterminal.
⇒ Fd = W ⇒ 6πηrvT = mg ⇒ vT = mg/6πηr = (g/6πη) (m/r)
mg 2  gr 2
i.e VT = = (m = ρV & V = 4/3 πr3)
6 r 9 
 At terminal velocity, body is at dynamic equilibrium and follow Newton’s 1st
law of motion i.e a=0 (because Δv=0)
 Before achieving terminal velocity, the acceleration decreases.
 The lighter body attains the terminal velocity very soon but having low value
and the heavier body attains the terminal velocity later but having relatively
higher terminal velocity.
 Case I: Two bodies having r=constant but different mass and density
VT  m ⇒ v1/v2 = m1/m2
 Case II: Two bodies having same mass and density but different radii
VT  1/r ⇒ v1/v2 = r2/r1
 Case III: Two bodies having m=constant but different density & radii
VT  r2 ⇒ v1/v2 = r12/r22

 To find the value of r, vT and new volume of a spherical object;


 If 8 drops combined to form one big drop
i.e R=2r ⇒ VT  = 22 VT ⇒ V  = 23 V
 If 27 drops combined to form one big drop

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i.e R=3r ⇒ VT  = 32 VT ⇒ V  = 33 V
 If 64 drops combined to form one big drop
i.e R=4r ⇒ VT  = 42 VT ⇒ V  = 43 V

 Laminar or Streamline flow: If every particle that passes a particular point moves
along exactly the same smooth path followed by previous particle passing that point.
 Laminar flow is steady, regular and non-noisy flow.
 Different streamlines cannot cross each other.
 Turbulent or Chaotic flow: Non-steady, irregular and noisy flow.
 Ideal fluid: Fluid having laminar flow, non-viscous (no internal friction) and
incompressible i.e having constant density.
 Critical velocity: Velocity at which steady flow changes to turbulent/eddy flow.

 Equation of Continuity: For steady state flow, the mass flow into volume
must be equal to mass flow rate out.
i.e A1v1 = A2v2 = Av = Constant
⇒ v  1/A ⇒ v  1/r2 ⇒ v  1/d2
It means larger the cross-section of flow, slower will be its speed & vice versa.
 Equation of continuity is based on law of conservation of mass.
s V
 Av = constant ⇒ Ax =constant ⇒ =constant
t t
i.e Volume flow rate remains constant.
V 1 m
 Av= =constant ⇒ Av= =constant
t  t
i.e mass flow rate constant
V m V
 Av = = constant ⇒ =  = constant
t t t
s m V
 P = F.v = ma x = x a.Δs =  x a.Δs
t t t

 Bernoulli’s Equation: Relationship b/w pressure, flow speed and height for
flow of an ideal fluid is called Bernoulli’s equation.
It is based on law of conservation of energy. It is the equation for motion of fluid.
Mathematically P1 + ½ ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ½ ρv22 + ρgh2
i.e P + ½ ρv2 + ρgh = constant (For horizontal pipes)
mv 2 m
⇒ P + ½ ρv2 + ρgh = constant ⇒ P+½ xo2  x2 v2+ρgh = P+½ + gh
V V
i.e When P=constant then ½ ρv2 + ρgh = constant
 Bernoulli’s equation is used in Plumbing system, hydroelectric generation, flight of
aeroplane, reverse swing, filter pump, engine carburetor, etc.
 Speed and pressure relation: According to Bernoulli, v  1/P

 Torricelli’s Theorem: vefflux = 2gh (For ideal fluid)


But in fact vefflux < 2gh due to friction and viscosity of liquid.
 According to Torricelli, “The velocity of efflux from an opening at depth ‘h’ below the
top surface of liquid is same as the vertical velocity which a body acquire falling
freely through a height ‘h’.

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 Venture meter: Device used to measure rate of flow of liquid in a pipe.


v1 h h
⇒ vefflux  h ⇒  1  1
v2 h2 h2

T1 h h
⇒ T h ⇒  1  1
T2 h2 h2
 Pressure in horizontal pipe: ½ ρ (v22 – v12)
 Net thrust or friction on wings of birds and aeroplane: F= ½ ρA(v22 – v12)

 Rate of flow of liquid: v1 = 2 gh , v2 = 2 gh


 A12   A22 
 2  1 1  2 
 A2   A1 
 Aero-foils or streamline bodies: Devices which are shaped so that the relative
motion b/w it and fluid produces a force perpendicular to flow.
 Fluid flows faster over the top surface than along the bottom which means
streamlines are closer above than below aero-foils which decreases the pressure
above and hence the body is pushed upward because below pressure is same i.e
1atm.
 If A1 > A2 then v2 < v1 then P1 > P 2

 Blood flow meter: Instrument used for measurement of B.P.


 The higher pressure of blood (systolic) for normal human is 120 torr while
the lower (diastolic) is 75 – 80 torr. (1 torr = 332 Pa)
 At systolic pressure = external pressure, the blood flow with high speed but
turbulent flow.
 When external pressure reduces than the diastolic pressure, the blood flow
with low speed but laminar flow.

 Surface tension: F/L (Property of liquid with which the surface behaves as a
stretched membrane & can support small object placed on its surface)
 Surface tension = surface energy
 Surface energy = W.D due to S.T per unit area.
 S.T of pure water = 72 dyne/cm
 S.T decreases with rise in temperature.
 Edges of a glass become round on heating due to S.T.

 Kinematic viscosity: η/ρ (unit = stoke)


 Relative or Specific density: ρ of substance / ρ of water at 4oC
 Pascal Law: P  = (Patm + ΔP) + ρgh
 Archimedes’ Principle: Fb = W of displaced fluid
 If ρbody ≤ ρliquid ⇒ Floating inside ( 2/3 part of body immersed)
 If ρbody < ρliquid ⇒ Floating
 If ρbody > ρliquid ⇒ Sinking

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OSCILLATION

 Oscillation: To and fro movement


 If external factors affect the motion of oscillator due to which its amplitude
decreases. This is damped oscillation.
i.e External damping force ≠ 0, fdaming force ≠ fnatural
 If there are no external factors on an oscillator then its motion continues i.e
amplitude remains same. This is undamped oscillation. i.e external damping
force = 0
 If an oscillator performs motion under natural frequency. This is free
oscillation. i.e fo = fnatural (amplitude = constant)
 If an oscillator performs motion under repeated force. This is forced
oscillation. i.e Fext ≠ 0 ⇒ fo = fforce
 Resonance ⇒ when fforce = fnatural, (At resonance, xo=max)
 Harmonic motion: The repeated movement of a body about an equilibrium
position i.e mean position.
 Periodic motion: Repeated movement of a body about a mean position at
regular intervals i.e oscillation.
 Vibratory motion: To and fro motion of a body about a mean position.
 Vibration: One complete round trip of oscillator.
 Displacement:Distance of oscillator from mean position on either side.
 Amplitude: Maximum distance of oscillator on either side.
 Time period: Time taken to complete one vibration.
 Frequency: No. of vibration completed in one second.
 Angular frequency: No. of revolutions completed in one second. ω=2πf
 To continue oscillation, restoring force and inertia is necessary.
 Differences b/w Vibration & Oscillation:
 If a body performs to & fro motion with low frequency (larger time period)
and high amplitude, it is called oscillation. e.g motion of simple pendulum.
 If a body performs to & fro motion with high frequency and low amplitude, it
is called vibration. e.g motion of string of guitar.

 Hooke’s law: F  x ⇒ F = kx (k = spring/force constant)


 In Hooke’s law, ‘k’ is the measure of stiffness of spring.
 High value of ‘k’ indicates stiff spring or rigid spring.
 Low value of ‘k’ indicated soft spring.
 Young’s Modulus: Y = σ/ε = FL/Ax = kx.L/Ax = kL/A
 K interm of Y: k = YA/L
 Case I: If Y1A = constant, then k  1/L ⇒ k1/k2 = L2/L1
For decreasing length, keq = nk1 & For increasing length, keq = k1/n
 Case II: If Y1L = constant, then k A ⇒ k2/k1 = A2/A1
For increasing area, keq = nk & For increasing r or d, keq = n k
2

 Case III: If A1L = constant, then k Y ⇒ k1/k2 = Y1/Y2


It means the high value of Young’s modulus ensures stiff rings.
 Time period of horizontal oscillation: T = 2π x
g
1 g
 Frequency of horizontal oscillation: f=
2 x
 If spring is cut into half, then ratio b/w their frequency is 1: 2
 If spring is cut into half, then ratio of their time periods is 2 :1

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 Series combination of springs (same k): ks = k/n


 Parallel combination of springs (same k): kp = nk
 If spring is cut into half, then value of spring constant for each part is 2k.
1 k
 Angular frequency of spring: f= ⇒ 2πf = k ⇒ ω= k
2 m m m
 If ω = constant, then k  m ⇒ k1/k2 = m1/m2
m2
 If k = constant, then ω  1 ⇒ ω1/ω2 =
m m1
k1
 If m = constant, then ω  k ⇒ ω1/ω2 =
k2
 SHM: a  -x
 Uniform circular motion and SHM: If a body is in uniform circular motion, then its
projection performs SHM on horizontal or vertical diameter.
 X = Xo cosωt (SHM starts from ‘xo’ on horizontal diameter.
 X = Xo sinωt (SHM starts from ‘O’ on horizontal diameter.
 Y = Y cosωt (SHM starts from ‘xo’ on vertical diameter.
 Y = Yo sinωt (SHM starts from ‘O’ on vertical diameter.
 Equation of velocity for SHM: v = vo sinωt
 At means position (O) i.e x=0, v = ω xo2  x2 ⇒ vmax = ωxo

 At extreme position (xo) i.e x=xo, v=ω xo2  x2 ⇒ vmin = 0

 Equation of K.E for SHM: ½ mv2 = ½ m (ω xo2  x2 )2 = ½ mω2(xo2 – x2)


As mω2 = k, then K.E = ½ k (xo2 – x2)
 At mean position i.e x=0, K.E = ½ kxo2 (maximum)
 At extreme position i.e x=xo, K.E = 0 (minimum)
 Equation of P.E: P.E = ½ kx 2

 At mean position i.e x=0, P.Emin = 0


 At extreme position i.e x=xo, P.Emax = ½ kxo2
 Total energy of SHO: P.E + K.E = ½ kx2 + ½ k(xo2 – x2) = ½ kxo2
i.e E k ⇒ E1/E2 = k1/k2
It means in parallel combination, stiff springs store more energy
2 2
x  A 
⇒ E2/E1 =  o 2    2 
 xo1   A1 
 SHM follows law of conservation of energy because total energy constant.
 Equation of Momentum of SHM: P = mv = mω xo2  x2
 At mean position i.e x=0, Pmax = mωxo
 At extreme position i.e x=xo, Pmin = 0
 Equation of Acceleration of SHM: a = ω x 2

 At x = 0, amin = 0
 At x = xo, amax = ω2xo
 x = xo cosωt 90 [ x = xo cos(ωt - π/6)m ]
 v = vo sinωt 90 180o
 a = - ωxo cosωt 90
 a - ao cosωt
 A body performing SHM, phase difference b/w v & x is 90o i.e v leads x by 90o
 A body performing SHM, phase difference b/w a & v is 90o i.e v lags a by 90o
 For a body performing SHM, phase difference b/w a & x is 180o.

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 Simple Pendulum: Perform SHM for small angle 0o<θ<5o straight.


 Tension = mgcosθ & Restoring force = mgsinθ
 T = 2π l ⇒ T≈L
g
Re
 When L=Re, ⇒ T = 2π = 84 min 36 sec
g
Re
 When L=R/2, ⇒ T = 2π = 60 min (1 hour)
2g
 When simple pendulum moving in lift upward with uniform ‘a’, then
T = 2π l
ga
 When simple pendulum moving in lift downward with uniform ‘a’, then
T = 2π l
g a
 When simple pendulum in free fall lift as satellite, T = ∞ (a=g)
 When simple pendulum in train performing uniform circular motion then
T = 2π l
ac2  g 2
 When simple pendulum in train accelerating or decelerating with ‘a’ then
T = 2π l
a2  g 2
 Time period depends on the amplitude when angle > 23o
 Tpole < Tequator because gpole > gequator
 Tmount everest > Tearth surface because T 1
g
 If length of simple pendulum is increased by 300% then T = 100%
i.e L  = L + 300% L = L + 3L = 4L & T  = 2T
T T
⇒ % ΔT = x 100%
T
 If length is increased by 44% then T = 20%
 T increases with increase in temperature.
 Spring pendulum, T = 2π M (no effect of g on T)
k

 Conical pendulum, T = 2π h
g

 Physical pendulum, T = 2π I
mgl

 Torsional pendulum, T = 2π I
k

 Phase: It tells us about magnitude and direction of displacement of an oscillator.


x = xo cosθ, x = xo cos (ωt + φ)

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PHYSICS BY TOM AD_MAN
WAVES

 Waves: Energy/momentum carriers. Cannot transfer matter/mass.


