Module 1

PERFORMING EFFECTIVELY
IN MULTILATERAL CONFERENCES AND DIPLOMACY
Module 1:
WELCOME TO THE WORLD
OF MULTILATERAL
CONFERENCES
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United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR)
Copyright © 2006 IAM/UNITAR
www.unitar.org/diplomacy
Disclaimer and copyright
The opinions expressed in this course publication or in any other information resource
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United Nations organs, bodies and agencies, or other organizations.
The designation employed and the presentation of material in this course publication by the
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Material in this course publication may be freely quoted if properly acknowledged. A paper or
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Multilateral Diplomacy and International Affairs Management Programme, United Nations
Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), Palais des Nations, CH-1211 Geneva 10,
Switzerland. E-mail: diplomacy@unitar.org
The following organizations provided information resources to enhance this training course
material: British Broadcasting Corporation; Earth Negotiations Bulletin/IISD; International
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or reproduced without their permission.
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2
PERFORMING EFFECTIVELY IN MULTILATERAL
CONFERENCES AND DIPLOMACY
Module 1: Welcome to the World of

Multilateral Conferences
Contents
1. Objectives
2. Introduction
2.1 Many conferences and many kinds
2.2 Systems of conferences
2.3 Functions of conferences
2.4 Real-world outcomes
3. Purposes and power in conferences

3.1 Mandates
3.2 National purposes
3.3 Purposes of individual delegates
3.4 Power in conferences
4. Basic elements of conferences

4.1 Mandate
4.2 Delegates
4.3 Bureau
4.4 Secretariat
4.5 Host country
4.6 Structure
4.7 Venues
4.8 Rules of procedure
4.9 Sovereignty
4.10 Products of conferences
4.11 Conference dynamics
Annexes
Glossary of Terms / Definitions
Further Readings and External Links
Video and Audio Transcripts
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_
Performing Effectively in Multilateral Conferences and Diplomacy
Module 1 - Welcome to the World of Multilateral Conferences
Key to Icons
Examples of wording heard

in conferences
Warning… exception to
general rules or common
errors
Video clip or webcast
Audio clip
Questions
Document to download
Definitions of terms in blue print are provided in the Annex.

Terms shown in brown bold print are well established in the specific
meaning given. In other words, they are terms of art or conference
delegates’ jargon.
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4
1. Objectives
Multilateral conferences have increasingly become a highly visible and

important dimension of diplomacy. While such conferences have been
convened for centuries, with the 1815 Congress of Vienna representing a
landmark event in modern history, the number and regularity of
multilateral conferences have risen considerably over the past 50 years.
This rise has resulted largely from the creation of the United Nations and
has evolved in parallel with the establishment and growth of many regional
and global international organizations, as well as the many issues and
concerns which require a collective, regional or global response.
The aim of this module is to introduce you to the world of multilateral

conferences and, particularly, to those conferences organized in the United
Nations system. In doing so, the module reviews the types and functions of
multilateral conferences, and examines in detail the various components of
multilateral conferences.
After successfully completing this module, you

should be able to:
Define a “conference” and describe

different types of multilateral conferences;
Identify the various forums in which conferences

take place;
List and explain the main functions and outputs

of multilateral conferences, as well as the types of objectives
which the participants pursue;
Differentiate between the collective, national and individual

purposes at conferences;
List and define the basic components of international

conferences;
Understand the different types of outcomes of multilateral

conferences; and
Differentiate between permissive and limiting mandates, and

provide examples.
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5
2. Introduction – Why Conferences?
2.1 Many conferences and many kinds of conferences

In this course we use the term “conference” for any formally structured
meeting among representatives of at least several (and at times as many
as 192) States and, possibly, between them and other actors such as
representatives of intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations.
While much of the discussion will relate to conferences held in different
institutional forums, the course focuses on conferences organized in the UN
system. As we shall see below, there are many different kinds of such
conferences and no fully uniform nomenclature. Some conferences are
called “assembly,” “council,” or “committee” or even “meeting”, and many
other terms are used as well. There are also many different types of
conferences-within-conferences, such as the meetings of geographical or
political groups which are not part of the formal structure of the conference
within which they take place, and arguably each of the several chambers of
a large conference (i.e. the plenary and the various committees) can
themselves be thought of as conferences in that they have their own
agendas, presiding officers, etc.
While the number of conferences convened yearly is difficult to calculate

(and ignoring the conferences-within-conferences) there are easily over
20,000 in the UN system. In Geneva alone, where the Secretary-General
has one of its representative offices (United Nations Office at Geneva -
UNOG) and where a number of UN specialized agencies and other UN
organizations and programmes have headquarters, over 8,000 conferences
are held each year. View the video below for an overview of Geneva-based
organizations and conferences.
Video 1

Mr. Marcel Boisard, United Nations Assistant
Secretary General and Executive Director, UNITAR,
speaking on Geneva: A Hub of International
Organizations and Multilateral Conferences and
Diplomacy.

