ANCIENT IDEAS OF THE ATOM

Thales of Miletus (640-546 B.C.)- in both the

synthesis during life and the decomposition after
death, water was the primary component of all
matter.
Anaximenes (526 B.C.) air was the primary
component
Heraclitus (534-475 B.C.) fire
Pythagoras of Samos- concept of a single, primary
element for all matter and suggested that all matter
is a combination of the 4 elements: water, air, fire
and earth.
Empedocles- who developed the theory that all
matter in the universe was composed of various
combinations and proportions of 4 elementary
substances.
Aristotle- supported this Pythagorean view and
added that the 4 elements – and therefore all of
matter-are indefinitely divisible. In addition, he
explained the concept of gravity by assuming that the
four elements had a natural home to return to when
free to do so.
Leucippus of Milet- who first believed that all matter-
including four elements-was composed of a basic
building block: the atom.
Atom-Greek word “atomos” which means invisible.
Democritus of Abdere- who proposed that the atom
has the following characteristics:
1. Invisible because it is extremely small
2. Indivisible because it cannot be broken down to
a tinier unit
3. Solid, spherical, not empty
4. Surrounded by an empty space
5. Eternal because atoms are seamless
 6. Immeasurable number of shapes
Epicurus- supported Democritus’s atomos theory,
saying that belief in such theory can actually help
human beings live better lives.
2.2 Alchemy: The Dark Age of Atomism
Atomism- the theory that all matter is made up of
atoms
Chemistry- is the science of the composition of
matter, its properties and characteristics, and the
changes it undergoes. It is often called the central
science because it connects the physical, life, and
applied sciences. But before it became an important
branch of science, it had rather unscientific history.
Alchemy- a mixture of black magic and scientific
knowledge with much superstition.
Alchemists tried to find a fifth element( the
quintessence) which, they believed, could control the
changing of one substance into another.
Phillipus Aureolus Paracelsus- an alchemist and
physician by profession and considered as the
“Father of Toxicology”.
Alchemy 3 aim goals:
1.Find the elixir of life” which can bring wealth,
power, and immortality;
2.Find the so called ‘philosopher’s stone” which can
turn base metals into gold
3.Discover the cosmological relationship of humans.
 2.3 Revival of Atomism
Pierre Gassendi- a French priest, philosopher, and
scholar of science and ancient texts, rejected the
view that matter is infinitely divisible. Indivisible
principles states that the closer these principles are
put together, the harder is the material object;
whereas the more void there is between these
principles, the softer is the object.
Robert Boyle- he developed a principles of gases-
now known as Boyle’s Law- which state that ‘at
constant temperature, the volume of gas decreases
as the pressure increases”. Father of Chemistry
Isaac Newton- published Opticks, in which he
analyzed the corpuscular nature of light. He explains
that both matter and light are made up of corpuscles.
2.4.1 Dalton’s “Billiard Ball” Model
Democritus-first person credited to propose the very
first model of the atom. He believed that matter was
composed of invisible, homogenous solid, which vary
in size and shape.
John Dalton- revived and developed the modern
atomic theory. He suggested that all atoms of an
element have the same size and weight, and that the
atoms of an element bond chemically in simple ratios
to form compounds. Law of Multiple Proportion-
which states that when two elements form more
than one compound by combining in more than one
proportion by weight, the weight of one element in
one of the compounds is in simple, integer ratios to
its weights in the other compounds.
2.4.2 The Subatomic Particles and Thomson’s Plum
Pudding Model
Joseph John Thomson- discovered that Dalton’s
atomic model was not accurate. He proposed that
atoms are uniform spheres of positively charged
matter in which negatively charged electrons are
embedded. “Plum Pudding or Raisin Bread” that are
stuffed like raisins in + charged mass or loaf of bread
Sir William Crookes- invented the tube in which he
discharged cathode rays into the tube and observed
that the rays inside the tube were bent by a magnet.
George Johnstone Stoney- cathode ray was called
electric ion two years after the word “proton”.
Eugen Goldstein- discovered a subatomic particle in
1886. He found out that the rays were attracted to
the cathode (-) and passed through holes or canals in
the cathode, causing the end of the tube to glow.
“Canal Rays”
Wilhelm Wein- coined the term proton to describe
the positively charged particle.
2.4.3 Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of the Atom
Ernest Rutherford- interested in the structure of
atoms from which radioactivity radiated. He also
concluded that the nucleus is composed of nucleons.
These nucleons are of two types: + charged particles
(proton) and neutrally charged particles (neutron).
James Chadwick- who discovered the neutron in
1932. By this time, scientist are made up of 3 kinds of
subatomic particles: proton, neutron, and electron.
The charge, location, and mass are determined.
Particle Location Charge ( C) Mass (g) Mass (amu)
Proton inside the nucleus 1.60 x 10 1.67 x 10 1.0073=1
Neutron inside the nucleus 0 1.675 x 10 1.0087=1
Electron outside the nucleus 1.602 x 10 9.109 x 10 0.0006=0
 Henry Mosley- found out that the atoms of each
element contain a unique positive charge in their
nucleus.
The periodic table of elements shows the symbol of
the elements – the atomic number (bottom) and the
mass number (top). This is known as the nuclear
symbol.