 Mechanical waves: Waves produced by mechanical work, medium dependent and
their motion is governed by Newton’s laws.
 Electromagnetic waves: Waves produced by vibrating (accelerating or
decelerating) charges, medium independent and their motion is governed by
Maxwell’s equation.
 Matter waves: Waves associated with moving particles (motion of particles),
medium independent. e.g De-Broglie waves
 Periodic waves: A source oscillating periodically in a medium, vibrate the
particles of the medium with same amplitude and frequency periodically.
 Standing or Stationary waves: Energy is trapped b/w nodes.
 Progressive or travelling waves: Waves carry energy from one place to another i.e
transverse and longitudinal.
 Transverse waves: Oscillation of the particles of the medium perpendicular
to the direction of propagation of waves i.e crest and trough. e.g light wave, T.V,
radio and mobile phone signals.
 Longitudinal waves: Oscillation of the particles of the medium parallel to the
direction of propagation of waves i.e compression and rarefaction. e.g Spring waves,
sound waves, seismic waves.
 Compression: The portion of the medium where particles are overcrowded.
 Rarefaction: The portion of the medium where particles are least
overcrowded.
 Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.
 Mechanical transverse waves can only setup in solids and on the surface of the
liquids while cannot propagate through gases.
 Mechanical waves move faster in solids > liquids > gases.
 e.m waves move faster in vacuum > air > liquid > solid.
 Necessary conditions for propagation of waves:
 The medium must be elastic.
 The particles of the medium should not be independent of each other.

 Wave speed: Distance traveled by a wave per unit time.


 Speed of transverse waves in elastic string or spring is given by; v = T L
M
= T Where m = M & T = Tension
m L
 Speed of transverse waves in well stretched and thin string is greater as compared
to loosely thick one.
 Speed of longitudinal waves = E where E is elasticity and ρ is the density

of the medium.
 Longitudinal waves (sound) travel more slowly in gas than in solids.

 Frequency of Waves: No. of waves passing certain point in unit time.


Frequency is the characteristic of the medium and is independent of the medium i.e
f = v/λ
 Frequency in sound determines pitch while in light determines color.
 When the speed of the waves increases, its λ also increase and hence frequency
remains the same.
 When transverse waves (light) enters from rare to denser medium, then its speed
increases and hence frequency remain same and vice versa.

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 When longitudinal waves (sound) enters from rare to denser medium, its speed and
wavelength also increases and hence frequency remains the same and vice versa.

 Wavelength: Distance b/w two successive particles which are exactly in the
same state of vibration.
 Time period: Duration which a wave passes through certain point.
 Amplitude: Maximum displacement from mean position.
 Intensity of wave: Energy transmitted per second per unit area placed
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of waves.
E  E  1 Power
i.e I=    J m-2 s-1 = (J/s) m-2 = Watt.m-2
tA  t  A Area
 Relation among λ, v & f: v = fλ or c = fλ
 All e.m waves have same speed because c = fλ
 Relation among intensity, amplitude, tension, speed of transverse wave;
 Intensity  λ ⇒ Intensity  v, Intensity  A2 (amplitude)
 Velocity  T , v 1 , v  1/r, v  1/d
A
 Phase: It is the state of oscillator.
 Phase difference: Difference b/w initial positions of oscillator.
 Relation b/w Phase difference and Path difference:
2
Phase Difference = x Path difference.

 Coherent Source: Same frequency, comparable amplitude, constant phase


difference waves producing sources are called coherent sources.
 Superposition is only possible for two comparable amplitude waves.
 vsolid = 5000 m/s, vliquid = 1400 m/s, vgas = 330 m/s
 At 0 C (273K), the speed of sound in air is 330 m/s.
o

 At 819oC (1092K), the speed of sound in air becomes double.


 According to Newton, propagation of sound wave through air is an isothermal
process. PV = constant at T = constant
Boyle law ⇒ Theoretical value is 281 m/s which is 16% less than actual value.
Under isothermal condition, E=P
E P  gh
Hence vNewton =    gh = 281 m/s at 0oC
  
 According to Laplace, propagation of sound wave through air is an adiabatic
process. PVr = constant
Boyle’s law is not applicable.
Under adiabatic condition, E = rP where r = Cp/Cv (r = 1.41 for air)
E rP r  gh
Hence vLaplace =    rgh = 333 m/s
  
 vLaplace = 2 vNewton

 Factors affecting speed of sound waves in air;


 v 1 (For gases only)

 v  moisture because moisture decreases the resultant density of air and
increases the elasticity.
 Pressure has no effect on the speed of sound.
 RT
 Speed of Sound in Ideal Gas/Air: v=
M
where M = molarity & R = gas constant

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v1 M2
 When T = constant, then v 1 ⇒ 
M v2 M1
v1 T
 When M = constant, then v  T ⇒  1
v2 T2
 Speed of sound in increasing temp; (oC): v2 = v1 + 0.61 ΔT oC
 Speed of sound in decreasing temp; (oC): v2 = v1 – 0.61 ΔT oC
 For each 1oC rise in temp, speed of sound increases by 0.61 m/s.
 For each 1oC fall in temp, speed of sound decreases by 0.61 m/s.
 Speed of Sound in Wind: Speed of sound in the direction of wind is v+vw while in
direction opposite to the wind is v-vw. (vw = speed of wind)

 Superposition: Overlapping of waves.


 Principle of superposition: When waves overlap, the amplitude of the resultant
wave is the vector sum of amplitude of individual waves i.e y = y1 + y2 + y3 +
………………+ yn.
 Principle of superposition is only applicable for equal or comparable
amplitudes.
 When waves overlap, then speed, wavelength, frequency and phase
(direction of motion) are not affected.

 Interference (superposition phenomenon in space): Same frequency + same


direction.
 Beats (Superposition phenomenon in time): Slightly different frequencies +
same direction.
 Standing waves: Same frequency + opposite direction.

 Interference: Overlapping of waves from coherent sources passing through


the same region in the same time.
 Constructive interference: Increase in the amplitude of resultant wave,
when two coherent sources waves arrive at the same place in the same time
in phase.
Condition for complete constructive interference: P.d = mλ
Then Path difference = 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ, 4λ,…… (m=0,1,2,…)
 Destructive interference: Decrease in the amplitude of resultant wave,
when two coherent source waves arrive at 180 (out of phase) at the same
place in same time.
Condition for complete destructive interference: P.d = (m+½)λ
Then Path difference = λ/2, 3λ/2, 5λ/2, 7λ/2,…….

 Beats (N≤10 Hz): Periodic alternation b/w maximum and minimum


± N = f2 – f1 i.e No. of beats is equal to difference in frequencies.
⇒ f2 = f1 ± N i.e In loading, frequency decreases.
 Uses of Beats: Produces variety in music, tuning (adjusting pitch of one or
more tones) of musical instruments and finding unknown frequency.
 Interference of Sound waves: Overlapping of sound waves from two coherent
sources, passing through the same region in same time.
 Reflection of waves and Phase changes: When waves is reflected from denser
medium, there is a phase change of 180 (π radian) but when waves is reflected
o

from rare medium, if suffers no phase change.


 For regular reflection of sound waves, the smooth and flat surfaces are required.
 Echo (Resound): When d≥17m, then reflected sound waves will be received
after 0.1s of original sound.

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 Reverberation: When d<17m, then reflected sound waves will be received
before 0.1s of original sound. It will not be distinguished and cause confusion.

 Standing/Stationary Waves: Wave obtained when two plane waves of same


amplitude and frequency traveling with same speed in opposite direction along line
are superposed. They do not transmit energy.
 Characteristics of Standing waves:
 No net energy transfer.
 All particles except nodes perform SHM.
 Node (N) remains at rest and fixed.
 Antinode (A) oscillates with maximum displacement.
 There are no two constructive nodes or antinodes.
 Distance b/w node and node is λ/2.
 Distance b/w node and antinode is λ/4.
 At node, displacement=0, density=min, strain & pressure=max
 At antinode, displacement & density=max, strain & pressure=min
 Nodes of transverse or longitudinal oscillation in standing waves in a stretched
string or spring
 fn = nf 1 where n=1,2,3,……….. & f1 = v/2L (fundamental f,
1 harmonic)
st

 f2 = 2f1 ⇒ f2 = 2 (v/2L), (2nd harmonic, 1st overtone)


 f3 = 3f 1 ⇒ f3 = 3 (v/2L), (3rd harmonic, 2nd overtone)
 Harmonic: No. of loops or no. of half λ
 Fundamental frequency: Least characteristic frequency of vibration of f1. It is also
called 1 harmonic.
st

 Overtones / Harmonic: Any frequency above fundamental frequency.


 When string vibrates in more loops, frequency increases while wavelength
decreases.

 Organ pipe: Instrument that produces sound by mean of vibrating air column.
 Open Organ Pipe: Open at both ends.
 Open end is a seat of nodes.
 No phase change at open end.
 Fundamental frequency of open organ pipe is f1 = v/2L
 fn = nf 1 ⇒ fn = n (v/2L) where n = 1,2,3,4,…….
f2 = 2f 1 ⇒ f2 = 2 (v/2L)
f3 = 3f1 ⇒ f3 = 3 (v/2L)
f4 = 4f1 ⇒ f4 = 4 (v/2L)
 All frequencies i.e odd and even are present in open organ pipe.
 Open organ pipe is richer in harmonics/frequencies than close organ pipe of
same length.
 Produces shrill sound.
 Close Organ Pipe: Open at one end and close at other end.
 Close end is a seat of nodes.
 Phase change of 180 at close end.
 Fundamental frequency of close organ pipe is f1 = v/4L
 fn = (2n – 1)f1⇒ (2n – 1) (v/4L) n = 1,2,3,……
f2 = 3f 1 ⇒ f2 = 3 (v/4L)
f3 = 5f1 ⇒ f3 = 5 (v/4L)
f4 = 7f1 ⇒ f4 = 7 (v/4L)
 Only odd frequencies are present in close organ pipe.
 Close organ pipe is lesser in harmonics/frequencies than open organ pipe of
same length.
 Produces grave sound.

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 Doppler’s Effect: The apparent change in the frequency due to relative motion of
source of sound waves and listener. (John Doppler in 1842)
 When the distance b/w source and listener decreases, the frequency
increases and pitch of sound is high.
 When the distance b/w source and listener increases, the frequency
decreases and pitch of sound is low.
 When the source is moving towards the stationary listener:
 v 
f f ⇒ f  >>> f
va
 When the source is moving away from the stationary listener:
 v 
f f ⇒ f  <<< f
va
 When the listener moving towards the stationary source:
vb
f f ⇒ f  >>> f
 v 
 When the listener moving away from the stationary source:
 vb 
f f ⇒ f  <<< f
 v 
 When listener and source both are moving towards each other:
 vb 
f f ⇒ f  >>> f
va
 When listener and source both are moving away from each other:
 v b 
f f ⇒ f  <<< f
va
 If source or listener moves with a velocity greater than velocity of sound then
Doppler effect cannot be applied.

 Audible Frequency: The frequency of sound which can be heard by human ear i.e
b/w 20 Hz – 20 kHz.
 Ultrasonic; f > 20 kHz
 Infrasonic; f < 20 Hz
 Ultrasonic is used in cavitation, drugs, medical diagnosis etc.
 Polarization is common in both sound and light waves.
 Reflection of radar waves from an aeroplane is an example of Doppler’s effect.

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PHYSICAL OPTICS

 Physical Optics: Study of wave nature of light.


