https://doi.org/10.1130/G45810.

Manuscript received 14 November 2018

Revised manuscript received 13 February 2019
Manuscript accepted 15 February 2019

© 2019 Geological Society of America. For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org.

Published online 11 March 2019

Subducted seamount diverts shallow slow slip to the forearc of

the northern Hikurangi subduction zone, New Zealand
Heather R. Shaddox1 and Susan Y. Schwartz1
1
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, California, 95064 USA

ABSTRACT (Nadeau and McEvilly, 1999) and at subduc-

Fluid migration and pore fluid pressure have been implicated in generating the transi- tion zones (Igarashi et al., 2003; Uchida et al.,
tional fault zone properties thought to be important for slow slip events (SSEs) in subduction 2004). “Burst-type” repeating earthquakes are
zones. At the northern Hikurangi margin, New Zealand, overpressurized sediments spatially concentrated in time, have short and irregular
correlated with shallow SSEs are imaged downdip of subducted seamounts, providing an repeat intervals, and are commonly observed
excellent environment to study the relationship between subducted oceanic relief, fluids, during aftershock sequences or afterslip fol-
shallow SSEs, and related microseismicity. Using data from ocean-bottom seismometers, we lowing large-magnitude events (Igarashi et al.,
detect “burst-type” repeating earthquakes coincident with tremor on an upper-plate fracture 2003; Kimura et al., 2006; Templeton et al., 2008;
network above a subducted seamount. This activity occurred at the edge of a large, shallow Igarashi, 2010; Yao et al., 2017; Li et al., 2018).
SSE recorded offshore of Gisborne, New Zealand, in September–October 2014, but began These earthquakes commonly have variable mag-
days to weeks after the SSE and continued for nearly two months. We propose that during nitude, indicating the failure of distinct asperi-
the large plate-boundary SSE, fluids migrated from the downdip overpressurized sediments ties. In a few instances, migrating sequences
into the fracture network, diverting aseismic slip to multiple faults in the upper plate. Thus, of burst-type repeating earthquakes, generally
seamount subduction appears to play a key role in controlling the mechanics of shallow slow accompanied by an increase in microseismicity,
slip and microseismicity at the northern Hikurangi margin. have been interpreted as evidence for SSEs pre-
ceding large earthquakes (Kato et al., 2012; Meng
INTRODUCTION SSEs in Costa Rica (Saffer and Wallace, 2015), et al., 2015). Some studies have also reported
Most observational and theoretical studies of Nankai (Japan; Kodaira et al., 2004), Ecuador burst-type repeating earthquakes triggered by
slow slip events (SSEs) suggest that they occur in (Collot et al., 2017), and New Zealand (Bell fluid intrusion (Bourouis and Bernard, 2007;
conditionally stable frictional regimes, often inter- et al., 2010). Wang and Bilek (2011) suggested Mesimeri and Karakostas, 2018). Thus, rather
preted as the transition between velocity-strength- that subducted seamounts generate a complex than tectonic loading, burst-type repeating earth-
ening (i.e., aseismic slip) and velocity-weakening fracture network in the upper plate, resulting quakes are often associated with aseismic slip or
(i.e., stick slip) zones (Schwartz and Rokosky, in a heterogeneous and distributed stress field fluid migration. Therefore, sequences of burst-
2007; Bürgmann, 2018). Transitional fault zone favorable for aseismic creep and microseismicity. type repeating earthquakes can be indicators of
stability can be influenced by geometrical com- Tectonic tremor and low-frequency earth- transient slow slip, similar to tectonic tremor,
plexity (Romanet et al., 2018), high pore fluid quakes (LFEs) are considered to be the seismic providing another way to indirectly detect shal-
pressure and/or low effective stress (Liu and Rice, manifestations of the same process as SSEs and low SSEs. To this end, we evaluate the spatio-
2007), or a combination of mechanisms (Saffer have therefore been used to infer the presence temporal relationship between burst-type repeat-
and Wallace, 2015). Continuously operating GPS and location of both deep (Wech and Creager, ing earthquakes and the well-recorded Mw 6.8
(cGPS) networks have enabled the detection of 2011) and shallow SSEs (Walter et al., 2013; shallow SSE that occurred offshore of Gisborne,
SSEs at many subduction margins (Schwartz and Annoura et al., 2017). In this paper, we dem- North Island, New Zealand, in September–Octo-
Rokosky, 2007; Bürgmann, 2018). However, the onstrate the utility of another form of micro- ber 2014 (Wallace et al., 2016). We utilize data
shallow portion (<15 km) of many subduction seismicity, repeating earthquakes, to identify the from the Hikurangi Ocean Bottom Investigation
zones is typically located far offshore (>50 km), occurrence of SSEs. of Tremor and Slow Slip (HOBITSS, http://​www​
out of the range of cGPS land networks. This pres- Repeating earthquakes are sequences of .obsip​.org​/experiments​/experiment​-table​/2014​
ents an observational limitation of shallow SSEs events with nearly identical waveforms thought to /hobitss) experiment and focus on the complex
that may be improved using related secondary involve repeated rupture of the same fault asper- relationship between subducted oceanic relief,
seismicity, such as tremor and microearthquakes, ity (Nadeau and Johnson, 1998) or short-distance shallow SSEs, and related microseismicity.
to infer the location of shallow offshore SSEs. triggering of closely spaced asperities (Uchida
Transitional frictional properties that promote and Bürgmann, 2019). “Continual-type” repeat- HIKURANGI SUBDUCTION MARGIN
shallow SSEs may in some cases be a result of ing earthquakes rupture small plate interface New Zealand is located on the boundary of
subducted oceanic relief. Wang and Bilek (2014) asperities quasi-periodically due to continuous the Pacific and Australian tectonic plates (Fig. 1).
suggested that creep is the predominant mode tectonic loading by the surrounding stably slid- Offshore the North Island, the Hikurangi Plateau,
of motion in areas of rough subducted seafloor. ing plate, and have been used to estimate creep a large igneous province with numerous sea-
Further, subducted relief has been correlated with rates both on plate-boundary transform faults mounts, subducts beneath the Australian plate at a

