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Jozef Hanca)
Technical University, Faculty of Metallurgy, Department of Metal Forming, Vysokoskolska 4,
042 00 Kosice, Slovakia
Edwin F. Taylorb)
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Physics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
共Received 27 August 2003; accepted 5 December 2003兲
We outline a story line that introduces Newtonian mechanics by employing conservation of energy
to predict the motion of a particle in a one-dimensional potential. We show that incorporating
constraints and constants of the motion into the energy expression allows us to analyze more
complicated systems. A heuristic transition embeds kinetic and potential energy into the still more
powerful principle of least action. © 2004 American Association of Physics Teachers.
关DOI: 10.1119/1.1645282兴
514 Am. J. Phys. 72 共4兲, April 2004 http://aapt.org/ajp © 2004 American Association of Physics Teachers 514
any proposed solution is easily checked by substitution into
the energy equation. Heuristic guesses are assisted by the
fact that the first time derivative of the position, not the sec-
ond, appears in the energy conservation equation.
The following example illustrates the guessing strategy for
linear motion in a parabolic potential. This example also in-
troduces the potential energy diagram, a central feature of
our story line and an important tool in almost every under-
graduate subject.
A. Harmonic oscillator
Our analysis begins with a qualitative prediction of the Fig. 1. The potential energy diagram is central to our treatment and requires
a difficult conceptual progression from a ball rolling down a hill pictured in
motion of a particle in a parabolic potential 共or in any poten- an x-y diagram to a graphical point moving along a horizontal line of
tial with motion bounded near a single potential energy mini- constant energy in an energy-position diagram. Making this progression
mum兲. If we consider the potential energy diagram for a allows the student to describe qualitatively, but in detail, the motion of a
fixed total energy, we can predict that the motion will be particle in a one-dimensional potential at arbitrary positions such as A
periodic. For a parabolic potential 共Fig. 1兲 conservation of through F.
energy is expressed as
E⫽ 12 mẋ 2 ⫹ 21 kx 2 . 共3兲
We rearrange Eq. 共3兲 to read dU 共 x 兲
mẍ⬅F⫽⫺ , 共10兲
dx
m 2 k 2
ẋ ⫽1⫺ x . 共4兲 from which we see that F⫽⫺kx for the harmonic potential
2E 2E
and F⫽⫺mg for the gravitational force near the earth’s sur-
Equation 共4兲 reminds us of the trigonometric identity, face.
cos2 ⫽1⫺sin2 . 共5兲
We set ⫽ t and equate the right-hand sides of Eqs. 共4兲 and IV. NONINTEGRABLE MOTIONS IN ONE
共5兲 and obtain the solution DIMENSION
x⫽⫾ 冉 冊
2E
k
1/2
sin t. 共6兲 We guessed a solution for simple harmonic motion, but it
is important for students to know that for most mechanical
If we take the time derivative of x in Eq. 共6兲 and use it to systems, analytical solutions do not exist, even when the
equate the left-hand sides of Eqs. 共4兲 and 共5兲, we find that18 potential can be expressed analytically. For these cases, our
515 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 72, No. 4, April 2004 J. Hanc and E. F. Taylor 515
The above strategy uses a conservation law to reduce the
number of dimensions. The following example uses con-
straints to the same end.
冉 冊
cases we can use constraints and constants of the motion to
reduce the description to one coordinate. In these cases we 1 I marble 1
apply our standard procedure: qualitative analysis using the ⫽ m⫹ 2 v 2 ⫹mgy⫽ M v 2 ⫹mgy, 共15兲
2 r 2
共effective兲 potential energy diagram followed by interactive
computer solutions. We illustrate this procedure by some ex- where
amples.
I marble
A. Projectile motion M ⫽m⫹ . 共16兲
r2
For projectile motion in a vertical plane subject to a uni- The motion is described by the single coordinate y. Con-
form vertical gravitational field in the y-direction, the total straints are used twice in this example: explicitly in rolling
energy is without slipping and implicitly in the relation between the
E⫽ 12 mẋ 2 ⫹ 21 mẏ 2 ⫹mgy. 共12兲 height y and the displacement along the curve.