2.4.4 Quantum Hypothesis and Photoelectric Effect

Marx Karl Ludwig Planck- came up with the quantum
hypothesis in order to solve the problem of how the
radiation emitted by an object is related to the
temperature of the object. Planck’s quantum
hypothesis states that a physical system cannot have
random quantities assuming that the energy comes
in little bundles called quanta.
Albert Einstein- proposed that light also delivers its
energy in bundles called photons, each with an
-34
energy of Planck’s constant h (6.626 x 10 J•s)
times its frequency: E=hf
2.4.5 Bohr’s Planetary Model of the Atom
Niels Bohr- proposed his quantized planetary model
of the atom to elucidate how electrons can have
stable orbits around the nucleus. Moreover, Bohr
hypothesized the following;
1.Electrons in atoms are permissible to be in certain
states. Each stationary state is associated with a
certain energy.
2.No energy emission occurs while an electron is in
a stationary state.
3.In any stationary state, an electron moves in a
circular orbit around the nucleus.
4.An electron is allowed to move with an angular
momentum.

2.4.6 Schrodinger’s Electron Cloud Model

Louise de Broglie- proposed the dual nature of
electrons, suggesting that every particle had
wavelike properties and its wavelength is related to
its mass.
Werner Heisenberg-suggested the uncertainty
principle, which states that the position and
momentum of a small moving particle could not be
measured or known accurately at the same time.
Erwin Schrodinger- developed a powerful atomic
models based on waved functions, which further
based on the assumption that the electron is a wave.
His model allows electron to occupy 3-dimensional .
2.5 Isotopes
Isotopes – when an element has 2 or more versions
of atoms, each will have the same number of
protons but differ in the number of neutrons; unlike
versions
John Dalton- postulate that all atoms of the same
element are identical was abandoned.
Half-life –the amount of time it takes for a half of
the atoms to decay into a more stable form.
Uranium-238 has a half-life of 4.5 billion years
Co-60 has only half-life of 5.3 years
2.6 Radioactivity and the Nuclear Reaction
Ernest Rutherford- discovered the three different
types of radiation: alpha (α) or positively charged
particle, beta (β) or negatively charged particle; and
gamma (γ) or the uncharged ray.
a.Alpha emission- two protons and two neutrons
leave as an alpha particle, resulting in a lighter
element
b. Beta emission- a neutron becomes a proton and
electron is ejected, resulting a new element with
the same mass
c. Position emission- a proton becomes a neutron,
resulting a new element with the same mass
d. Gamma radiation- are released when a
radioactive nuclide leaves a nucleus in an excited
state.
The Particulate Nature of Matter
 the polarity or dipole moment of a molecule
depends on the polarity of each bond present, as
well as on the structure of the molecule. Polar
covalent bond results from the large
electronegativity difference between the atoms in
 the bond. Presence of symmetry in the structure of
the molecule sometimes leads to the cancellation
of bond polarities or bond dipoles.
 Polarity relates to melting and boiling points,
solubility and intermolecular interactions between
molecules. Polar molecules have stronger forces
 holding molecules together. As a result, polar
molecules in liquid and solid phases require higher
boiling point and melting point, respectively.
 The different types of intermolecular forces (IMF)
can be grouped depending on the nature of the
particles involved. Ions are capable of producing
ion-dipole forces with polar molecules and ion-
induced dipole with nonpolar molecules. Polar
molecules have dipole moments resulting in dipole-
dipole interaction between molecules. H-bonding is
a special dipole-dipole interaction involving a
hydrogen atom covalently bonded to oxygen,
 nitrogen, or fluorine. Polar molecules with
nonpolar molecules only exhibit dispersion forces.
 Molecules with stronger intermolecular forces
have relatively higher boiling point because of the
higher energy required to change phases.
 Polarizability is the ease in which the electron
distribution of an atom can be distorted to produce
a temporary dipole moment. The bigger the size of
a nonpolar molecule, the more polarizable it is,
causing the molecule to have stronger dispersion