CITATION: Shaddox, H.R., and Schwartz, S.Y., 2019, Subducted seamount diverts shallow slow slip to the forearc of the northern Hikurangi subduction zone,
New Zealand: Geology, v. 47, p. 415–418, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1130​/G45810.1

Geological Society of America  | GEOLOGY |  Volume 47  |  Number 5  |  www.gsapubs.org 415

Downloaded from https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-pdf/47/5/415/4680670/415.pdf

by Univ of Louisiana at Lafayette user
 38°S
HOBITSS ocean-bottom seismometer
N land GeoNet (https://​www​.geonet​.org​.nz/) seis-
HOBITSS absolute pressure gauge
38°S
mic stations and relocating them where possible
40

GeoNet onshore seismometer

using GrowClust, a relative relocation algorithm
2014 Gisborne SSE (mm slow slip) Australian
Subducted seamount Plate
Pacific Figure 1. Map of Hikurangi that uses waveform cross-correlations (Trugman
0
−3

Plate Ocean Bottom Investiga- and Shearer, 2017). We use a local one-dimen-
30

42°S
tion of Tremor and Slow
sional interpretation of the New Zealand three-
Slip (HOBITSS, http://​www​
km
174°E 178°E 100
0
km100

.obsip​. org​/ experiments​ dimensional velocity model (Eberhart-Phillips

20

LOBS−1
/experiment​- table​/ 2014​ et al., 2010) and relocate 773 out of 2194 events.
LOBS−2 /hobitss) array. Slow slip We select events (relocated with GrowClust or
15

EOBS−3EOBS−4 c o n to u rs ( bl u e l i n e s ,
LOBS−7 not) with final locations near the SSE (±5 km
EOBS−1 in mm) are from Wallace
0
EOBS−2 LOBS−3 et al. (2016). Slab depth of the plate interface) for a total of 123 template
25 LOBS−8
contours (km, black events (Fig. 2; Fig. DR1 in the GSA Data Reposi-
12

15
0 dashed lines) are from tory1). A cross-correlation coefficient of ≥0.95 at
EOBS−5 LOBS−6 Williams et  al. (2013). three or more HOBITSS OBS stations is consid-
39°S 50 SSE—slow slip event.
LOBS−9 ered a repeating earthquake candidate. See the
9