 The phenomenon of reflection and refraction were studied by Alhozen.
 In 1873, Maxwell showed that light are e.m waves in which electric and magnetic
fields vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation of waves.
 Velocity of light in vacuum is 3x108 m/s. Light is e.m wave.

 Wave like properties of Light: Reflection, refraction, diffraction, interference


and polarization of light shows wave nature of light.
 Particle like properties of light: Photoelectric effect and Compton’s effect shows
particle nature of light.
 Dual nature: Light has dual nature i.e sometimes it behaves like wave (reflection,
etc) & sometimes like particle (photoelectric effect, etc).
 Albert Einstein suggested that light has dual nature. He also discovered the particle
nature of light.
 Wave nature of light was discovered by Thomas Young.
 Electromagnetic nature of light was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell.
Louis de Broglie discovered the wave nature of electron.

 Wave front: A surface of constant phase i.e all the points lying on the surface have
the same state of vibration and phase.
 Spherical wave front: A surface of the sphere having constant phase because
light travels in 3D.
 Circular wave front: A surface of the circle having constant phase or
the portion of the spherical wave.
 Plane wave front: A straight portion of special wave front when we
move away from the source.

 Rays: The arrows drawn from the source to indicate the direction of wave
front. They are always perpendicular to the wave fronts.
 Coherent Sources: Source which produces waves of same frequency, equal or
comparable amplitude and zero or constant phase difference.
 Monochromatic or single color light is specified by a single wavelength.
We get coherent waves by two methods:
 Division of wave fronts: Young double slit experiment, Fresnt’s by-prism,
Lioyld’s mirror.
 Division of amplitudes: Michelson interferometer, thin film interference,
Newton’s rings.

 Huygen’s Principle: It explains wave propagation.


 1st part: Every point of a wave front may be considered as a source of
secondary spherical wavelet, which propagates in the forward direction with
a speed equal to the speed of propagation of the wave.
 2nd part: New position of the wave front can be found by drawing a
tangential plane of secondary wavelet.

 Interference of Light: Effect produced when two or more than two light waves from
two coherent source passing through the same region, superimpose each other.
 Conditions to observe interference of light:
 Light wave must come from two coherent sources.
 Amplitude of waves must be equal or comparable.
 Light waves should be perfectly monochromatic.

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 Path difference of the light wave from two sources must be small.
 Principle of linear superposition should be applicable.
 Constructive interference of Light: Bright fringes observed when two
coherent waves of light meet in phase in the same region of space and reinforce the
effect of each other.
 All those points where phase difference b/w two sets of light waves is 0, 2π,
4π, 6π, 8π, 10π,………… from two coherent sources, then constructive
interference will take place.
 All the points where the path difference b/w two sets of light waves is 0, λ,
2λ, 3λ, 4λ,……….. from two coherent sources, then constructive interference
will take place.
 Condition for Constructive Interference of Light: d = mλ (m = 0,1,2,.…)
 Destructive Interference of Light: Dark fringes observed when two waves of light
of same frequency and comparable amplitudes meet out of the phase (at 180) in the
same region of space and cancel the effect of each other.
 All those points where phase difference b/w two sets of light waves is π, 3π,
5π, 7π, 9π,………… then destructive interference will occur.
 All those points where path difference b/w two sets of light waves is λ/2,
3λ/2, 5λ/2, 7λ/2,….... then destructive interference will occur.
 Conditions for Destructive Interference of Light: d = (m + ½)λ
 When aircraft passes at low height, then communication problems and distortion of
the picture on T.V receiver takes place because the waves from antenna to receiving
aerials are partially destructive interfere with the waves reflected from aircrafts.

 Young’s Double Slit Experiment: Describe wave nature of light. It is based on the
principle of wave front division of same monochromatic light (Thomas Young 1801)
 Condition for Constructive Interference: dsinθ = mλ
Where d = distance b/w slits & m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4,………..
 Condition for Destructive Interference: dsinθ = (m + ½)λ
 Position of Bright Fringes: YB = m λL/d
Y1 m1 Y1 1
⇒  ⇒ 
Y2 m2 Y2 2
 Position of Dark Fringes: YD = (m + ½) λL/d
 Fringe spacing or fringe width: Distance b/w two consecutive bright or
dark fringes i.e ΔY = λL/d
Y1 d 2
⇒ ΔY  λ ⇒ 
Y2 d1
Y1 L1
⇒ ΔY  L ⇒ 
Y2 L2
Y1 d 2
⇒ ΔY  1/d ⇒ 
Y2 d1
 Bright and dark fringes are of equal width.
 If Young’s double slit experiment setup is immersed in water, then fringes
width decreases because wavelength decreases.
 If we use white light in Young’s double slit experiment, we obtain the
coloured interference.
 If L = 2L (double) ⇒ ΔY = 2ΔY i.e double
 If d = 2d (double) ⇒ ΔY = ½ ΔY i.e half
 If d = 2d & l = 2L ⇒ ΔY = ΔY i.e not affected.

 Refractive Index: Ratio of speed of light in vacuum to speed of light in material


i.e n = c/v

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 When wave travels from a medium of lower ‘n’ to medium of higher ‘n’, it
undergoes a phase change of 180 (π rad) after reflection.
 When waves travels from a medium of higher ‘n’ to medium of lower ‘n’, it
suffers no phase change after reflection.
 Fringes width in Young’s double slit experiment for material of refractive index ‘n’ is
ΔYn = ΔY/n

 Thin Film Interference: Thickness of film ≈ λ of light (in μm – nm)


 The principle of interference through thin film is based on the division of
amplitude by using partial reflection and transmission at the boundary of
two media.
 Bands of colour on the surface of only water and soap bubbles are the
example of interference through thin film.
 Path difference b/w two rays of thin film interference = 2t + λn/2
 Factors affecting path difference b/w two rays in thin film interference are
thickness and nature of the film, n and <i.
 When white light incident on a thin film of irregular thickness, at all possible
angles, we will observe interference pattern.
 Conditions for Constructive interference in thin film interference:
2t + λn/2 = mλn where m = 0,1,2,3,4,5,……. & λn = λ/n
 Formula for finding thickness of film during constructive interference:
2t = (m – ½) λn
 Condition for destructive interference in thin film interference:
2t + λn/2 = (m + ½)λn where m = 0,1,2,3,4,5,……. & λn = λ/n
 Formula for finding thickness of film during destructive interference:
2t = mλn
 Applications of thin film interference:
 To find the film thickness.
 To find order of fringes (no. of fringes)
 To find wavelength of light.
 To find refractive index of a medium.

 Michelson’s Interferometer: Two mirror i.e M1 (movable) & M2 (fixed).


Two glass plates A (slightly silvered) and B (non-silvered).
 It is used to study interference of light waves & wavelength of light.
 Conditions for Constructive interference in Michelson’s interferometer:
d = mλ where m = 1,2,3,4,5,…………
 Conditions for Destructive interference in Michelson’s interferometer:
d = (m + ½)λ
 If we move movable mirror by distance λ/2 each time, then total path
difference becomes equal to integral multiple of wavelength and hence
alternate bright or alternate dark fringes are appeared.
 If we move movable mirror by distance λ/2 each time, then total path
difference b/w two beams becomes equal to half or integral multiple of
wavelength and hence alternate bright and dark fringes are appeared.
 Formula for finding the wavelength of light through Michelson’s interferometer:
λ = 2P/m where P = distance in mm through which movable
mirror is moved and m = total no. of fringes

 Diffraction of Light: Bending of light waves around the corners of obstacle or


spreading of light into the region behind an obstacle.
 Condition for Diffraction:
 Size of obstacle/slit ≈ wavelength of light
 Diffraction occurs in all types of waves.

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 All fringes do not have same intensity because I  (Amplitude)2
 The intensity and width of bright fringes is maximum at the center of screen
but decreases as we move away from the center of screen.
 The intensity and width of dark fringes is minimum at the center of screen
but increases as we move away from the center of screen.
 X – rays are not diffracted by slit but diffracted by crystals.
 Due to diffraction, clear shadow of the object is not casted.
 Due to diffraction, we get light in the rooms/halls.
 Types of Experiments to show Diffraction:
 Fresnel’s diffraction (Near field diffraction)
 Fraunhofer diffraction (Far field diffraction ⇒ plane waves)
 Fraunhofer’s diffraction at a single slit: Diffraction of light produced by narrow
slit when plane light waves are incident normally on the slit and light waves
emerging from the slit are also plane.
 Conditions for Destructive interference in Fraunhofer diffraction: dsinθ=mλ
where m ≠ 0 but m = 1,2,3,4,5,………
⇒ sinθ = mλ/d where d = size of the slit/obstacle
 X – rays are diffracted by crystals and obey Bragg’s law.
 Structure of hemoglobin, DNA, crystals etc is find through x-ray diffraction.
 Diffraction Grating: A transparent glass or plastic plate (L=2-3cm & W=2-3mm)
on which a large no. of parallel equally spaced opaque lines are drawn.
d sinθ = mλ where m=0,1,2,3,….. & d = separation b/w two slits
d is known as grating element and is defined as unit length of the grating
unit length of grating
⇒ d=
total no. of lines ruled on it

 Bragg’s law: 2d sinθ = mλ where m = 1,2,3,4,5,……….. & d = atomic layer spacing

 Polarization of Light: Process by which electric and magnetic vibrations of


light is restricted to a single plane of vibration.
 Polarization is the property of transverse waves only.
 Sound waves, spring waves, seismic waves etc cannot be polarized.
 Metallic surfaces cannot cause polarization but dielectric surfaces can
produce polarization.
 Polarized light: Beam of light having vibration along one particular direction. It
can be obtained by selective absorption, reflection from surface, refraction through
crystals and scattering by tiny particles.
 Polarization of Light by Selective Absorption: Most common method to get plane
polarized light Polaroid crystals called dichroic substance (made up of tiny crystals
of quinine iodosulphate).
 Quinine iodosulphate transit all the vibrations parallel to its crystallographic
axis while absorbs all the remaining vibrations.
 Polarization by Reflection: When un-polarized light falls on glass, water etc, the
reflected light is partially plane polarized.
 Angle of Polarization: Angle of incidence at which angle of reflection becomes
at right angle (90) to angle of refraction.
 Brewster’s angle or angle of polarization: If reflected wave (light) is completely
polarized, then angle b/w reflected and refracted light is 90.
 Brewster’s law: tanθp = n ⇒ θ = tan-1 n (n = refractive index)
i. For glass of n=1.55, the angle of polarization = 57 o

 Application of Polarized Light:


 We cannot see the roads, water etc clearly in the sunny days because of
partially polarization due to reflection. Thus to reduce glare, we use
polarizing materials.

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 Optical activity: Rotation of vibration of transmitted polarized light.
 Angle of rotation depends on the concentration of liquids.
i.e angle of rotation  con; of solution
 Polarimeter: Instrument used to measure conc; of solution.
 Safe driving of car is possible at night due to polarizing headlight and
polarized light viewer.
 When glass, polythene and plastic are stressed, they become doubly refracted
and in white light, coloured fringes are seen around region of strain called
photo-elasticity.
 Photo-elasticity is used to analyze stresses in plastics.
 Polarized sun glasses are used to reduce the glare due to reflection of
polarized light from water and roads.

 The minimum distance b/w an object and its real image in case of a concave mirror
is 2f.
 An object should be placed b/w F & 2F in front of a convex lens so that to obtain the
image formed on the slide projector.
 An object is placed in front of a converging lens at a distance greater than twice the
focal length of the lens. The image obtained is real, inverted and diminished.
 An object is situated at a distance of f/2 from a convex lens of focal length f. The
distance of image will be -1/f.
 A man is 10 feet away from a plane mirror. His distance from his image will be 20
feet.
 A six feet tall lady wants to see her full image in a plane mirror. The minimum length
of the mirror will be 3 feet i.e half of her height.

 Critical Angle (C): When θr = 90o then θi = C


 Total internal reflection: θi > C
 Diffusion: Reflection from a rough surface (such as wall)

 Defects of Vision: Short sightedness (myopia), far sightedness (hypermetropia),


presbyopia, astigmatism & colour blindness.
 Myopia: Only near object can be seen. (concave lens)
 Hypermetropia: Only far objects can be seen. (convex lens)
 Presbyopia: Neither near nor far objects can be seen. (bifocal lens)
 Astigmatism: Objects seen are blurred. (special cylindrical lens)
 Colour blindness: Cannot differentiate b/w colours. (Remedy is not available)

 Least distance of distinct vision: 25 cm


 Resolving power of eye: 1/60o or 1 min
 Dispersion: Splitting of a complex colour into its constituent colours.
 Focal length of a lens increases when it is immersed in water.
 <Dmin is minimum for red and maximum for violet colour.
 <Deviation depends upon angle of prism, <i & colour of light used.