forces acting upon it and making its boiling point
 higher. Bigger surface area of molecules resulting
in greater attraction results in higher boiling point
as compared to molecules of the same size but
having different shapes.
 Properties of liquids such as surface tension,
viscosity, and capillarity are also affected by
intermolecular forces. Surface tension is the
resistance of the liquid to increase its surface area.
Viscosity is the measure of the resistance of a liquid
to flow. Stronger attraction leads to higher surface
tension and higher viscosity. Capillarity is the
spontaneous rising of a liquid through a narrow
space against the pull of gravity. The
intermolecular force is also known as the cohesive
force. This, together with the adhesive force – or
the force between the container and liquid
molecules – is responsible for the capillary action.
 Examples of advanced materials are
magnetorheological fluids (MRF), ceramics, and
organoceramics. MRFs can change their viscosity
upon exposure to magnetic field making them a
suitable damper for prosthesis. Ceramics and
organoceramics are strong but brittle and are
 chemical-and heat- resistant. They are used for
engines, cutting tools, hip and knee replacement
implants, insulators in electronics and suitable
material for artificial bones.
 Cellulose and chitin are two types of
carbohydrates that have increased structural
strength resulting from the presence of H-bonding
in these polymerchains. Collagen, a protein
abundant in mammals, have high strength due to
the H-bonding between the amides and carbonyl
groups in the amino acid sequence.
 In the structure of DNA, the nitrogen bases
purines and pyrimidines form specific base pairs
through H-bonding, making a consistent diameter
of the double helical structure.
 The mechanism in which soap can remove oil
from our body is through a combination of
dispersion forces, ion-dipole interaction, and H-
bonding. The nonpolar tail forms attractive forces
with the oil in our skin. The water used for washing
interacts with the ionic head of the soap and other
water molecules.
4.1 Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction
Collision theory states that for reactants to
transform into products, there should be effective
collision among the reactant particles. An effective
collision entails enough energy in the collision of
the reactants to overcome the activation energy
needed, and these reactants must be oriented in
such a way that old bonds are broken and new
bonds can be formed to create the products.
The activation energy (Eᴀ) is the minimum energy
that the reactants must surpass in order that the
reaction can proceed. It is independent of the
potential energy of the reactants and products.

4.1.1 Concentration
Higher concentration will increase the frequency of
collision between the substances, thereby
increasing the probability of having effective
collision and increasing the rate of the reaction. An
increase in temperature will lead to an increase in
the kinetic energy of the substances, leading to
more chances of high energy collision increasing the
rate of reaction. A decrease in particle size will
provide bigger surface area for chemical reaction,
increasing the rate of chemical reaction.
When reactants are mixed, the amount of surface
area is considered. A large surface area means that
there is more contact between reactants. The
contact area provides the site for interaction
between the reactants. The interaction leads to
chemical reaction. For example, a bar laundry soap
will dissolve in water more slowly than the same
soap in powdered form, because water has more
access to and greater contact surface interaction
with the powdered soap. The powdered laundry
soap has smaller particles, providing larger surface
area. Reactions occur faster with the surface area of
the reactants is increased.
Rate α contact area 1/ α particle size

4.1.2 Temperature
Increase in temperature leads to an increase in
kinetic energy. Faster movement of reactants leads
to a higher frequency of collisions. The kinetic
energy also increases the energy of the collision.
The higher frequency of collisions, as well as higher
energy of collision, will result in more effective
where reactants are transformed to product,
thereby increasing the rate of the chemical
reaction.
Rate α collision energy α temperature