LOBS−10 LOBS−5 LOBS−4

N Data Repository for further method details.
6

50 km
178°E 179°E
RESULTS
A total of 29 repeating earthquake families
rate of 2–3 cm/yr at southern Hikurangi, increas- These HRZs have been broadly correlated with are identified within the SSE area (Figs. 2 and 3).
ing to 5–6 cm/yr at the northern Hikurangi margin recorded locations of shallow SSEs from A.D. Families consist of two to seven repeating earth-
(Wallace et al., 2004). Shallow (<15 km) SSEs 2002 to 2008 (Bell et al., 2010). quakes. Two families occur before the SSE, north
are well documented at the central and northern of the main slow-slip zone. Two families, one
Hikurangi margin from land cGPS; however, slow DATA AND METHODS within peak slow slip and one co-located with
slip is not well resolved offshore. These shallow The HOBITSS experiment deployed 24 a subducted seamount, occur during but toward
SSEs usually last one to three weeks, have mod- absolute pressure gauges (APGs) and 15 ocean- the end of the SSE. The remainder of the families
erate moment release (Mw 6.3–6.8), have 18–24 bottom seismometers (OBSs) offshore of Gis- occur days to seven weeks after the reported SSE
month recurrence intervals (Wallace and Beavan, borne, New Zealand, from May 2014 to June with a spatial concentration at the subducted sea-
2010; Wallace et al., 2012), and are associated 2015 above the shallow, episodic SSEs in the mount (Figs. 2–4; Table DR1 in the Data Reposi-
with tectonic tremor (Todd et al., 2018). northern Hikurangi subduction margin (Fig. 1). tory) and a weak temporal progression eastward.
Bell et al. (2010) found a general correla- The HOBITSS network recorded an equiva- Although we are unable to determine definitive
tion between the location of SSEs and high- lent Mw 6.8 SSE in September–October 2014 focal mechanisms, P-wave first motion polarities
amplitude reflectivity zones (HRZ) thought to directly beneath the array (Wallace et al., 2016), at several stations for 75% of the events located
be subducted sediments entrained in front of downdip of a subducted seamount. at the seamount are inconsistent with thrusting on
subducted seamounts that are located directly To find repeating earthquakes, we perform the plate interface. The repeat times within fami-
updip of the HRZs. These locations on the inter- template matching using EQcorrscan software lies are short and irregular, ranging from minutes
face in front of the seamounts are suggested to (Chamberlain and Hopp, 2017; https://​eqcorrscan​ to one month, and events within families have
be sites of fluid overpressure (Ellis et al., 2015). .readthedocs​.io​/en​/latest/). We identify suitable varying magnitudes (Fig. 3), behaviors consistent
Elevated pore fluid pressures promote SSEs by templates by starting with two earthquake cata- with burst-type repeating earthquakes (hereafter
reducing effective stresses (Kodaira et al., 2004; logs (J. Yarce, 2018, personal commun.; Todd referred to as repeating earthquakes).
Liu and Rice, 2007; Saffer and Wallace, 2015). et al., 2018) compiled using HOBITSS OBSs and
DISCUSSION
Most of the repeating earthquakes co-locate
B “Burst-type”
repeaters HOBITSS 38°S Figure 2. A: Map of tem- with a subducted seamount, begin at the very end
Tremor ocean-bottom seismometer plate events (small stars),
SSE of the SSE, continue for about seven weeks, then
0

Slow slip event

−4

GeoNet seismometer repeating ear thquake

2014 SSE (mm slow slip) families (large stars), and terminate (Fig. 3). General background seismicity
Subducted seamount tectonic tremor (circles; also increases at the subducted seamount imme-
0
−3

High-amplitude reflectivity Todd et al., 2018) at north-

15 Sep 25 Sep 5 Oct 15 Oct 25 Oct 4 Nov 14 Nov 24 Nov 3 Dec
zone diately following the SSE (Todd et al., 2018).
ern Hikurangi subduction Todd et al. (2018) detected tectonic tremor at the
zone, New Zealand, all
downdip edge of the subducted seamount that
20

colored by time . Slab

depth contours (km, black migrates northeastward starting at the very end of
dashed lines) are from the reported SSE and continuing for about three
15

Williams et  al. (2013). weeks following it (Figs. 2–4). These observa-
B: Tremor and “burst-type” tions of migrating tectonic tremor, an increase in
repeating earthquakes
12

B seismicity rate, and repeating earthquakes have

(Fig. 3) 05
CM n e a r s u b d u c te d s e a -
-04 mount plotted for temporal all been associated with strain transients and pro-
39°S comparison. September– vide strong evidence of aseismic slip above the
9

October 2014 slow slip subducted seamount.