 Focal; lDispersion: the minimum distance between an object and its
real image in case of a conc

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THERMODYNAMICS

 Thermodynamics: Study of laws of transformation of heat into other forms


of energy. The mode of transfer of heat is Radiation.
 Thermal Equilibrium: Bodies at same temperature in which net exchange of
heat is zero.
 Temperature: Measure of degree of hotness or coldness of a substance.
OR The measure of average K.E of molecules of a substance.
OR The physical property that determines that whether body will be in thermal
equilibrium with other.
 Heat: Energy that flow from one body to another due to difference in
temperature. It is an invisible fluid which flows always from a body of high
temperature to a body at low temperature.
 Heat is energy in transit and never contained by a body.
 Heat added to a body is taken as +ve while heat removed is –ve.

 Work: Work is done when a system as a whole expands or contracts i.e


ΔW = PΔV = P (Vf – Vi)
 If Vf > Vi then ΔV increases i.e expansion
 If Vf < Vi then ΔV decreases i.e compression
 If ΔW = +ve i.e work done by the system
 If ΔW = -ve i.e work done on the system
 Both heat and work raise the temperature but heat flow requires temperature
difference while work done requires overall displacement of the body.
 Joule’s law (1845) of heat & Work Equivalency: W = JQ
Where J = 4.18 J/cal (J = mechanical equivalent of heat)
 Mechanical equivalent of Heat: Ratio of work done in joules to heat produced in
calories. It has no unit & dimension i.e J=W/Q (J/J=1)

 Internal Energy (U): Sum of all K.E & P.E associated with random motion of
atoms.
 U = +ve ⇒ When T increases due to increase in ΔQ = +ve & ΔW = -
ve
 U = -ve ⇒ When T decreases due to decrease in ΔQ = -ve & ΔW =
+ve

 System: Part of universe under scientific observation


 Surroundings: Universe other than system
 Boundary: Imaginary line or surface which separates the system and
surroundings.
 Open system: Mass flow, work & heat
 Close system: No mass flow but work & heat
 Mechanically isolated system: No mass flow and work, only heat
 Thermally isolated system: No mass flow and heat, only work
 Isolated system: No mass flow, heat & work

 State functions/ State variables/ Thermodynamics functions/ Thermodynamics


variables: Physical quantities which describe the state of the system.
They are path independent but only depends on initial and final state e.g P, V, T,
U, ΔS, C, H, etc.

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 Thermodynamic state: State of the system interms of specified value of
P,V,T,C,ΔV, etc.
 Thermodynamic process: Any change in state variables.
 Equation of state of system: Relation b/w state variables but only applicable
for ideal and homogeneous gases. It is not applicable for solids, liquids and non-
homogeneous gases.
i.e PV = nRT
 If n & V are constant, then P  T ⇒ P = KT ⇒ P1/P2 = T1/T2
 If n & T are constant, then PV = constant ⇒ P1/P2 = V2/V1
 If n & P are constant, then V  T ⇒ V = KT ⇒ V1/V2 = T1/T2
 If V & T are constant, then P  n ⇒ P = Kn ⇒ P1/P2 = n1/n2

 1st Law of Thermodynamics: Heat given to the system is used to increase


internal energy + work done by the system on surroundings.
i.e ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW ⇒ ΔU = ΔQ – ΔW
 It is based on law of conservation of energy.
 In cyclic process, heat given to the system is only used in work done by
the system because in cyclic process ΔU = 0
 Principle of conservation of energy, existence of internal energy (U) as a
state variable and definition of heat as energy in transit are consequences
of 1st law of thermodynamics.

 Isochoric Process: Volume of system remains constant.


i.e ΔQ = ΔU + PΔV ⇒ ΔQ = ΔU (ΔV = 0)
 Graph of isochoric process is called isochor and is parallel to pressure axis.
 Isobaric Process: Pressure of system remains constant.
i.e ΔQ = ΔU + PΔV ⇒ ΔQ = ΔU + nRT
 Graph of isobaric process is called isobar and is parallel to volume axis.
 Isothermal Process: Temperature of system remains constant.
i.e ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW ⇒ ΔQ = ΔW (ΔU = 0)
 Melting and boiling are examples of isothermal process.
 Specific heat in isothermal process is directly proportional to work done.
 Adiabatic Process: Heat of system remains constant.
i.e 0 = ΔU + ΔW ⇒ ΔU = - ΔW ⇒ ΔW = - ΔU
 Process performed quickly is known as adiabatic process.
 Specific heat in an adiabatic process is zero.

 Heat Capacity: Amount of heat required to raise temperature of given mass of


substance by 1oC / 1K. (C = ΔQ/ΔT)
 Specific Heat Capacity: Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg
of a substance by 1oC/1K. (Cm = C/m = ΔQ/mΔT)
 Specific heat of H2 is maximum i.e 3.5 cal g-1 oC-1 = 14651 J/kg.oC
 Minimum for Radon i.e 0.22 cal g-1 oC-1 = 924 J/kg.oC
 At low temperature, C  T3
 At high temperature, C T
 Latent heat of fusion (Enthalpy of fusion) of ice: Lf = 80 cal = 334 x 103 Jkg-1
 Latent heat of vaporization of water: Lv = 540 cal = 2260 K JKg-1 = 40.8 KJ/mol
 Heat of Solidification: Heat liberated by a unit mass of liquid at its freezing
point as it solidifies which is equal to the heat of fusion.
 Conversion of solid directly into gas (vapor) is called sublimation.
 Conversion of gas into solid is called deposition (Hoar frost).

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 Freezing of clouds is an example of hoar frost.
 Molar Heat Capacity: Amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 mole of a substance by 1oC/1K. (Cm = ΔQ/nΔT)
 Constant volume molar specific heat capacity: ΔQv = nCvΔT
⇒ Cv = ΔQv/nΔT (Fails in adiabatic process)
 Constant pressure molar specific heat capacity: ΔQp = nCpΔT
⇒ Cp = ΔQp/nΔT (Fails in adiabatic process)
 Specific heat of fusion of water at 0oC is 334 kJ (79.7 cal/gm) and specific heat of
vaporization of water at 100oC is 2230 kJ (533 cl/gm).
 The transformation of solid into gaseous state is called sublimation while the
transformation of gas into solid is called deposition.
 Different forms of Cv: Cv = ΔQv/nΔT = ΔU/nΔT
 Different forms of Cp: Cp = ΔQp/nΔT = ΔW+ΔU/nΔT = PΔV+ΔU/nΔT
𝛥𝑈
= nRΔT+ΔU/nΔT = R + 𝑛𝛥𝑇
 Cp > Cv because external work is also performed when gas expands at
constant pressure.
 Cp – Cv = R Where R is universal gas constant = 8.315 J mol-1 K-1
 Cp/Cv = γ i.e Cp is greater than Cv by γ times.

 Reversible Process: Process that can be retraced in reverse direction


without producing any change in environment e.g very slow process, slow
compression and expansion of gas, etc.
 Irreversible Process: Process that cannot be retraced in reverse direction.
 All processes occur suddenly, involve friction or loss of energy, explosion are
reversible processes.
 In reversible process, entropy of the system remain constant.
 In irreversible process, entropy of universe increases.
 Cyclic Process: Series of process which brings the system back to its initial
state.
 In cyclic process ΔU = 0

 Heat Engine: Device which converts heat into mechanical energy.


 Heat reservoir (HTR) or Heat Source: Large reservoir at higher
temperature (T1) and its T is constant.
 Cold reservoir (LTR) or Heat Sink: Large reservoir at low
temperature (T2) and its T is constant.
 Gas is used as working substance in the heat engine.
 Efficiency of Heat Engine: Ratio of work done by engine to heat absorbed
by engine i.e η = Q1 – Q2/Q1 = 1 – Q2/Q1 = 1 – T2/T1
 If Q2=0, then all heat energy is converted into work and the engine shows
100% efficiency which is impossible. So Q2 cannot be zero.
 Percentage efficiency = (1 – Q2/Q1) x 100% = (1 – T2/T1) x 100%
 Efficiency of heat engine only depends on Q2 or T2 (η ∝ 1⁄𝑄 )
 Work performed by heat engine is less than heat energy absorbed, or
output is always less than input, or efficiency of heat engine is always less
than 100%.

 Lord Kelvin Statement of 2nd Law of Thermodynamics: It is impossible to


construct heat engine whose efficiency is 100% or whose output is equal to its
input.

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 Rudolf Clauius Statement of 2nd Law of Thermodynamics: It is impossible to
make heat flow from LTR (cold body) to HTR (hot body) without external work.
 Carnot Heat Engine: An ideal heat engine whose efficiency is 100%.
 Efficiency of actual engine is always less than Carnot heat engine.
 Efficiency of Carnot engine depends on temperature of LTR and HTR.
 Petrol engine was invented by Nikdlus Otto in 1876 while diesel engine
by R. Diesel in 1892.
 Efficiency of diesel engine = 35 – 40% & petrol = 25 – 30%
 It undergoes isothermal expansion, adiabatic expansion, isothermal compression
and adiabatic compression. Carnot engine is a reversible engine.

 Refrigerator/Heat Pump: Device in which working substance perform


opposite to the heat engine.
 Heat Pump: When refrigerator is used for heating in winter.
 Coefficient of performance for cooling / cooling energy ratio of refrigerator:
η = Q2/W = Q2/Q1 – Q2 = Q2/Q1 – 1 = T2/T1 – 1
 Coefficient of performance for heating / Heating energy ratio of refrigerator:
η = Q1/W = Q1/Q2 – Q1 = Q1/Q2 – 1 = T1/T2 – 1

 Entropy: Measure of disorderness of a state of a system OR the


unavailability of energy of a system due to thermal equilibrium.
Mathematically , ΔS = ΔQ/ΔT
 ΔS = +ve, when ΔQ = +ve,
 ΔS = -ve when ΔQ = -ve
 In any natural process, the entropy is always increased.

 Zeroeth Law of Thermodynamics: If A&B are in thermal equilibrium & B&C too,
then A&C are also in thermal equilibrium.
 Zeroeth law of thermodynamics helps to explain the term temperature.
 Newton’s law of Cooling: The rate of cooling is proportional to the ΔT b/w body
and the surrounding provided the ΔT is not very large from the surrounding.
 It is a special case of Stefan’s law.
 It is used in lab for determination of specific heat of liquids.
 Thermal process may be cyclic or irreversible.
 Fraunhofer lines: Dark lines in the spectrum of sun which are explained on the
basis of Kirchhoff’s law.
 Thermometer, its principle & range;
Thermometer Principle Temperature Range
Mercury thermometer ΔL  ΔT -35 to +500 oC
Contt pressure gas thermo ΔV  ΔT 0K to 500 K
Constt volume gas thermo ΔV  ΔT 0 K to 500 K
Platinum resistance thermo ΔR  ΔT 500K to 2300K
Thermocouple thermo ε = αT + βT2 500K to 2300K
Pyrometer E = σT4 (Stefan’s law) T > 2000 K
Alcohol thermometer Linear expansion -200 to 78 oC

 Triple point of water:Temperature & pressure at which a substance can exist in


equilibrium in the liquid, solid and gaseous states.
 For water = 273.16 K or 0.01 oC or 32.01 oF
 Boyle’s law: P  1/V
 Charles’s law: P  vrms or P T ⇒ vrms  T

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 Avogadro’s law: At same T & P, equal volumes of all gases contain equal number
of molecules.

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ELECTROSTATICS

 Charge: Fundamental property of matter with which it exerts coulomb force.