4.1.3 Presence of Catalyst

 A catalyst is a substance that is added to speed up
the reaction, thereby increasing the rate but is not
consumed in the process. The catalyst acts by
lowering the net activation energy of the chemical
reaction.
4.2 Amounts of Reactants and Products
Stoichiometry- is the study of quantitative
relationships involved in chemical reactions. The
calculation of masses of reactants and products in a
chemical reaction involves the following:

a. Balancing of the chemical equation

b. Conversion of known masses of substances to
their corresponding number of moles
c. Use of mole ratio from the balanced equations to
determine the moles of desired substances, and
d. Conversion of moles of desired substances to
grams if needed, based on the problem
The reaction of the chalk with hydrochloric acid
produced carbon dioxide gas and calcium chloride
dissolved in water.
CaCO₃(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl₂ (aq) = H₂O (I) + CO₂(g)
 If 2.4 ml of the 1 M HCl reacyed with the
powdered chalk were present? First, the moles of
HCl that reacted must be determined from the
volume and concentration of HCl solution used.
This is solved by multiplying the volume( in liters)
used up by the molarity which is equivalent to
moles HCl per liter solution.
1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
0.0024𝐿 𝑥 =0.0024 mol HCl
1 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

From the balanced equation, there are two

moles of HCl reacting with one mole of CaCO₃,
 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 CaCO₃
therby having a mole ratio of = 0.0012
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
mol as CaCO₃ as the unit.
1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂₃
0.0024 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑥 =0.0012 mol CaCO₃
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
To convert the mole of CaCO₃ into grams, it is
multiplied by its molar mass of 100.09g/mol.
 100.09𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂₃
0.0012 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 =0.12 g CaCO₃
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂₃
Summarizing the series of steps to solve for the
mass of CaCO₃ reacting with the given amount of
HCl,
1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂₃ 100.09𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂₃
0.0024 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 = 0.12𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂₃
1𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂₃
Example. When a person’s stomach over secretes
HCl aci, the person treats it with antacids. Some
antacids in the market are made up of aluminum
hydroxide (Al(OH)₃), milk of magnesia
(Mg(OH)₂),and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃).
Which of the three antacids is more effective per
gram.
Step 1. Set up the balanced chemical equations.
(Al(OH)₃ (s) + 3HCl (aq) AlCl₃ (aq) + 3 H₂O (I)
Mg(OH)₂ (s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl₂ (aq) + 2 H₂O (I)
NaHCO₃(s) +HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H₂O (I) + CaCO₂ (g)
Step 2. Identify the given amounts of antacids.
1.00g Al(OH) ₃
1.00 g Mg(OH) ₂
1.00 g NaHCO₃

Step 3. Solve for mole HCl reacting with each type of antacid.
 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)₃ 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙
1.00𝑔 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)₃ 𝑥 x = 3.80
78.00𝑔 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)₃ 78.00𝑔 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)₃
x 10ˉ₂ mol HCI

1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)₂ 2𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝐼

1.00 g Mg(OH)₂ x x = 3.40
58.32𝑔 𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)₂ 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)₃
x 10ˉ₂ mol HCI
 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂₃ 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 HCI
1.00 g NaHCO₃ x x = 1.20 x
84.01𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂₃ 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂₃
10ˉ₂ mol HCI

Based on the values that were computed, AI(OH)₃

was able to react with the highest number of moles
of hydrochloric acid.
Activity 4.4