N event (SSE) timing is indi-
6

cated in both A (small

A 178°E 179°E
50 km 1
GSA Data Repository item 2019144, additional
arrow) and B. 05CM-04— details on methods, supplemental Figures DR1–DR7,
seismic reflection profile and supplemental Table DR1, is available online at
May Jan. July
of Barker et al. (2018) (see http://​www​.geosociety​.org​/datarepository​/2019/, or
July Sept. Nov. Mar. May
2014 2015 Fig. 4). on request from editing@​geosociety​.org.

416 www.gsapubs.org  |  Volume 47  |  Number 5  | GEOLOGY |  Geological Society of America

Downloaded from https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-pdf/47/5/415/4680670/415.pdf

by Univ of Louisiana at Lafayette user
 SSE Template Events
3 to the subducted seamount fracture network) to
A
2 the west of the Kanto district, Japan. Mesimeri
1 Figure 3. Plots of time versus and Karakostas (2018) attributed the presence
0 local magnitude. A: Template
2014-2015
earthquakes (red found repeat-
of shallow (5–9 km) burst-type repeating earth-
N/A
May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul ing earthquake). B: All repeating quakes in the western Corinth Gulf, Greece, to
Local Magnitude (ML)

2014 2015 fluid intrusion. Further, aseismic slip triggered

All Repeating Earthquake Detections earthquake detections. These
3
2
B SSE include the template earth- by hydraulic stimulation has been observed in
1
quakes that found repeating multiple induced seismicity experiments, based
0 ear thquakes (shown in red
in panel A) and any repeat- on families of repeating earthquakes, modeling,
–1
N/A ing earthquakes detected by laboratory experiments, and direct deformation
May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul
2014 2015 these templates. C: Repeating measurements (Bourouis and Bernard, 2007;
2 Repeating Earthquakes near Subducted Seamount earthquakes near subducted
C Tremor Zoback et al., 2012; Guglielmi et al., 2015).
seamount (box in Fig. 2). B and C
1 SSE
are colored by earthquake family
These observations indicate that aseismic slip
0
(see color bar). Slow slip event related to fluid pressure perturbations is not
–1 (SSE) and tremor (within box in only common on large plate-interface faults,
N/A Fig. 2) timing are indicated. but on small-scale faults such as those found in
15 Sep 25 Sep 5 Oct 15 Oct 25 Oct 4 Nov 14 Nov 24 Nov 3 Dec
10 25 29
the fracture network surrounding the subducted
1 5 15 20
Repeating earthquake families (29 total) seamount at the northern Hikurangi margin.