 Charge on electron = -1.6 x 10-19 C = 4.8 x 10-10 esu = 1.6 x 10-20 emu
 Charge on proton = +1.6 x 10-19 C
1
 Electrostatic unit of charge (esu) = C
3  109
 Electromagnetic unit of charge (emu) = 10 C
 The minimum charge on an object is 1.6x10-19 C.
 Quantization of Charge: Q = ±ne
i.e all charges are the integral multiple of e (charge on electron).
 Conservation of Charge: Charge in universe are in pair.
e.g In pair production, Photon (Eγ≥1.02 MeV) ⇒ Electron + Positron
 Specific charge (e/m) of electron = 1.7588 x 1011 C/kg
 Specific charge (e/m) of proton = 9.54 x 107 C/kg
 1C = 6.25 x 1018 electrons ≈ 1018 es
 1 mole of electrons = 6.023 x 1023 e-s = 96500 C = 1 Farad

 Coulomb’s law in medium: Fmed = Fvac/εr ⇒ Fmed > Fvac


 Coulomb’s law is applicable for point charge/spherical charge i.e when the distance
b/w two charges ≥ 10-15 m.
qq qq r qq
 Vector form of Coulomb’s law: F  k 1 2 2 rˆ  k 1 2 2  k 1 3 2 r
r r r r
 Force on charge in E: F = qE = qV/r (F = electric force)

 Electric field intensity/strength:E = F/Q

 E as Potential Gradient: E = – ΔV/Δr


q
 E due to point charge: E = k 2 ⇒ E ∝ 1/r2
r
 E due to line charge: E = λ/2 rεo ⇒ E  1/r (λ = charge per unit length)
 E due to volume charge: E = ρr/3εo (inside the sphere)
 E due to volume charge: E = ρR3/3εor2 (outside the sphere)
 Electric field due to volume charge remains constant.

 E due to infinite sheet of charge:E =
2 o

 E due to parallel charged plates: E =
o
 E in a medium: Emed = Evac/εr ⇒ Emed > Evac

 Electric flux: E  E.A = EA Cosθ


 If the surface is placed perpendicular to electric field such that area ‘A’ is
parallel to ‘E’ i.e θ b/w E and A is 0o then electric flux will be maximum.
 If surface is placed parallel to electric field such that area ‘A’ is
perpendicular to ‘E’ i.e θ b/w E and A is 90o then electric flux will be zero.
 Electric flux depends upon orientation of area vector, magnitude of E & A.
 Flux is positive if net no of field lines are leaving the surface & vice versa.
 Net flux is zero, if a close surface contains equal and opposite charges.

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 Gauss’s law / Gauss Flux Theorem: ΦE = Q/εo


 Gauss’s law is a general law which is applied to any closed surface. The
surface is called Gaussian surface which is considered to be imaginary.
Q
 Integral form of Gauss’s law for electric field ∮ E.dA  = 4 kq
o
 Integral form of Gauss’s law for magnetic field ∮ B.dA  0

 Differential form of Gauss’s law for electric field .E  = 4 kρ
o
 Differential form of Gauss’s law for magnetic field .B  0
 For Gauss's law, point charges in closed surface must be distributed
arbitrarily.
 Gauss's law due to different charge distribution is used to calculate
electric intensity.
 Gauss’s law is a form of one of the Maxwell’s four equations for electricity
and magnetism.
 Gauss’s law can be used to derive Coulomb’s law and vice versa.
 Electric charge enclosed by Gaussian surface is zero (0).
Note: Net no. of field lines leaving a closed surface is proportional to the total charge
enclosed by that surface.

q1q2
 Electric P.E: U= k = qV
r
1 
 Energy associated with E: U=
2 o   2 dV  o  E 2 dV
2
q
 Electric potential: V = U/q = k = EΔr
r
 Permittivity: The property of a medium which affects the magnitude of force
b/w two point charges at rest.
 Relative permittivity/Dielectric constant/Specific inductive capacity:
 med
k = εr = Where εr > 1 & εo = 8.85 x 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2
 vac
 Relative permittivity (dielectric constant) = 1 for vacuum (air)
 1 eV = K.E = hP = 1.6 x 10-19 J = 1.6 x 10-12 erg
 Net electric field intensity b/w two oppositely charged particles is maximum.
 Net electric potential b/w two oppositely charged particles is zero.
 Dipole moment: p = qd (show net polarity)
 Unit of p in atomic scale, 1 Debye = 3.3 x 10-33 C.m
 Direction of p is from negative to positive i.e against E.
 Torque experienced by a Dipole in uniform E: τ = p x E = pE Sinθ
 P.E due to Dipole: U = – pE Cosθ

 Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor in vacuum: Cvac = Aεo/d


 Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor in medium: Cmed = εr Aεo/d
 Cmed > Cvac
i.e when a dielectric in inserted b/w the plates, its capacitance increases.
 Energy stored in capacitor: W = ½ QV
 Energy stored in capacitors in parallel: W = ½ CV2
 Energy stored in capacitors in series: W = ½ Q2/C

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PHYSICS BY TOM AD_MAN
 Volume density of Electric Field Energy (vacuum): u = ½ εoE2 = ½ εo (V/d)2
 Volume density of Electric Field Energy (medium): u = ½ εo εr E2
 Equation of Charging of Capacitors or Growth Transient: Q = Qo (1 – e-t/RC)
V = Vo (1 – e-t/RC) & I = Io e-t/RC
 The variation of charge/voltage across the capacitor is called charging transient.
 Time constant τ = RC is the time in which capacitor charges to 63% of its maximum
value of charge.
 Equation for Discharging of Capacitors or Decay Transient: Q = Qo e-t/RC
V = Vo e-t/RC & I = Io e-t/RC
 Time constant τ = RC is the time in which a capacitor discharges to 36% of its
maximum value. (Where e = 2.7182)

 Equipotential Surfaces: Any surface with same electric potential at every point.
 Electric field is always perpendicular (at 90o) to an equipotential surface.
 Work done in moving a charge b/w two points on an equipotential surface is 0.

 Capacitor: Charge storing device (Energy stored in the E of plates)


 Capacitors in Series: Ceq = C/n (Capacitance decreases)
 Capacitors in Parallel: Ceq = nC (Capacitance increases)
 The reciprocal of capacitance is electrical elastance.
 The net charge on capacitor is zero i.e both the plates contain equal amount of
charges but with opposite polarity.
 Printer that uses electric charges is called inkjet printer.
 An electrolytic capacitor can be used only for DC.
 The power dissipated in a pure capacitor is zero.
 When dielectric slab is inserted b/w plates of parallel plate capacitor, the P.D
b/w the plates decreases. (While capacitance increases because V = Q/C)
 Electrolytic capacitor have the least value of breakdown voltage.
 Ceramic capacitor can be used for temperature compensation.
 Mica capacitor is usually preferred for closer tolerances.
 Air capacitors are mainly used for radio frequency tuning.
 A capacitor acts as blocking element when applied signal is DC.

 Electric displacement (D) also known as electric flux density, is the charge per
unit area that would be displaced across a layer of conductor placed across
an electric field. It is vector quantity. Its unit is C/m2.
 Dielectric: It is an insulator having two types i.e polar and non-polar.
 Polar dielectric having permanent dipole moment like water (εr = 80)
 Dielectric Strength: Measure of electrical strength of an insulator. It is the
maximum voltage required to produce a dielectric breakdown through the
material. Its unit is Volt/meter.
 Electric Pressure: P = dF/ds = σ2/2εo

 In the region where electric field is zero, the electric potential is always constant.
 The ratio of electrostatic force to the gravitational force b/w two charges is 1038.
 The electric flux through the surface of hollow sphere containing a point charge
at its center depends upon magnitude of charge. (φ = q/εo)
 When the dielectric is homogeneous, then potential gradient is uniform.

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PHYSICS BY TOM AD_MAN
ELECTRODYNAMICS

 Thermal/random velocity of electrons: vth = 105 m/s


 Drift velocity of electrons: vd = 10-5 m/s
 vd directly related to I & inversely related to A, T & no. of electron per volume.
 No. of electrons in amperes: n(A) = n(6.25 x 1018 es)
 Current: DC is a scalar quantity while AC is a phasor (vector).
 Current may be divided into 3 types from the point of view of generation;
 Drift current: Current due to drift velocity of electrons (Id = neAvd)
 Diffusion current: Current due to charge density gradient (Thermocouples &
semiconductors show diffusion current)
 Displacement current: Current due to varying electric/magnetic flux.
EdE 1 dE
(Id =  )
dt R dt
 Current has 3 effects i.e heating effect, chemical effect and magnetic effect.

 Conductance: G = 1/R = I/V (Unit = Siemens or mho Ω-1)


 Conductivity: σ = 1/ρ = L/RA (Unit = Ω-1 m-1 or S.m-1)
 EEG: A neurological test used to evaluate the electrical activity in the brain.
 Thermocouple: It is a sensor used to measure temperature. It converts heat
energy into electrical energy.
 emf produced due to thermocouple; ℰ = αT + ½ βT2
 Neutral Temp; Maximum emf
 Inversion Temp; Minimum emf
 Rheostat: A device used to alter the current in a circuit.

 Resistivity varies inversely with pressure.


 Resistance: Resistance are of 3 types i.e ohmic, non-ohmic and negative.
 Ohmic resistance follows Ohm’s law.
 Vacuum tubes & semiconductors are examples of non-ohmic resistance.
 Negative resistance shows inverse relation b/w V & I.
 Tunnel diode & thyristors are examples of negative resistance devices.
 Manganin is used to make standard resistor because its specific resistance is
high and it varies very little with temperature.
 Resistance of stretching conductor: R  = n2 R
 If R=2Ω & L=2L then R  = (2)2 (2) = 4x2 = 6Ω (new resistance)
 Resistance of compressing conductor: R  = R/n2
 Minimum possible resistance: Rmin = R1R2/R1+R2
 Resistivity of conductor is directly related to temperature.
 Resistivity of semiconductor is inversely related to temperature.
 Resistance is a macroscopic quantity. While resistivity is the microscopic analogue
of the resistance.
 Law of Resistance: There are 2 laws of resistance;
 In series, R = nR
 In parallel, R = R/n
 Internal Resistance: Resistance inside a battery or other voltage source
which causes voltage drop when current flowing through it.

 Terminal P.D: The voltage across the terminals of the source when electric
current is being drawn from it to an external circuit. i.e VT = emf – Ir

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 VT < emf (discharging) & VT > emf (charging)
 Electromotive Force: The voltage across the terminals of the source when
electric current is not being drawn from it to an external circuit.
 emf = W/qo = Ir + IR = Ir + VT
 potentiometer is used to measure emf
R  Ro
 Temperature coefficient of resistance: α= (Unit = K-1 or oC-1)
Ro T
 Electrical energy: W = E = QV = IVt = I2Rt = V2t/R
 Electrical power: P = E/t = IV = I2R = V2/R
 Power in parallel: Peq = nP (P increases)
 Power in series: Peq = P/n (P decreases)
 Power dissipation and glow of lights are directly related.
 P = IV, when current through the device & voltage drop across it are known.
 Power dissipation (loss) in series: P = I2R i.e P R
 Power dissipation in parallel: P = V2/R i.e P  1/R
 In series a low power bulb will glow more than high power bulb because a bulb with
low power has low resistance (P  R).
 In parallel a bulb of high power will glow more than a lower power bulb because a
bulb with high power has low resistance (P  1/R).
 In series, if one bulb is removed then glow of other bulb increases.
 In parallel, if one bulb is removed then glow of other bulb remains same.
2
 Maximum Power Output: Pout = I2R = R
( R  r )2
 At r = R, Pout = є2/4R (Minimum power is delivered to the load
resistance if the internal resistance becomes as large as the load resistance)
 At R = r, Pout = є2/4r (Maximum power is delivered to the load
resistance when load resistance is as small as internal resistance)
R2 R4
 Wheatstone bridge for unknown resistance; 
R1 R3
i.e (Balanced condition i.e Ig = 0)
 2 l2
 Potentiometer for unknown emf; 
 1 l1
 Kirchhoff’s 1st law of junction/node (KCL) is based on conservation of charge i.e
ΣI=0
 Kirchhoff’s 2nd law of loop (KVL) is based on conservation of energy i.e ΣV=0
 The best insulator is fused quartz with resistivity 75x1016 Ω.m.
 The highest critical temperature for a superconductor is -160oC.
 Maximum current is delivered by a source when it is short circuited i.e Rext = 0
 Seebeck Effect: If two junctions of a thermocouple are kept at different
temperature, an electric current will be induced in the loop. This effect is called
Seebeck Effect. The current induced is called diffusion current.
 Practical unit of power consumption is kWh or Board of trade unit or simply unit
i.e 1 kWh = 1 unit of electricity = 3.6 MJ
 Potentiometer is preferred over voltmeter because; it is a null method, an accurate
method and does not draw any current from the circuit.