Show your solution to the correct number of

significant figures. Use your own periodic table to
solve for molar mass.
1. Potassium nitrate when exposed to heat
decomposes to potassium oxide and gaseous
nitrogen and oxygen:
4KNO₃(s) 2K₂O(s) + 2N₂(g) + 50₂(g)
 To produce 28.3 g of oxygen, how many (a)
moles of KNO₃ and (b) grams of KNO₃ must be
heated?
2.Striking a match stick on the matchbox involves
the reaction of potassium chlorate and red
phosphorus with the following equation:
10 KCIO₃ (s) + 3P₄ (s) 3P₄O₁₀(s)+ 10 KCl(s)
₄
How much of each reactant will be needed to
produce 105.8 g of tetraphosphorus decaoxide
(P₄O₁₀)?
 4.3 Limiting and Excess Reactants
Example Problem
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) reacts with phosphoric
acid (H3PO4) to form sodium phosphate (Na3PO4)
and water (H2O) by the reaction:
 3 NaOH(aq) + H3PO4(aq) → Na3PO4(aq) + 3 H2O(l)
If 35.60 grams of NaOH is reacted with 30.80 grams
of H3PO4,
a. How many grams of Na3PO4 are formed?
b. What is the limiting reactant?
c. How many grams of the excess reactant remains
when the reaction is complete?
Useful information:
 Molar mass of NaOH = 40.00 grams
 Molar mass of H3PO4 = 98.00 grams
 Molar mass of Na3PO4 = 163.94 grams
Solution
To determine the limiting reactant, calculate the
amount of product formed by each reactant. The
reactant the produces the least amount of product is
the limiting reactant.
To determine the number of grams of
Na3PO4 formed:
  grams Na3PO4 = (grams reactant) x (mole of
reactant/molar mass of reactant) x (mole ratio:
product/reactant) x (molar mass of product/mole
product)
Amount of Na3PO4 formed from 35.60 grams of
NaOH
  grams Na3PO4 = (35.60 g NaOH) x (1 mol
NaOH/40.00 g NaOH) x (1 mol Na3PO4/3 mol
NaOH) x (163.94 g Na3PO4/1 mol Na3PO4)
 grams of Na3PO4 = 48.64 grams
Amount of Na3PO4 formed from 30.80 grams of
H3PO4
  grams Na3PO4 = (30.80 g H3PO4) x (1 mol
H3PO4/98.00 grams H3PO4) x (1 mol Na3PO4/1 mol
H3PO4) x (163.94 g Na3PO4/1 mol Na3PO4)
 grams Na3PO4 = 51.52 grams
The sodium hydroxide formed less product than the
phosphoric acid. This means the sodium hydroxide
was the limiting reactant and 48.64 grams of sodium
phosphate is formed.
To determine the amount of excess
reactant remaining, the amount used is needed.
 grams of reactant used = (grams of product
formed) x (1 mol of product/molar mass of
 product) x (mole ratio of reactant/product) x
(molar mass of reactant)
 grams of H3PO4 used = (48.64 grams Na3PO4) x (1
mol Na3PO4/163.94 g Na3PO4) x (1 mol H3PO4/1
mol Na3PO4) x (98 g H3PO4/1 mol)
 grams of H3PO4 used = 29.08 grams
This number can be used to determine the
remaining amount of excess reactant.
 Grams H3PO4 remaining = initial grams H3PO4 -
grams H3PO4 used
 grams H3PO4 remaining = 30.80 grams - 29.08
grams
  grams H3PO4 remaining = 1.72 grams
Answer
When 35.60 grams of NaOH is reacted with 30.80
grams of H3PO4,
a. 48.64 grams of Na3PO4 are formed.
b. NaOH was the limiting reactant.
c. 1.72 grams of H3PO4 remain at completion.

Activity:
1. Take the reaction: NH3 + O2 NO + H2O. In an
experiment, 3.25 g of NH3 are allowed to react with
3.50 g of O2.
a. Which reactant is the limiting reagent?
b. How many grams of NO are formed?
c. How much of the excess reactant remains after
the reaction?
Calculating Percent Yield
The amount of product a limiting reactant produces
is known as the theoretical yield of the product. But
theoretical yield is not always achieved because of
certain factors such as side relations and different
conditions. Percent yield (% yield) is the actual yield
of the product over the theoretical yield multiplied
by 100.
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
percent yield = x 100
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

4.00 g of ammonia and 8.00 g of oxygen. If only 5.4 grams of

nitrogen monoxide are produces, what is its % yield?
Step 1: Find the limiting reactant. Sometimes, the limiting
reagent is explicitly identified in the problem.
Step 2. Find the theoretical amount of product produced from
the limiting reagent
Theoretical yield= 6.00 g NO
Step 3. Solve for the % yield.
5.40 𝑔 𝑁𝑂
% yield= x 100= 90.0%
6.00 𝑔 𝑁𝑜
4.4 Energy Involved in Chemical Reactions