Almost all repeating earthquake families at seamount acted as an indenter into the upper
the subducted seamount locate at its downdip plate, breaking low-permeability seals in the
edge, within an upper-plate fracture network overpressurized megathrust (Ellis et al., 2015)
(Fig. 4) imaged on seismic reflection profile and imposing a poro-elastic stress field and pore
05CM-04 of Barker et al. (2018) and consistent pressure gradients that drove fluids from sedi-
with the idea that subducted seamounts generate ments entrained with seamount subduction (Bell
fracture networks and microseismicity (Wang and et al., 2010) through the overlying plate at diffu-
Bilek, 2011). Repeating earthquake locations on sional time scales (Nakajima and Uchida, 2018).
high-angle faults in the forearc may explain why Fluids eventually migrated from the plate inter-
most of these events have faulting geometries face HRZ into the fracture network and triggered
inconsistent with the shallow décollement. We aseismic slip on several faults, resulting in the
propose that the repeating earthquakes within repeating earthquakes at seismic asperities on
the upper plate were driven by aseismic slip on preexisting faults. Slow slip after the main SSE
multiple faults within the subducted seamount at the subducted seamount is not evident in the
fracture network, triggered by fluid migration APG data—slow slip on multiple faults was likely
during the main plate-interface SSE. Coulomb below the detection threshold (~50 mm)—but
stress changes following the SSE might also have coastal cGPS stations possibly detected slow slip
triggered repeating earthquakes on the forearc in the region through October (L. Wallace, 2019,
faults; however, based on the synchronous tremor personal commun.).
sequence, the almost two-month duration, weak Repeating earthquakes have previously
eastward migration, and different onset times been associated with deformation zones and
of repeating earthquake families, we favor fluid fluid intrusion. Kimura et al. (2006) reported
migration promoting slow slip on these faults. burst-type repeating earthquakes off the plate
We propose that during the SSE, the subducted interface within a collision zone (possibly similar
Repeating
2014 Gisborne SSE earthquakes seismicity
GrowClust
2014 SSE tremor relocated
0
Accretionary Not relocated
NW wedge
Deformation
Depth (km)
CONCLUSIONS
The burst-type repeating earthquake fami-
lies at the subducted seamount after the 2014
Gisborne SSE were likely caused by slow slip
on an upper-plate fracture network above the
subducted seamount. We argue that the 2014
Gisborne SSE caused fluid migration from
overpressured sediments downdip of the sea-
mount (the HRZ) into the upper-plate fracture
network, triggering further slow slip on pre­exist­
ing faults. This resulted in both the observed
burst-type repeating earthquakes and tectonic
tremor around the subducted seamount.
The complicated interplay of seismic and
aseismic slip in this region is likely due to the
subducted seamount. The fluid-enriched sedi-
ments favorable for quasi-periodic shallow slow
slip were entrained with seamount subduction,
and the upper-plate fracture network above the
subducted seamount resulted in a complicated
stress distribution and complex modes of slip.
Thus, seamount subduction appears to be a major
influence on the mechanics of shallow slow slip
and microseismicity at the northern Hikurangi
margin. We postulate that burst-type repeating
General earthquakes may be common seismic indicators
of shallow slow slip in other regions of subducted
oceanic relief. Because most documented shallow
SSEs to date are correlated with rough subducted
Tūranganui SE seafloor, burst-type repeating earthquakes are
knolls
promising as a proxy for shallow SSEs, and for

Australian front
Fracture
5
Plate zone
identifying fracture networks that have developed
in response to seamount subduction.
Subducted
seamount
Hikurangi Plateau Thrust fault ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
HRZ
2014 Gisborne SSE
Pacific Plate Décollement We are grateful to Jefferson Yarce and Erin Todd for
10 making their earthquake catalogs available to us prior to
HRZ High-amplitude
Tremor duration
7 Oct 15 Oct 23 Oct 31 Oct
2014
8 Nov 16 Nov 24 Nov 2 Dec reflectivity zone publication, to Jenny Nakai and Anne Sheehan for their
–50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30 contributions to earthquake catalog preparation and
Distance (km) from the deformation front data collection, and to Kimi Mochizuki for providing
ocean-bottom seismometers. We thank Laura Wal-
Figure 4. Seismic reflection profile 05CM-04 (see Fig. 2) modified from Barker et al. (2018). lace, Roland Bürgmann, and an anonymous reviewer
Repeating earthquakes within 10 km of 05CM-04 are shown as stars, colored according to for their detailed and excellent reviews. We acknowl-
time of first event within family. All seismicity from May 2014 to June 2015 within 10 km of edge support from U.S. National Science Foundation
05CM-04 is shown as circles, also colored by time (events outside of the color bar time period award OCE-1551683 to Schwartz. Raw data from the
are white). Larger stars and circles have been relocated with GrowClust algorithm (Trugman experiment are archived at the Incorporated Research
and Shearer, 2017). Slow slip event (SSE) and tremor timing and spatial extent are indicated. Institutions for Seismology Data Management Center

Geological Society of America  | GEOLOGY |  Volume 47  |  Number 5  |  www.gsapubs.org 417