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PHYSICS BY TOM AD_MAN
ELECTROMAGNETISM & ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

 Magnetic field/induction: B = F/IL = F/qv = Φ/A


 Unit of B = N/A.m = Web/m2 = Tesla (T), 1T = 104 Gauss (CGS unit)
 Magnetic flux: ΦB = B.A = BAcosθ,
 Unit = Weber (Web) & Maxwell = 10-8 Web (CGS)
 Magnetic flux density: B = Φ/A
 Ampere’s law:BL = μoI ⇒ B = μoI/L = μoI/2πr
 Ampere’s law shows that magnetic field will be stronger near the wire.
 B at the center of a circular loop carrying I: B = μoI/2r
 Permeability (μ): Measure of the ability of a material to support the formation of
a magnetic field within itself.
 Susceptibility (χ): A measure of how much a material will become magnetized in
an applied magnetic field. ( χ = 1/H)
 Permeability of free space: (μo = μm/ μr) μo = 4π x 10-7 Wb/A.m or H.m-1
 B due to current carrying solenoid in vacuum: Bvac = μonI (n = N/L)
 B due to current carrying solenoid in medium: Bmed = μoμrnI (B  μr)
 Bmed = μr Bvac ⇒ Bvac > Bmed
 Force on a charged particle: F = q(v x B) = ne(v x B) = nevBsinθ
 If θ = 0 or 180 the charge will perform rectilinear motion.
o o

 If θ = 90o then charge will perform circular motion.


 If 0o<θ<90o then charge will perform helical or spiral motion.
 Force on an electron: F = q(B x v)
 Cyclotron frequency of ‘q’ in B: fc = qB/2πm
 Time period of ‘q’ in B: T = 1/fc = 2πm/qB
 Linear momentum of ‘q’ in B: P = qBr
 Angular momentum of ‘q’ in B: L = rP = qBr2
 K.E of ‘q’ of in B: K.E = ½ qvBr
 e/m ratio of electron: e/m = 2v/B2r2 = v/Br
 Angular velocity of ‘q’ in B: ω = qB/m
2Vo q
 Velocity of q in mass spectrograph: v=
m
2Vo m
 Radius of circle of q: r=
B2q

 Velocity selector: v = E/B


 Electric force changes the magnitude of charge and magnetic force changes the
direction of charge.
 Torque on current carrying loop/coil in uniform B: τ = NABIcosθ
 Restoring torque on current carrying coil in B: τ = Cθ ⇒ τ θ
(Where θ is the angle with which coil rotates)
 If B is non-uniform then coil will experience torque as well as linear motion.

 Galvanometer: I = Cθ/NAB ⇒ I  θ (C/NAB=Constant)


 Ammeter: When a shunt is connected with galvanometer in parallel.
I g Rg
 Shunt resistor: Rs =
I  Ig
 Ideal ammeter: Zero resistance i.e Rs=0
 Voltmeter: When high resistance is connected with galvanometer in series.

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V
 High resistance: Rh =  Rg
Ig
 Ideal voltmeter: Infinite resistance i.e Rh = ∞
 AVO meter: Current – Voltage – Resistance.
 AVO meter measures A.C as well as D.C, work as a rectifier and can measure RMS
value of A.C.

 Flux linkage: NΦ = LI = MI

 Faraday’s law: є=N ( for magnitude of induced emf)
t

 Lenz’s law: є = -N ( for direction of induced emf)
t
 emf may be induced in two different basic process i.e Motional emf & induced
electric field.
 In motional emf, coil is varied with time but B remains fixed.
 In induced electric field, coil remains fixed but B varies with time.
 Motional emf: є = VBLsinθ
 emf for generator: є = NωABsinθ (θ=ωt)
 Back emf: V = є+IR ⇒ I = V 
R
 Energy stored in B of inductor: E = ½ LI2 (magnetic energy)
 Energy density (magnetic energy per unit volume): B2/2μo
I
 Self-induced emf: є=L
t
d di
 Self-induction: ΦB  i or ΦB = iL or ℰ=- =-L
dt dt
 t 
 Self-inductance: L= = = (ℰ = ∆Φ/∆t)
I I I
t
 L = μon2AL = μoN2A/L Where n=N/L, N=no. of turns, L=length of coil & A is
are of cross section.
 L = μoμrn2AL (When a core having relative permeability is introduced)
d di
 Mutual induction: ΦB  i or ΦB = iM or ℰ=- =-M
dt dt
I
 Mutually induced emf: є=M
t
 t 
 Mutual inductance: M= = =
I I I
t
 Inductance in series: L = nL
 Inductance in parallel: L = L/n
 Unit of inductance: Henry (H)
Vs N I
 Transformer:  s  p
Vp N p I s
 Step-up transformer: Vs > Vp, Ns > Np, Is < Ip
 Step-down transformer: Vs < Vp, Ns < Np, Is > Ip
 Efficiency of transformer: η = Vs I s 100 %
Vp I p
 In step-up transformer, voltage increase while current decreases to keep power
constant & in step-down transformer, voltage increases while current decreases.
 Losses in transformers may be divided into 2 categories;

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 Copper loss (due to resistance of copper winding)
 Magnetic loss (eddy current loss, flux linkage loss & hysteresis loss)
 Eddy current loss is minimized by using laminated core in the form of E & I or
square core.
 Flux linkage loss is prevented by winding one coil over another.
 Hysteresis loss is minimized by using soft iron core with 4% Si.

1 dB
 Eddy current: Ieddy =  (Current induced in conductor due to changing flux)
R dt
 Eddy current produces thermal energy in conductor which comes at the cost of KE
of the conductor. This effect is called e.m damping.

 AC generator: ℰ = NωBA sinωt


 In DC generator instead of slip rings, split rings are used.

 Two solenoid carrying current in same direction will repel each other because
inside BT = B1 + B2
 Two solenoid carrying current in opposite direction will attract each other because
inside BT = B1 – B2
 Two wires carrying current in same direction will attract each other.
 Two wires carrying current in opposite direction will repel each other.
 Two like charge moving in the same direction will repel as Felec > Fmag.

 Magnetic Dipole moment (M): Product of pole strength (m) & length of magnet (l)
 Magnetic dipole moment of earth is 8x1022 J/T.
 If a magnetic is cut along the length, its pole strength decreases (m  A)
 If a magnet is heated, its pole strength decreases.
 Magnetizing Field: H = B/μo (SI unit = Am-1 & CGS unit = Oersted = 80 Am-1)
 The direction in which a current carrying conductor experienced no force is the
direction of B (magnetic induction).
 Hall Effect: ℰH = - vd x B (sign of emf will decide the nature of charge)

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PHYSICS BY TOM AD_MAN
A.C CIRCUITS

 Instantaneous current: I = Im sinωt


 Instantaneous voltage: V = Vm sinωt
Im
 RMS value of sinusoidal current: Irms = Ieffective = Ivirtual = = 0.707 Im
2
Vm
 RMS value of sinusoidal voltage: Vrms = = 0.707 Vm
2
 Maximum sinusoidal current: Im = 2 Irms
 Maximum sinusoidal voltage: Vm = 2 Vrms
 Peak value of current: I2m = ( 2 Irms)2 = 2 I2rms
 Peak value of voltage: V2m = ( 2 Vrms)2 = 2 V2rms
 Power dissipation: P = IVcosθ
 Power loss in resistor is maximum while power loss in inductor and capacitor is
zero.
 Power factor: Cosφ = VR/V = R/Z = R/ R2  X L2
 Power factor for resistor is unity (1) while zero for inductor and capacitor.
 Inductive circuit: V lead I by 90o
 Inductive reactance: XL = ωL = 2πfL
 For D.C, XL=0 because f=0
 Inductance: L = XL/ω = XL/2πf
 Capacitive circuit: I lead V by 90o
 Capacitive reactance: Xc = 1/ ωC = 1/2πfC (C = 1/Xcω)

 RL series circuit: 0o < θ < 90o


 Voltage in RL circuit: V = IZ = I R2  X L2

 Impedance of RL circuit: Z= R2  X L2
 Power dissipation in RL circuit: P = Irms Vrms cosφ
 Phase angle: tanθ = VL/VR = XL/R = ωL/R = 2πfL/R [θ = tan-1 (Lω/R)]
2
X
 Q – factor (energy storing ability of coil): Q = I 2X L = L
I R R

 RC series circuit: 0o < θ < 90o


 Voltage in RC circuit: V = IZ = I R2  X C2

 Impedance of RC circuit: Z= R2  X C2
 Power dissipation in RC circuit: P = Irms Vrms cosφ
 Phase angle: tanθ = VC/VR = XC/R = 1/ωCR = 1/2πfCR [θ = tan-1 (1/RCω)]

 RLC series circuit (Resonant circuit): 0o < θ < 180o


 Voltage in RLC circuit: V = IZ = I R2  ( X L  X C )2

 Impedance in RLC circuit: Z= R2  ( X L  X C )2


VL  VC VL  VC
 Power factor of RLC circuit: cosφ = 
VR R
 Power dissipation in RLC circuit: P = Irms Vrms cosφ

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PHYSICS BY TOM AD_MAN
X L  XC XC  X L
 Phase angle: tanθ = 
R R
 If f >>> fr ⇒ XL > XC (inductive circuit)
 If f <<< fr ⇒ XL < XC (capacitive circuit)
 If f = fr ⇒ XL = XC (resistive circuit)
 Resonant frequency in RLC circuit: fr = 1
2 LC
 At resonant frequency, Z = R i.e impedance is pure resistance.
 No phase shift exist b/w V & I.
 Z is minimum at f = fr & hence I is maximum at fr.
 Quality / Q – factor: At resonance, VC = VL = QVR ⇒ Q = Vc/VR = VL/VR
 If Q – factor is large, resonance is sharp & vice versa.

 Reactance: Resistance offered by an AC or reactive component (capacitor or


inductor) when AC is applied.
 Reciprocal of reactance is called susceptance.
 AC/Reactive Components: Circuit elements which offer phase shift b/w V & I along
with reactance when AC is applied. L & C are AC components.
 DC Component: Circuit elements which do not offer any phase shift b/w V & I
when AC is applied. Resistor is common example.
 Admittance: Reciprocal of impedance i.e Y = 1/Z
 Cut-of Frequencies or 3 dB Frequencies: Frequencies at which power becomes half
I
of the maximum or current becomes m .
2

 Electromagnetic Waves: Gamma rays, X-rays, Ultraviolet, Visible light, Infrared


waves, Microwaves and Radio waves.
 Maxwell’s Equations: Maxwell combined 4 equations connecting electric & magnetic
fields.
 ∮ E.ds = Q/εo (Gauss law in electrostatic)
 ∮ E.dl = -dΦ/dt (Faraday’s law)
 ∮ B.ds = 0 (Gauss law in magnetism)
 ∮ B.dl = μo ic + μo id (Modified Ampere’s law)
 Maxwell law: c = 1/  o o (velocity of e.m radiation)

є = 1  =
BA
 Faraday’s law:
2 r t 2 r t
E
 Ampere – Maxwell law: Id = є.A (Drift current)
t
 Relation b/w E & B: Eo = Bo c
 Oscillating charges produce e.m radiations.
 Diffraction  λ and hence more in radio waves.
 Scattering and refraction  frequency and hence more in gamma rays.
 Gamma rays produce from nuclear transition.
 X – rays produce from inner shell transition.
 UV and visible rays produce from valence shell transition.
 Infrared are heat rays.
 Microwaves are produced from oscillating LC circuits.
 Radio waves produce from oscillating charge in circuits.

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PHYSICS BY TOM AD_MAN
SOLIDS

 Crystal: Particles arrangement in definite geometry in 3 dimensions.


 Quartz, sucrose, diamond and Nacl (rock salt) are crystals.
 Polycrystalline solids: Material made of small single crystal.
 Size of grain (crystallite) is 103 Ao – 104 Ao (10nm – 100μm)
 Metals are polycrystalline.
 Crystalline solids are of 4 types i.e ionic solids, covalent solids, metallic solids &
amorphous or glassy solids.
 Amorphous solids: Particles are arranged in random order.
 Glass, rubber, plastic, polymers are amorphous solids.