The potential energy is not a function of x; therefore, as
shown in the following, momentum in the x-direction, p x , is C. Motion in a central gravitational field
a constant of the motion. The energy equation becomes
We analyze satellite motion in a central inverse-square
1 p 2x gravitational field by choosing the polar coordinates r and
E⫽ mẏ 2 ⫹ ⫹mgy. 共13兲 in the plane of the orbit. The expression for the total energy
2 2m
is
In Newtonian mechanics the zero of the energy is arbitrary,
so we can reduce the energy to a single dimension y by 1 GM m 1 GM m
making the substitution: E⫽ m v 2 ⫺ ⫽ m 共 ṙ 2 ⫹r 2 ˙ 2 兲 ⫺ . 共17兲
2 r 2 r
p 2x
1 The angle does not appear in Eq. 共17兲. Therefore we ex-
E ⬘ ⫽E⫺ ⫽ mẏ 2 ⫹mgy. 共14兲 pect that a constant of the motion is given by E/ ˙ , which
2m 2
represents the angular momentum J. 共We reserve the stan-
Our analysis of projectile motion already has applied a dard symbol L for the Lagrangian, introduced later in this
limited version of a powerful theorem due to Noether.19 The paper.兲
version of Noether’s theorem used here says that when the
total energy E is not an explicit function of an independent E
coordinate, x for example, then the function E/ ẋ is a con- ⫽mr 2 ˙ ⫽J. 共18兲
˙
stant of the motion.20 We have developed a simple, intuitive
derivation of this version of Noether’s theorem. The deriva- We substitute the resulting expression for ˙ into Eq. 共17兲 and
tion is not included in this brief story line. obtain
516 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 72, No. 4, April 2004 J. Hanc and E. F. Taylor 516
Fig. 4. Feynman’s example of the principle of virtual work.
517 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 72, No. 4, April 2004 J. Hanc and E. F. Taylor 517
Then the time average of the kinetic energy K along the two
segments 1 and 2 of the worldline is given by
K avg⫽
K 1 t 1 ⫹K 2 t 2
t total
⫽
1 1
冋
t total 2
1
册
m v 21 t 1 ⫹ m v 22 t 2 .
2
共25兲
We multiply both sides of Eq. 共25兲 by the fixed total time and
recast the velocity expressions using the notation in Fig. 5:
1 d2 1 d2
K avgt total⫽ m 2 t⫹ m 共 t ⫺t 兲
2 t 2 共 t total⫺t 兲 2 total
1 d2 1 d2
⫽ m ⫹ m . 共26兲
2 t 2 共 t total⫺t 兲
We find the minimum value of the average kinetic energy by
taking the derivative with respect to the time t of the central
event:
冉 冊 dK avg
dt
1 d2 1
t total⫽⫺ m 2 ⫹ m
2 t
d2
2 共 t total⫺t 兲 2
1 1
Fig. 5. The time of the middle event is varied to determine the path of the ⫽⫺ m v 21 ⫹ m v 22 ⫽0. 共27兲
2 2
minimum time-averaged kinetic energy.
From Eq. 共27兲 we obtain the equality
1
2 m v 22 ⫽ 12 m v 21 . 共28兲
or W⫽55 lb. Feynman calls this method the principle of vir-
tual work, which in this case is equivalent to the principle of As expected, when the time-averaged kinetic energy has a
least potential energy, both of which express conservation of minimum value, the kinetic energy for a free particle is the
energy. same on both segments; the worldline is straight between the
There are many examples of the principle of minimum fixed initial and final events A and C and satisfies the prin-
potential energy, including a mass hanging on a spring, a ciple of minimum average kinetic energy. The same result
lever, hydrostatic balance, a uniform chain suspended at both follows if the potential energy is uniform in the region under
ends, a vertically hanging slinky,22 and a ball perched on top consideration, because the uniform potential energy cannot
of a large sphere. affect the kinetic energy as the location of point B changes
on the spacetime diagram.
In summary, we have illustrated the fact that for the spe-
VII. FREE PARTICLE. PRINCIPLE OF LEAST cial case of a particle moving in a region of zero 共or uniform兲
AVERAGE KINETIC ENERGY potential energy, the kinetic energy is conserved if we re-
quire that the time average of the kinetic energy has a mini-
For all its power, conservation of energy can predict the mum value. The general expression for this average is
motion of only a fraction of mechanical systems. In this and
Sec. VIII we seek a principle that is more fundamental than
conservation of energy. One test of such a principle is that it
K avg⫽
1
t total
冕
entire
path
K dt. 共29兲
leads to conservation of energy. Our investigations will em-
ploy trial worldlines that are not necessarily consistent with In an introductory text we might introduce at this point a
conservation of energy. sidebar on Fermat’s principle of least time for the propaga-
We first think of a free particle initially at rest in a region tion of light rays.
of zero potential energy. Conservation of energy tells us that Now we are ready to develop a similar but more general
this particle will remain at rest with zero average kinetic law that predicts every central feature of mechanics.
energy. Any departure from rest, say by moving back and
forth, will increase the average of its kinetic energy from the VIII. PRINCIPLE OF LEAST ACTION
zero value. The actual motion of this free particle gives the
least average kinetic energy. The result illustrates what we Section VI discussed the principle of least potential energy
will call the principle of least average kinetic energy. and Sec. VII examined the principle of least average kinetic
Now we view the same particle from a reference frame energy. Along the way we mentioned Fermat’s principle of
moving in the negative x-direction with uniform speed. In least time for ray optics. We now move on to the principle of
this frame the particle moves along a straight worldline. least action, which combines and generalizes the principles
Does this worldline also satisfy the principle of least average of least potential energy and least average kinetic energy.