Downloaded from https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-pdf/47/5/415/4680670/415.pdf

by Univ of Louisiana at Lafayette user
 (http://​ds​.iris​.edu​/mda​/YH​/#YH​_2014​-01​-01​_2015​
-12​-31). Seismic data from the New Zealand National
Seismic Network are available from GeoNet (http://​
geonet​.org.nz).
REFERENCES CITED
Annoura, S., Hashimoto, T., Kamaya, N., and Katsumata,
A., 2017, Shallow episodic tremor near the Nankai
Trough axis off southeast Mie prefecture, Japan:
Geophysical Research Letters, v. 44, p. 3564–3571,
https://​doi​.org​/10​.1002​/2017GL073006​.
Barker, D.H.N., Henrys, S., Tontini, F.C., Barnes, P.M.,
Bassett, D., Todd, E., and Wallace, L., 2018, Geo-
physical constraints on the relationship between
seamount subduction, slow slip, and tremor at the
north Hikurangi subduction zone, New Zealand:
Geophysical Research Letters, v. 45, p. 12,804–
12,813, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1029​/2018GL080259​.
Bell, R., Sutherland, R., Barker, D.H.N., Henrys, S.,
Bannister, S., Wallace, L., and Beavan, J., 2010,
Seismic reflection character of the Hikurangi sub-
duction interface, New Zealand, in the region of
repeated Gisborne slow slip events: Geophysical
Journal International, v. 180, p. 34–48, https://​doi​
.org​/10​.1111​/j​.1365​-246X​.2009​.04401​.x​.
Bourouis, S., and Bernard, P., 2007, Evidence for
coupled seismic and aseismic fault slip during
water injection in the geothermal site of Soultz
(France), and implications for seismogenic tran-
sients: Geophysical Journal International, v. 169,
p. 723–732, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1111​/j​.1365​-246X​
.2006​.03325​.x​.
Bürgmann, R., 2018, The geophysics, geology and
mechanics of slow fault slip: Earth and Planetary
Science Letters, v. 495, p. 112–134, https://​doi​.org​
/10​.1016​/j​.epsl​.2018​.04​.062​.
Chamberlain, C.J., and Hopp, C., 2017, EQcorrscan
documentation, v. 0.2.4: https://​media​.readthedocs​
.org​/ pdf​/ eqcorrscan​/ latest​/ eqcorrscan​. pdf​
(accessed August 2017)​.
Collot, J.-Y., Sanclemente, E., Nocquet, J.-M., L ­ eprêtre,
A., Ribodetti, A., Jarrin, P., Chlieh, M., Grain-
dorge, D., and Charvis, P., 2017, Subducted oce-
anic relief locks the shallow megathrust in central
Ecuador: Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid
Earth, v. 122, p. 3286–3305, https://​doi​.org​/10​
.1002​/2016JB013849​.
Eberhart-Phillips, D., Reyners, M., Bannister, S., Chad-
wick, M., and Ellis, S., 2010, Establishing a versa-
tile 3-D seismic velocity model for New Zealand:
Seismological Research Letters, v. 81, p. 992–
1000, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1785​/gssrl​.81​.6​.992​.
Ellis, S., Fagereng, Å., Barker, D., Henrys, S., Saffer,
D., Wallace, L., Williams, C., and Harris, R., 2015,
Fluid budgets along the northern Hikurangi sub-
duction margin, New Zealand: The effect of a sub-
ducting seamount on fluid pressure: Geophysical
Journal International, v. 202, p. 277–297, https://​
doi​.org​/10​.1093​/gji​/ggv127​.
Guglielmi, Y., Cappa, F., Avouac, J.-P., Henry, P., and
Elsworth, D., 2015, Seismicity triggered by fluid
injection–induced aseismic slip: Science, v. 348,
p. 1224–1226, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1126​/science​
.aab0476​.
Igarashi, T., 2010, Spatial changes of inter-plate cou-
pling inferred from sequences of small repeat-
ing earthquakes in Japan: Geophysical Research
Letters, v. 37, L20304, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1029​
/2010GL044609​.
Igarashi, T., Matsuzawa, T., and Hasegawa, A., 2003,
Repeating earthquakes and interplate aseismic slip
in the northeastern Japan subduction zone: Journal
of Geophysical Research, v. 108, 2249, https://​doi​
.org​/10​.1029​/2002JB001920​.
Kato, A., Obara, K., Igarashi, T., Tsuruoka, H., Naka­
gawa, S., and Hirata, N., 2012, Propagation of slow
slip leading up to the 2011 Mw 9.0 Tohoku-Oki