 Unit cell: Smallest geometric figure or unit whose periodic repetition in two or
three dimensions form a crystal.
 Lattice: Collection of infinite no of points in periodic arrangement.
 Point: Dimensionless and shapeless entity.
 Lattice sites: Points which are forming lattice.
 Lattice constant: Distance b/w consecutive neighbor sites.
 Lattice translational vector: Vector used to show the direction of lattice constant.
 Crystal = crystal lattice + basic structure

 Hooke’s law: under elastic limits, stress  strain ⇒ stress/strain= elastic modulus
 K = stress / strain
 The stress required to cause actual fracture of a material is called breaking/ultimate
/tensile stress.
 Isotropic: Homogeneous particles/bodies having identical properties in all
directions.
 Polycrystalline solids and amorphous solids are isotropic.
 Anisotropic: Heterogeneous particles having different properties in different
directions.
 Crystals are anisotropic.
 Young’s modulus: Y = tensile stress/tensile strain = σ/ε = FL/Ax
 A thick and a thin both steel wire has same Young’s modulus.
 For perfect plastic material ⇒ Y=0
 For perfect rigid material ⇒ Y=∞
P
 Bulk/volume modulus: B = volumetric stress/volumetric strain = =
V
V
PV/ΔV = FV/AΔV (P = F/A)
 Bisothermal = P & Badiabatic = γP (γ = Cp/Cv)
 Bsolid > Bliquid > Bgas
 Compressibility is the reciprocal of Bulk modulus i.e C = 1/B
 Shear/rigidity modulus: η = (F/A) / (Δx/y) = F/Aθ
 Strain energy: Es = ½ force x stretch = ½ stress x strain x volume = ½ Cθ2
AY
 Elastic P.E: U = ( l ) 2 in stretched wire
2l
 r
 Poison’s Ratio: σ=
lateral strain
= r = rl
longitudinal strain l lr
l

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 Negative poison ratio would mean that radius increases on applying stress along
with the length.

 Strength: Ability of a material to withstand an applied force.


 Hardness: Measure of how easily a material can be scratched.
 Diamond and hardened carbon steels are known as hard materials.
 Brittleness: Tendency to break easily and suddenly without any extension.
 Cast iron, concrete, ceramics, urea formaldehyde (UF) are known as brittle
materials.
 Toughness: Tendency to absorb impact or face well.
 Toughness is opposite to brittleness.
 Stiffness: Ability to resist bending.
 Ductility: Ability to drawn into thin wires.
 Gold, Cu, Ti, wrought iron, low carbon steels and brass are ductile.
 Malleable: Ability to drawn into sheets.
 Plasticity: Ability to deform permanently on small force.
 Elasticity: Ability to regain its original state after removal of force.
 Elasticity of a material decreases on heating.

 Insulator: V.B is completely filled while C.B is empty.


 For insulators; Eg > 3eV (nearly equal to 15 eV)
 Semiconductor: V.B is completely filled while C.B is empty at STP.
 All semiconductors act as insulators at low temperature and act as conductors at
high temperature.
 For semiconductors; Eg ∼ 1 eV
 Concentration of charge carriers in semiconductors is 1021 m-3 at STP.
 Concentration of charge carriers in metals is about 10 million times greater than
that of semiconductors.
 Conductor: C.B is partially filled. For conductor, Eg is negligible.
 Super conductor: Conduct electricity without any resistance as in MRI machines.
 The highest temperature at which superconductor is known is 160K.
 Critical temperature: Temperature at which and below it materials become
super conductors i.e it loses its resistance (R=0).
 In un-magnetized substances, molecular magnets are randomly oriented.
 In magnetized substances, molecular magnets are orderly oriented.
 Magnetized substances loses magnetism upon heating.
 Magnetic properties of a substance is due to motion of electrons, especially due to
spin motion of electrons.

 Paramagnetic materials: Substances weakly attracted by strong magnet such as


Al, Sb, etc.
 Diamagnetic materials: Substances weakly repelled by strong magnet such as
Cu, Zn, Bi, etc.
 Ferromagnetic materials: Substances strongly attracted by strong magnet such as
Fe, Ni, Co, etc.
 Ferromagnetic materials consist of small magnet or domains. Domain has 1012 –
1016 atoms.
 Curie temperature: Temperature at which ferromagnetic materials become
paramagnetic materials.

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 Magnetic hysteresis: Phenomenon of lagging of flux density (B) behind
magnetizing force (H) in a magnetic material.
 Relation b/w flux density and magnetic strength: B = H x μo
 Retentivity: Ability to retain certain amount of residual magnetic field when
magnetizing force is removed.
 Residual magnetism / residual flux: Magnetic flux density that remains in material
when magnetizing force is removed.
 Coercive force: Amount of reverse magnetic field to make magnetic flux zero
inside a magnetic material.
 Reluctance: Opposition of ferromagnetic material to establishment of magnetic
field.

 Soft magnetic materials: Materials having narrow hysteresis loops,


magnetized and de-magnetized easily, used in solenoids such as Fe, Si, steel.
 Hard magnetic materials: Materials having large hysteresis loops, magnetized and
de-magnetized hardly, used in magnets such as Tungsten, copper, etc.

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ELECTRONICS

 Intrinsic semiconductors: Pure semiconductors containing no impurities. Less


than one impurity in one billion host atoms.
 Free electrons and holes are created by excitation.
 Intrinsic density: N = P = Ni (i.e density of electrons in conduction band is
equal to density of holes in valence band)

 Extrinsic semiconductors: Semiconductors doped with impurity.


 More than one impurity in one million host atoms.
 Doping: Process of adding impurity.
 Dopants: Impurity added to semiconductors.
 Trivalent impurity: Atoms having 3 valence electrons (e.g Si
 Pentavalent impurity: Atoms having 5 valence electrons.

 Majority charge carriers: Entity that carry major part of current in


semiconductor.
 Minority charge carriers: Entity that carry minor part of current in
semiconductor.

 Acceptor impurity: Accept electrons such as B, Ga, etc.


 Donor impurity: Donate electrons such as P, Bi, etc.

 N – type semiconductor: Doped with pentavalent impurity.


 P – type semiconductor: Doped with trivalent impurity.
 No net charge on P and N type semiconductors.

 PN junction (semi-conductor diode): Junction diode formed by the


combination of P – type and N – type semiconductors.
 PN junction is used as amplifier.
 PN junction form electric field in depletion layer directed from N to P type region.

 Potential barrier:
 Depletion region: The region b/w P and N-type semiconductor which is free of
mobile charges.
 Width of depletion region depends on carrier concentration.
 P to P & N to N decreases depletion barrier and is called forward biased.
 P to N and N to P increases depletion barrier and is called reverse biased.

 Forward biasing: Reduces potential barrier & decreases depletion layer width.
 Reverse biasing: Increases potential barrier & also depletion layer width.

 Knee voltage: Voltage at which majority charge carriers cross junction and
current flows.
 Knee voltage for Ge = 0.3V & Si = 0.7V
 Drift current of minority carriers: Id = Ie + Ih
 Emitter current: IE = IB + IC (Ie ≈ Ic)
 BE junction is forward biased & BC junction is reverse biased.
 NPN is electron majority carriers & PNP is holes majority carriers.
 Active region (Amplifier): BE junction is forward & BC junction is reverse.

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 Cut-off region (OFF switch): Both BE & BC junctions are reverse biased.
 Saturated region (ON switch): Both BE & BC junctions are reverse biased.

 Amplification factor (Alpha): α = IC/IE (α≈1)


 Amplification factor (Beta): β = IC/IB (β = 50 – 400)
 
 Relation b/w α and β: β= & α=
1 1 
 Photodiode: Solar/light energy ⇒ electrical energy. (Reverse biased)
 Photovoltaic: Solar/light energy ⇒ electrical energy (No biasing)
 LED: Electrical energy ⇒ light energy (Forward biasing)
 Rectifier: Device which converts AC to DC.
 Invertor: Device which converts DC to AC.

 Valence band: Energy band which are completely filled at 0K.


 Conduction band: Bands with higher energy.
 Forbidden energy gap: Eg = EC – EV
 In metals, Eg = 0
 In semi-conductor, Eg ∼ 1 eV.
 At 0K, semi-conductor is a perfect insulator.
 Eg (Ge) = 0.71 eV & Eg (Si) = 1.12 eV
 Total conduction in semi-conductor is due to diffusion and drift current.
 Ideal diode: It is like a voltage controlled switch.
 When forward biased, it acts like ON switch (R=0)
 When reverse biased, it acts like OFF switch (R=∞)
 Types & applications of p-n junction (diode);
 Avalanche/Zener/Breakdown Diode is used as load/voltage regulator.
 Varicap/Varactor diode is used as FM voltage to frequency converter.
 Tunnel diode is used as oscillator, astable/monostable.
 Photo diode is used as burglar alarm, fire alarm, remote sensing, automatic
switching of light, nuclear detector and communication.
 Switching diode is used as logic gates.
 LED is used as indicator, remote control, optical fiber communication, 7-segment &
14-segment display dvices.
 Transistor: Device which gives transfer of resistor without changing current at
input or output.
 Same current flows through input and output while R at two places is different.
 Transistor can be used as oscillator, amplifier and switch in switching circuits.
 Amplifier: A circuit which gives power gain.
 CB amplifier: Amplifies only voltage.
 CC amplifier: Amplifies only current.
 CE amplifier: Amplifies both current and voltage.
 The resistance of a forward biased is zero while that of reverse biased is infinite.
 Zener current is reverse current after breakdown.

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MODERN PHYSICS

 Inertial reference frame: Non accelerating frame of reference which obeys


Newton’s laws.
 Non inertial reference frame: Accelerating frame of reference which does not
obey Newton’s law.
 Relativity introduces that time as a fourth dimension.
 Speed of light is independent of motion of frame of reference.
 Mass energy equivalence for moving objects: E = moc2 + K.E
 Mass energy equivalence for compressed spring: E = moc2 + P.E
 Mass energy equivalence for stationary objects: E = moc2
mo
 Mass dilation: m=
2
1 v 2
c
 If v = c then m=∞
 If v < c then m > mo
 If v = 0 then m = mo
 If v = 86.6% of c then m = 2mo
 The rest mass of photon is zero i.e mo = 0
to
 Time dilation: t= ⇒ t = rto
2
1 v
c2
 If v = c then t=∞
 If v < c then t > to
 If v = 0 then t = to
2
 Length contraction: L = Lo 1  v ⇒ L = Lo/r
c2
 If v = c then L=0
 If v < c then L < Lo
 If v = 0 then L = Lo

 Black body: Perfect absorber and emitter of e.m radiations.


 Wien’s displacement law: λmaxT = 2898 μm.K
 λmax = colour of stars & T = surface temperature
 Surface temperature of sun is 6000K and its core temperature is 2,000,000K (2
million kelvin).
 Wien’s displacement law is applicable in shorter wavelengths.
 Stefan Boltzmann’s law: E  T4 ⇒ E= δT4
(δ=5.67x10-8 Watt m-2 K-1)
 Raleigh Jean theorem is applicable in longer wavelengths.
 Plank’s quantum theory: E = hf = hc/λ (h = 6.626x10-34 Js = 4.136x10-15 eVs)
 Plank’s quantum theory agrees in both shorter and longer wavelengths.
 Photoelectric effect: E = φ + K.Emax
 Work function: φ = hfo ≈ eV
 Threshold frequency:Minimum frequency for ejection of surface electrons.
 Stopping potential (Vs): K.Emax = eVo
 At Vs, I = 0
 Light intensity is directly proportional to photoelectrons and photoelectric current.
 K.Emax of electrons is directly proportional to frequency of light.