kinetic energy? Of course, but we can check this expectation A. Qualitative demonstration
and introduce a powerful graphical method established by
Euler.16 We might guess 共incorrectly兲 that the time average of the
We fix two events A and C at the ends of the worldline total energy, the sum of the kinetic and potential energy, has
共see Fig. 5兲 and vary the time of the central event B so that a minimum value between fixed initial and final events. To
the kinetic energy is not the same on the legs labeled 1 and 2. examine the consequences of this guess, let us think of a ball
518 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 72, No. 4, April 2004 J. Hanc and E. F. Taylor 518
Fig. 7. Motion across a potential energy step.
519 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 72, No. 4, April 2004 J. Hanc and E. F. Taylor 519
Fig. 9. A more complicated potential energy diagram, leading in the limit to
a potential energy curve that varies smoothly with position.
520 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 72, No. 4, April 2004 J. Hanc and E. F. Taylor 520
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Their renaming first occurred in the original 1957 Russian edition.
7
Richard P. Feynman, Robert B. Leighton, and Matthew Sands, The Feyn-
The authors acknowledge useful comments by Don S. man Lectures on Physics 共Addison-Wesley, Reading MA, 1964兲, Vol. II,
Lemons, Jon Ogborn, and an anonymous reviewer. pp. 19-8.
8
The technically correct term is principle of stationary action. See I. M.
Gelfand and S. V. Fomin, Calculus of Variations, translated by Richard A.
APPENDIX: DERIVATION OF LAGRANGE’S Silverman 共Dover, New York, 2000兲, Chap. 7, Sec. 36.2. However, we
EQUATIONS FROM NEWTON’S SECOND LAW prefer the conventional term principle of least action for reasons not cen-
tral to the argument of the present paper.
Both Newton’s second law and Lagrange’s equations can 9
Thomas H. Kuhn, ‘‘Energy conservation as an example of simultaneous
be derived from the more fundamental principle of least discovery,’’ in The Conservation of Energy and the Principle of Least
action.13,14 Here we move from one derived formulation to Action, edited by I. Bernard Cohen 共Arno, New York, 1981兲.
10
the other, showing that Lagrange’s equation leads to F E. Noether, ‘‘Invariante Variationprobleme,’’ Nach. v.d. Ges. d. Wiss zu
⫽ma 共and vice versa兲 for particle motion in one Goettingen, Mathphys. Klasse, 235–257 共1918兲; English translation by M.
A. Tavel, ‘‘Invariant variation problem,’’ Transp. Theory Stat. Phys. 1 共3兲,
dimension.28 183–207 共1971兲.
If we use the definition of force in Eq. 共10兲, we can write 11
Richard P. Feynman, ‘‘Space-time approach to non-relativistic quantum
Newton’s second law as: mechanics,’’ Rev. Mod. Phys. 20 共2兲, 367–387 共1948兲.
12
Edwin F. Taylor, ‘‘A call to action,’’ Am. J. Phys. 71 共5兲, 423– 425 共2003兲.
dU 13
F⫽⫺ ⫽mẍ. 共A1兲 Jozef Hanc, Slavomir Tuleja, and Martina Hancova, ‘‘Simple derivation of
dx Newtonian mechanics from the principle of least action,’’ Am. J. Phys. 71
共4兲, 386 –391 共2003兲.
We assume that m is constant and rearrange and recast Eq. 14
Jozef Hanc, Edwin F. Taylor, and Slavomir Tuleja, ‘‘Deriving Lagrange’s
共A1兲 to read equations using elementary calculus,’’ accepted for publication in Am. J.
冋 冉 冊册
Phys. Preprint available at 具http://www.eftaylor.com典.
d 共 ⫺U 兲 d d 共 ⫺U 兲 d d mẋ 2 15
Jozef Hanc, Slavomir Tuleja, and Martina Hancova, ‘‘Symmetries and
⫺ 共 mẋ 兲 ⫽ ⫺ ⫽0. 共A2兲
dx dt dx dt dẋ 2 conservations laws: Consequences of Noether’s theorem,’’ accepted for
publication in Am. J. Phys. Preprint available at 具http://www.eftaylor.com典.