Endothermic reactions - Not all chemical reactions

occur at room temperature. Some reactions the
addition of heat or the absorption of heat from its
surroundings.
 Cold packs work when the chemical compound
ammonium nitrate (NH₄NO₃) mixes with water and
absorbs the heat from the surroundings, thereby
making it cold.
NH₄NO₃ (s) + heat NH₄ + (aq) + NO₃ -(aq)
 Reactions that produce heat are called exothermic
reactions. Examples of these include cellular
respiration, combustion of fuels, and hot packs. Hot
packs usually have magnesium sulfate or calcium
chloride. The reaction of either ionic salts when
mixed with water gives off heat.
4.5 Other Sources of Energy
Chemical energy from biochemical and chemical
processes.
 Fossil fuels- are hydrocarbons, primarily
coal, fuel oil or natural gas, formed from the
remains of dead plants and animals. In common
 dialogue, the term fossil fuel also includes
hydrocarbon-containing natural resources that are
not derived from animal or plant sources.
 Biomass- is plant or animal material used for
energy production, or in various industrial
processes as raw material for a range of products.
 It can be purposely grown energy crops, wood or
forest residues, waste from food crops,
horticulture, food processing, animal farming, or
human waste from sewage plants.
 Batteries- a device that stores chemical energy
and makes it available in an electrical form.
It consists of one or more voltaic cells, each of which
is composed of two half cells connected in series by
the conductive electrolyte.
Hydrothermal, geothermal, and solar cell
involve the combination of different energy
transformation from kinetic and thermal energy to
 mechanical and electrical energy, using turbines
and photovoltaic cells.

5.1 Household Cleaning Products

Product Definition Examples
Category
General Surface cleaners clearly Multi-purpose spray
purpose or intended for use in the cleaners, floor wall
multipurpo variety of application in cleaners, disinfecting
se the household cleaners,
concentrated
cleaners
Bathroom Cleaners intended to Tub and tile
primarily for use on cleaners, mildew
bathroom surfaces, such stain removers,
as tiles and tubs shower cleaners
Disinfectan Products that disinfect Liquid, spray, or
ts but not necessarily clean concentrated
surfaces cleaners
Germicides Products designed to kill Liquid, spray, or
germs and bacteria on concentrated
surfaces cleaners
Scouring Surface cleaners with Scouring powders,
Cleaners abrasive Scouring pastes or
liquids
Glass Cleaners intended Pump spray, aerosol,
Cleaners primarily for use on glass or liquid glass
surfaces cleaners
Carpet/Up Cleaners specifically Liquids, foams, or
holstery designed for use in dry powders,
cleaners fabrics and upholstery including products
material
 for use in rental
machines
Spot/Stain Cleaning products Cleaning fluids, stain
removers designed to remove sticks, enzyme spot
spots or stains on removers
surfaces, excluding
bleaches
Toilet Bowl Products designed Liquid or crystal
Cleaners specifically to clean the acid-based cleaners,
toilet bowl detergent cleaners
Automatic Products which are Blocks, tablets,
Toilet placed in the toilet tank controlled release
Cleaners and which drip or bottles
dissolve, providing
 continuous cleaning of
the bowl

5.2 General Types of Active and Their Uses

Types of Ingredients Definition and Uses
Surfactants(surface These are chemicals which
active ingredients) function by breaking down the
 interface between water and
dirt. They form the basis for
most aqueous cleaners.
Builders These are both organic and
inorganic chemicals whose
function is to improve the
cleaning efficiency of the
surfactants. They are also used
to adjust or maintain the pH of
the washing solution, reduce
water hardness by removing
calcium and either metal ions,
 and maintain, boost, or reduce
foam height.

Solvents These are chemicals used to dissolve

oil and grease
Antimicrobials These are pesticides which kill
bacteria, fungus, or mildew on
surfaces. They can also be used in
smaller amounts as preservatives.
Miscellaneous These include abrasives, fragrances,
dyes, thickeners, hydrotopes, and
 preservatives. Substances that are
not under the aforementioned
ingredients also fall under this type.

Amphoteric surfactants- carry both negative and

positive charge (acid or base).