418 www.gsapubs.org  |  Volume 47  |  Number 5  | GEOLOGY |  Geological Society of America
Downloaded from https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-pdf/47/5/415/4680670/415.pdf
by Univ of Louisiana at Lafayette user
earthquake: Science, v. 335, p. 705–708, https://​
doi​.org​/10​.1126​/science​.1215141​.
Kimura, H., Kasahara, K., Igarashi, T., and Hirata, N.,
2006, Repeating earthquake activities associated
with the Philippine Sea plate subduction in the
Kanto district, central Japan: A new plate configu-
ration revealed by interplate aseismic slips: Tec­
tono­physics, v. 417, p. 101–118, https://​doi​.org​/10​
.1016​/j​.tecto​.2005​.06​.013​.
Kodaira, S., Iidaka, T., Kato, A., Park, J.-O., Iwasaki,
T., and Kaneda, Y., 2004, High pore fluid pres-
sure may cause silent slip in the Nankai Trough:
Science, v. 304, p. 1295–1298, https://​doi​.org​/10​
.1126​/science​.1096535​.
Li, C., Peng, Z., Yao, D., Guo, H., Zhan, Z., and Zhang,
H., 2018, Abundant aftershock sequence of the
2015 Mw7.5 Hindu Kush intermediate-depth
earthquake: Geophysical Journal International,
v. 213, p. 1121–1134, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1093​/gji​
/ggy016​.
Liu, Y., and Rice, J.R., 2007, Spontaneous and trig-
gered aseismic deformation transients in a sub-
duction fault model: Journal of Geophysical Re-
search, v. 112, B09404, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1029​
/2007JB004930​.
Meng, L., Huang, H., Bürgmann, R., Ampuero, J.P., and
Strader, A., 2015, Dual megathrust slip behaviors
of the 2014 Iquique earthquake sequence: Earth
and Planetary Science Letters, v. 411, p. 177–187,
https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.epsl​.2014​.11​.041​.
Mesimeri, M., and Karakostas, V., 2018, Repeating
earthquakes in western Corinth Gulf (Greece):
Implications for aseismic slip near locked faults:
Geophysical Journal International, v. 215, p. 659–
676, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1093​/gji​/ggy301​.
Nadeau, R.M., and Johnson, L.R., 1998, Seismological
studies at Parkfield VI: Moment release rates and
estimates of source parameters for small repeating
earthquakes: Bulletin of the Seismological Society
of America, v. 88, p. 790–814.
Nadeau, R.M., and McEvilly, T.V., 1999, Fault slip
rates at depth from recurrence intervals of repeat-
ing microearthquakes: Science, v. 285, p. 718–721,
https://​doi​.org​/10​.1126​/science​.285​.5428​.718​.
Nakajima, J., and Uchida, N., 2018, Repeated drainage
from megathrusts during episodic slow slip: Nature
Geoscience, v. 11, p. 351–356, https://​doi​.org​/10​
.1038​/s41561​-018​-0090​-z​.
Romanet, P., Bhat, H.S., Jolivet, R., and Madariaga,
R., 2018, Fast and slow slip events emerge due
to fault geometrical complexity: Geophysical Re-
search Letters, v. 45, p. 4809–4819, https://​doi​.org​
/10​.1029​/2018GL077579​.
Saffer, D.M., and Wallace, L.M., 2015, The frictional,
hydrologic, metamorphic and thermal habitat
of shallow slow earthquakes: Nature Geosci-
ence, v. 8, p. 594–600, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1038​
/ngeo2490​.
Schwartz, S.Y., and Rokosky, J.M., 2007, Slow slip
events and seismic tremor at circum-Pacific sub-
duction zones: Reviews of Geophysics, v. 45,
RG3004, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1029​/2006RG000208​.
Templeton, D.C., Nadeau, R.M., and Bürgmann, R.,
2008, Behavior of repeating earthquake sequences
in central California and the implications for sub-
surface fault creep: Bulletin of the Seismological
Society of America, v. 98, p. 52–65, https://​doi​.org​
/10​.1785​/0120070026​.
Todd, E.K., et al., 2018, Earthquakes and tremor
linked to seamount subduction during shallow
slow slip at the Hikurangi margin, New Zealand:
Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth,
v. 123, p. 6769–6783, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1029​
/2018JB016136​.
Trugman, D.T., and Shearer, P.M., 2017, GrowClust:
A hierarchical clustering algorithm for relative