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 Momentum of photon: P = mc = E/c = hf/c = h/λ
h
 Wavelength of photon: λ = h/P = h/mv =
2meVo
 Energy of material object: E = P2/2m
 Energy of photon: E = Pc
h
 Compton’s effect: Δλ = (1  cos  )
mo c
 Δλ =    = 2.43 pm (1 – cosθ)
 Maximum energy is transferred at 180o.
 Half of maximum energy is transferred at 90o.
 No energy is transferred at 0o.
 0 ≤ Δλ (λ shift) ≤ 4.86 pm
 Electron microscope is based on the wave nature of electron and its resolving power
 1/λ  Vo
 Pair production: Materialization of energy (Photon ⇒ e- + e+)
i.e E = moc2 + moc2 + K.E- + K.E+
 Threshold energy for pair production is 1.02 M.eV
 Presence of heavy nucleus is must which means that it does not occur in vacuum.
 Energy for electron = 0.51 MeV
 Energy for proton = 937 MeV
 Energy for neutron = 938 MeV
 Pair annihilation: e+ + e - ⇒ γ + γ (0.51MeV each)
h
 Davison and Germer’s experiment: λ = h/mv =
2meVo
 λ for electron = 12.3Ao/ Vo
 λ for proton = 0.286Ao/ Vo
 λ for neutron = 0.202Ao/ Vo
 λ for alpha particle = 0.101Ao/ Vo
 x – rays production is the reverse process of photoelectric effect.
 Pair production is the reverse process of pair annihilation.
 Interference, diffraction, polarization, pair annihilation, Davison & Germer’s
experiment and G.P Thomson experiment show wave nature of e.m radiation.
 Photoelectric effect, Compton’s effect, pair production, J.J Thomson experiment
(e/m) show particle nature of e.m radiation.

 Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: Uncertainty at atomic level is not because of least


count of instrument but because of wave – particle duality. i.e ΔP.Δx ≈ h
(Δx≈λ & ΔP≈h/λ)
And ΔE.Δt ≈ h (h = Planks constant = 6.62x10-34 Js)

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PHYSICS BY TOM AD_MAN
ATOMIC SPECTRA

 Line spectrum: Atomic spectrum which is used for identification of elements.


 Continuous spectrum: Diffused spectrum of sunlight, rainbow and black body
radiations.
 Band spectrum: Spectrum of compound.
1 1 1
 Wavelength of H – spectrum:  RH  2  2  (R=Rydberg constant)
n  n1 n2 
Where n1 = lower energy level, n2 = higher energy level & R = 1.097x107 m-1
 Transition from higher energy level to lower energy levels is given as,
 If n1 = 1 ⇒ Lyman series (UV region)
 If n1 = 2 ⇒ Ballmer series (Visible region)
 If n1 = 3 ⇒ Paschen’s series (near IR region)
 If n1 = 4 ⇒ Bracket series (mid IR region)
 If n1 = 5 ⇒ Pfund series (far IR region)
 If n1 = 6 ⇒ Humphrey series
 For shortest wavelength of any series: n2 = ∞
 For largest wavelength of any series: n2 = n1 +1
(n2  n1 )[(n2  n1 )  1]
 For spectral lines:
2
n( n  1)
 No. of Spectral lines: N=
2
n22
 For minimum wavelength: λmin =
RH
n22 (n2  1) 2
 For maximum wavelength: λmax =
(2n2  1) RH
min (2n2  1)
 Ratio of λmin to λmax: 
max (n2  1) 2
 Relation b/w Fc & Fcoloumb: mv2/r = ke2/r2 ⇒ mv2 = ke2/r

 Angular momentum of electron: mvr = nh/2π


Z
 Velocity of electron in orbit: vn = nh/2πmrn = 2.2 x 106 ms-1
n
2.1106
 Velocity of electron in H – atom: vn = m/s
n
 Radius of orbit in H – atom: rn = n2 (0.529Ao)
n2
 Radius of orbit in any atom: rn = (0.529Ao)
z
 For no. of loops in orbit: (n x 2) loops
13.6eV
 Energy of an orbit in H – atom: En =
n2
z2
 Energy of orbit in any atom: En = (-13.6eV)
n
 P.E/E = 2:1 ⇒ P.E = 2(E)
 K.E/E = 1:-1 ⇒ K.E = -(E)
 P.E/K.E = -2:1

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En Z2
 Ionization potential: = 13.6 2 Volt
e n
 Ionization energy: I.E = 13.6 eV/n2
 Quantization of frequency: fn = fo/n3
 Quantization of angular velocity: ωn = ωo/n3
 Quantization of momentum: Pn = Po/n
 The no. of wavelength in any orbit is equal to the no. of orbits i.e n.

 X – rays: 10-2 Ao – 102 Ao


 Characteristic x – rays: Inner shell transition
 Hard x – rays: High energetic (high frequency)
 Soft x – rays: Less energetic (low frequency)
 Intensity order: Kα > K β > K γ
 Continuous x – rays: Bremstaulang’s radiation (Barking radiation)
 X – rays of minimum wavelength: λmin = 1.24μm/Vo
 Power of x – rays  voltage of target.
 Energy of continuous spectrum depends on Vo but characteristic x – rays does not
depend on Vo.
 Quality of x – rays (penetrating power) depends on applied voltage while intensity
of x – rays depends on filament current.
 X-rays can be generated in 2 different ways,
 Electrons are stopped by the target, their K.E is directly converted into
continuous spectrum of photon including x-rays.
 When a striking electron knocks out an inner electron of the target then outer
electron comes to take its place. The difference in energies of the two is released
as x-rays called characteristic x-rays.
 Hardness of x-ray or penetrating power depends upon the accelerating potential of
electrons or the wavelength of x-rays.
 The penetrating power of x-rays  1/λ.
 Intensity of x-rays depends upon current through x-ray tube or the no. of electrons
incident per second.
 Absorption of x-rays: I = Io e-αx
 If V b/w anode & cathode is increased, frequency & intensity both of x-rays increase.
 Frequency of characteristic x-rays does not depend on the applied accelerating P.D.
 Transition from n=2 to n=1 gives Kα & transition from n=3 to n=1 gives Kβ & so on.
 Kα , Kβ, Lα & Lβ are the most studied characteristic x-rays.
 Lau’s spot and Bragg’s law confirm x-rays diffraction.
 Wavelength of X – rays is of the order of Ao (0.1Ao – 100Ao)
 Energy range of x – rays is 100 eV to 105 eV.
 X – rays was discovered by Roentgen in 1895.

 Laser: Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.


 Properties of Laser: Light of high intensity, directional, monochromatic and
coherence.
 Stimulated or induced emission is the basic principle of Laser.
 τactivated = 10-8 sec
 τmetastable = 10-3 sec
 Population inversion: Metastable > ground state.
 He – Ne LASER: He = 85% & Ne = 15%
 In He-Ne Laser, Neon acts as lasing or active medium.

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS

 Atomic/charge no (Z): No. of protons


 Mass number/nucleon (A): protons + neutrons i.e mass of nucleus
 Mass of atom ≈ mass of nucleus: 10-27 kg
 Diameter/size of atom: 10-10 m = 10-8 cm = 1Ao
 Diameter/size of nucleus: 10-15 m = fm = 10-12 mm
 Mass of electron: 9.10938 x 10-31 kg = 0.00054858 u = 510.99 K eV/C2
 Mass of proton: 1.672622 x 10-27 kg = 1.007276 u = 938.2732 M eV/C2
 Mass of neutron: 1.674927 x 10-27 kg = 1.007276 u = 939.5696 M eV/C2
 Mproton = 1836 Melectron
 Mneutron = 1842 Melectron
 1 u (amu) = 1/12 of Carbon = 1.66 x 10-72 kg
 Ee = 0.51 MeV, Ep = 937 MeV, En = 938 MeV
 n (amu) = n (1.67 x 10-27 kg) = n (931 MeV)

 Isotopes: Same Z but different A (e.g 6C12 & 6C14, 17Cl35 & 17Cl37, etc)
 Isobars: Same A but different Z (e.g 6C14 & 7C14, 18Ar40 & 20Ca40, etc)
 Isotones: Same N but different Z & A (e.g 1H3, 2He4, 6C14 & 8O16, etc)
 Nuclear radius: R = Ro A1/3 (Ro = 1.1 fm)
 Mass defect: Δm = (ZMp + NMn) – ZXA
 Nuclear binding energy: EB = Δm x c2 ⇒ EB = 931 x Δm
 Packing fraction/binding fraction: fB = EB/A = Δmc2/A
 Iron have highest binding energy (A=56)
 Elements with A<56 are unstable because of surface effect.
 Elements with A>56 are also unstable because of nuclear repulsion.
 Nuclei with low mass shows fusion reaction to attain stability.
 Nuclei with high mass shows fission reaction to attain stability.

 Alpha particle: Doubly positive charged helium nuclei with Z=2 & A=4, emit
due to columbic force of repulsion and is the property of heavy nuclei.
i.e ZXA ⇒ Z-2XA-4

 Beta particle: Negatively or positively charged with Z=1 & A=0, emit due to
weak nuclear force from lighter or heavy nuclei.
 β+ emission decreases Z by 1 and has no effect on the mass number (A).
i.e ZXA ⇒ Z-1XA + neutrino
 β– emission increases Z by 1 and has no effect on the mass number (A).
i.e ZXA ⇒ Z+1XA + anti neutrino

 Gamma particle: Neutral particle (radiation) having nature of photon, emit due
to transition of electron from unstable nuclei.
 Gamma rays bring no change in A & Z of an element.
 Ionization power of radiations  mass i.e α > β > γ
 Penetrating power  Energy/mass.
 Range and penetrating power: γ>β>α
 Deflection: β>α (γ = not deflected)
 Mα = 7000 Me
 Ionization power of β is 100 times less than α – particles.
 Range of β is 100 times greater than α – particles.

 Half-life: T1/2 = Total time / no. of half-lives = t/n

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 For no. of half-lives: n = t/T1/2
 For total nuclei: No = NL + ND
(2n  1) N o
 For decayed nuclei: ND =
2n
 For leftover nuclei: NL = No/2n where n= no. of half-lives
 Half-life interm of decay constant: T1/2 = 0.693/λ
 Decay constant: λ = 0.693/T1/2
 Decay rate/activity: R = ΔN/Δt  -No ⇒ R = -λNo
 S.I unit of activity: Becquerel (Bq) = 1dis/sec
 1 curie = 3.7 x 1010 Bq & Rutherford = 106 Bq
 Radioactivity decay law: NL = No e-λt (t = T1/2)
 Radioactivity is not effected by environmental factors.
 Half-life of N = 12 min, C–14 = 5730 years, U–238 = 4.5 billion years
 Stability  half-life i.e more the half-life, more will be the element stable.
 Geiger – Muller counter is used to detect the radiations.
 Solid state detector (semiconductor diode detector) is used to detect radiation and
works under reverse P-N junction having pulse time 10-7 s.
 Slow/thermal neutrons makes the fission of U-235 while fast neutrons favour the
fission of U-238.
 U – 235 is 0.7% & U-238 is 99.3% in nature.
 Enriched uranium contains greater U – 235 %.
 Thermal reactors: Fuel = U-235, Moderator = heavy water +
graphite, control rods = Cd, B, Hf
 Fast reactors: Fuel = U-238 & Po, Moderator = no, control rod = no
 C – C cycle occurs at higher temperature while P – P cycle occurs at lower
+ +

temperature.

 Strong nuclear force: Range = 10-14 m, mediating particles = mesons,


gluons, strength = 1
 Electromagnetic force: Range = infinity, mediating particles = photons,
strength = Fnuc/100
 Weak nuclear force: Range = 10-14 m, mediating particles = bosons,
strength = Fnuc/1019.
 Gravitational force: Range = infinity, mediating particles = gravitons,
strength = Fnuc/1038.

 Hadron family: Strong nuclear force ⇒ baryons + mesons


 Baryons: Combination of 3 quarks. Contains neutron & proton. Finally decay
into proton. mp ≤ mB ≤ mN
 Mesons: Combination of 2 quarks. Lightest meson is pion. Decay into e-, e+, ν, ν-
, photon. me < mM < mp

 Leptons family: Weak interaction ⇒ e-, e+ , ν, ν-, τ, τ-.


 Leptons: mL ≤ me. Not made of quarks and hence no internal structure and
therefore truly fundamental particles.
 Quarks: Total 6 quarks i.e top, bottom, up, down, charm, strange.
 CUT = + 2/3 e- , BDS = - 1/3 e-
 Proton = 2 up & 1 down, neutron = 2 down & 1 up
 Fission: 200 MeV energy per nucleus.
 Fusion: 3 MeV energy per nucleus.

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