On the right-hand side Eq. 共A2兲 we add terms whose partial 16
Jozef Hanc, ‘‘The original Euler’s calculus-of-variations method: Key to
derivatives are equal to zero: Lagrangian mechanics for beginners,’’ submitted to Am. J. Phys. Preprint
冋 册 冋 冉 冊册
available at 具http://www.eftaylor.com典.
mẋ 2 d mẋ 2 17
Thomas A. Moore, ‘‘Getting the most action out of least action,’’ submit-
⫺U 共 x 兲 ⫺ ⫺U 共 x 兲 ⫽0. 共A3兲
x 2 dt ẋ 2 ted to Am. J. Phys. Preprint available at 具http://www.eftaylor.com典.
18
Student exercise: Show that B cos t and C cos t⫹D sin t are also so-
We then set L⫽K⫺U, which leads to the Lagrange equation lutions. Use the occasion to discuss the importance of relative phase.
19
in one dimension: Benjamin Crowell bases an entire introductory treatment on Noether’s
冋 册
theorem: Discover Physics 共Light and Matter, Fullerton, CA, 1998 –2002兲.
L d L Available at 具http://www.lightandmatter.com典.
⫺ ⫽0. 共A4兲
x dt ẋ
20
Noether’s theorem10 implies that when the Lagrangian of a system (L
⫽K⫺U for our simple cases兲 is not a function of an independent coordi-
This sequence of steps can be reversed to show that nate, x for example, then the function L/ ẋ is a constant of the motion.
Lagrange’s equation leads to Newton’s second law of motion This statement also can be expressed in terms of Hamiltonian dynamics.
for conservative potentials. See, for example, Cornelius Lanczos, The Variational Principles of Me-
chanics 共Dover, New York, 1970兲, 4th ed., Chap. VI, Sec. 9, statement
a兲
Electronic mail: jozef.hanc@tuke.sk above Eq. 共69.1兲. In all the mechanical systems that we consider here, the
b兲
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Electronic mail: total energy is conserved and thus automatically does not contain time
eftaylor@mit.edu explicitly. Also the expression for the kinetic energy K is quadratic in the
1
We use the phrase Newtonian mechanics to mean nonrelativistic, nonquan- velocities, and the potential energy U is independent of velocities. These
tum mechanics. The alternative phrase classical mechanics also applies to conditions are sufficient for the Hamiltonian of the system to be the total
relativity, both special and general, and is thus inappropriate in the context energy. Then our limited version of Noether’s theorem is identical to the
of this paper. statement in Lanczos.
2 21
Sir Isaac Newton’s Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and Reference 7, Vol. 1, p. 4-5.
His System of the World, translated by Andrew Motte and Florian Cajori
22
Don S. Lemons, Perfect Form 共Princeton U.P., Princeton, 1997兲, Chap. 4.
23
共University of California, Berkeley, 1946兲, p. 13. Slavomir Tuleja and Edwin F. Taylor, Principle of Least Action Interac-
3
Herman H. Goldstine, A History of the Calculus of Variations From the tive, available at 具http://www.eftaylor.com典.
24
17th Through the 19th Century 共Springer-Verlag, New York, 1980兲, p. 110. Herbert Goldstein, Charles Poole, and John Safko, Classical Mechanics
4
J. L. Lagrange, Analytic Mechanics, translated by Victor N. Vagliente and 共Addison-Wesley, San Francisco, 2002兲, 3rd ed., Sec. 2.7.
25
Auguste Boissonnade 共Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 2001兲. Tomas Tyc, ‘‘The de Broglie hypothesis leading to path integrals,’’ Eur. J.
5
William Rowan Hamilton, ‘‘On a general method in dynamics, by which Phys. 17 共5兲, 156 –157 共1996兲. An extended version of this derivation is
the study of the motions of all free systems of attracting or repelling points available at 具http://www.eftaylor.com典.
26
is reduced to the search and differentiation of one central Relation or R. P. Feynman and A. R. Hibbs, Quantum Mechanics and Path Integrals
characteristic Function,’’ Philos. Trans. R. Soci. Part II, 247–308 共1834兲; 共McGraw–Hill, New York, 1965兲, p. 29.
27
‘‘Second essay on a general method in dynamics,’’ ibid. Part I, 95–144 Reference 6, Chap. 1; Ref. 24, Sec. 2.3; D. Gerald Jay Sussman and Jack
共1835兲. Both papers are available at 具http://www.emis.de/classics/ Wisdom, Structure and Interpretation of Classical Mechanics 共MIT, Cam-
Hamilton/典. bridge, 2001兲, Chap. 1.
6 28
L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Mechanics, Course of Theoretical Phys- Ya. B. Zeldovich and A. D. Myskis, Elements of Applied Mathematics,
ics 共Butterworth-Heinemann, London, 1976兲, 3rd ed., Vol. 1, Chap. 1. translated by George Yankovsky 共MIR, Moscow, 1976兲, pp. 499–500.
521 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 72, No. 4, April 2004 J. Hanc and E. F. Taylor 521