earthquake relocation, with application to the
Spanish Springs and Sheldon, Nevada, earthquake
sequences: Seismological Research Letters, v. 88,
p. 379–391, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1785​/0220160188​.
Uchida, N., and Bürgmann, R., 2019, Repeating earth-
quakes: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sci-
ences, v. 47, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1146​/annurev​-earth​
-053018​-060119 ​(in press)​.
Uchida, N., Hasegawa, A., Matsuzawa, T., and Igarashi,
T., 2004, Pre- and post-seismic slow slip on the
plate boundary off Sanriku, NE Japan associated
with three interplate earthquakes as estimated from
small repeating earthquake data: Tectonophysics,
v. 385, p. 1–15, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1016​/j​.tecto​
.2004​.04​.015​.
Wallace, L.M., and Beavan, J., 2010, Diverse slow slip
behavior at the Hikurangi subduction margin, New
Zealand: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 115,
B12402, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1029​/2010JB007717​.
Wallace, L.M., Beavan, J., McCaffrey, R., and Darby,
D., 2004, Subduction zone coupling and tectonic
block rotations in the North Island, New Zealand:
Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 109, B12406,
https://​doi​.org​/10​.1029​/2004JB003241​.
Wallace, L.M., Beavan, J., Bannister, S., and Wil-
liams, C., 2012, Simultaneous long-term and
short-term slow slip events at the Hikurangi sub-
duction margin, New Zealand: Implications for
processes that control slow slip event occurrence,
duration, and migration: Journal of Geophysical
Research, v. 117, B11402, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1029​
/2012JB009489​.
Wallace, L.M., Webb, S.C., Ito, Y., Mochizuki, K.,
Hino, R., Henrys, S., Schwartz, S.Y., and Shee-
han, A.F., 2016, Slow slip near the trench at the
Hikurangi subduction zone, New Zealand: Sci-
ence, v. 352, p. 701–704, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1126​
/science​.aaf2349​.
Walter, J.I., Schwartz, S.Y., Protti, M., and Gonzalez,
V., 2013, The synchronous occurrence of shallow
tremor and very low frequency earthquakes off-
shore of the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica: Geo-
physical Research Letters, v. 40, p. 1517–1522,
https://​doi​.org​/10​.1002​/grl​.50213​.
Wang, K., and Bilek, S.L., 2011, Do subducting sea-
mounts generate or stop large earthquakes?: Geol­
ogy, v. 39, p. 819–822, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1130​
/G31856​.1​.
Wang, K., and Bilek, S.L., 2014, Invited review paper:
Fault creep caused by subduction of rough seafloor
relief: Tectonophysics, v. 610, p. 1–24, https://​doi​
.org​/10​.1016​/j​.tecto​.2013​.11​.024​.
Wech, A.G., and Creager, K.C., 2011, A continuum of
stress, strength and slip in the Cascadia subduction
zone: Nature Geoscience, v. 4, p. 624–628, https://​
doi​.org​/10​.1038​/ngeo1215​.
Williams, C.A., Eberhart‐Phillips, D., Bannister, S.,
Barker, D.H.N., Henrys, S., Reyners, M., and
Sutherland, R., 2013, Revised interface geometry
for the Hikurangi subduction zone, New Zealand:
Seismological Research Letters, v. 84, p. 1066–
1073, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1785​/0220130035​.
Yao, D., Walter, J.I., Meng, X., Hobbs, T.E., Peng, Z.,
Newman, A.V., Schwartz, S.Y., and Protti, M.,
2017, Detailed spatiotemporal evolution of micro-
seismicity and repeating earthquakes following the
2012 Mw 7.6 Nicoya earthquake: Journal of Geo-
physical Research: Solid Earth, v. 122, p. 524–542,
https://​doi​.org​/10​.1002​/2016JB013632​.
Zoback, M.D., Kohli, A., Das, I., and Mcclure, M.W.,
2012, The importance of slow slip on faults dur-
ing hydraulic fracturing stimulation of shale gas
reservoirs: Paper presented at Society of Petroleum
Engineers Americas Unconventional Resources
Conference, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 5–7 June,
https://​doi​.org​/10​.2118​/155476​-MS​.
Printed in USA