Video courtesy of United Nations Office at Geneva (UNOG) and
UNITAR
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has the player and that your speakers are properly configured and switched on.
Video Link: http://stream.unitar.org/module1/m1video1.rm
Video Transcript: A transcript of this video can be read at the end of this module. Please
see Annex, Video 1.
Some of the most noteworthy conferences are the recurring sessions of the
UN General Assembly (GA) and the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC),
as well as the meetings of the Security Council, the G8 Summit, the Council
of Ministers of the European Union, the Assembly of the African Union and
other regional organizations, etc. The great multitude and diversity of
conferences enables us to identify different categories:
Summit Conferences. These are conferences of

Heads of State or government, many of which take
place outside the UN system, such as the annual
Assembly of the African Union, the Asia-Europe
Meeting, the Islamic Summit Conference, the
annual Commonwealth Heads of Government
Meeting, and the G8. In addition to these, the UN
has also provided the framework for a number of
noteworthy summit conferences, such as the 2003
and 2005 World Summits on the Information Society (WSIS); the 2002
World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), which marked the 10-
year follow-up of the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and
Development (Earth Summit); and the 2000 UN Millennium Summit.
Expert Meetings. At the other extreme, in that they have a much lower
public profile and are far less solemn, are meetings at which the
participants are individuals selected for their scientific or technical expertise
on the subject matter of the conference. Because of this, they are not
called upon to represent the political preferences of their governments and
such meetings usually do not attempt to make decisions which engage
governments, although they may decide to recommend a technical
measure or standard to another conference which is capable of making
such decisions. Many of the UN specialized agencies and other
organizations and programmes organize expert meetings regularly to
further their work programmes and activities.
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Management Conferences. Most UN specialized agencies and

programmes have governing bodies, which are conferences of
representatives of Member States, charged with overseeing the work of the
agency or the operation of the programme, giving policy directions and
making managerial decisions, notably the adoption of the budget and
appointment of the Chief Executive Officer (CEO). Most of the specialized
agencies have two such bodies: a general assembly and a smaller
executive committee, elected by and from the membership, which meets
more frequently and oversees the agency of program more closely (see
table below for some examples of the nomenclature of such bodies).
UN Agency or Governing Bodies

Programme General Assembly Executive Committee
Food and Agriculture Conference of Member
Council
Organization (FAO) Nations
International Labour International Labour
Executive Council
Organization (ILO) Conference
United Nations Education,
Science and Culture General Conference Executive Board
Organization (UNESCO)
World Health Organization
World Health Assembly Executive Board
(WHO)
World Meteorological World Meteorological
Executive Council
Organization (WMO) Council
Committee of
United Nations Environment Governing Council
Permanent
Programme (UNEP)
Representatives
United Nations High
Commission for Refugees Executive Committee
(UNHCR)
United Nations Framework
Convention for Climate Conference of the Parties
Change (UNFCCC)
General Assemblies (or General Conferences).

These are meetings which are usually held annually or
every two years of the whole membership of an
organization. Their function includes policy and
managerial decision-making for the organization
concerned as explained above but they are also
occasions for representatives of the Member States
to exchange information and discuss the whole body of
issues which the organization addresses. Examples of
this type of conference in the UN family include the
General Assembly and the World Health Assembly
(WHA). Examples from outside the UN system include
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8
the International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent and the
Council of the International Organization for Migration (IOM).
Conferences of the Parties or Meetings of the Parties (COP or MOP).

These are regular meetings of representatives of the parties to a particular
treaty to review the operation and implementation of treaty, give policy
guidance and managerial decisions for the relevant secretariat (in cases
where there is one), exchange information and discuss issues relevant to
the subject matter of the treaty, which sometimes includes negotiations on
amendments to the treaty itself. In other words, their function is very
similar to that of management conferences, general assemblies and even
negotiating conferences (see page 9). Examples of this type of conference
include the annual COP to the UN Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), the supreme governing body of the Convention; the
COP of the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of
Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), and the five yearly review conferences of the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
Donor Conferences. This term is sometimes applied to conferences of

representatives of governments and international organizations which
provide assistance, notably emergency relief, for a particular recipient or in
response to a particular need. A subset of donor conferences are pledging
conferences at which, as the name suggests, representatives of donors
announce what contribution they will make to a particular assistance or
relief programme. View the video below to view a Voice of America news
report on the organization of a donor conference to respond to the threat of
bird flu.
Video 2

Donor Conferences: Responding to the Threat of
Bird Flu.

Video courtesy of VOA news
see Annex, Video 2.
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9
Committees and working groups. These are conferences usually

composed of all or a sub-set of the participants of a larger conference. The
words “committee” or “working group” also imply that they have been
given a specific task to perform; indeed they carry some of the same
connotations as the term taskforce. The relationship between a committee
and the conference which created it (known as the parent conference or
parent body) vary from quite distant to very close. Thus, for example, the
former Committee on Disarmament, (and likewise its predecessor, the
Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee) was created by the UN General
Assembly which also determined its general mandate and initial
composition. Thereafter, however, the Committee pursued a fully
independent course, before being replaced in 1979, by the Conference on
Disarmament. Another example of committees that can be independent of
their parent conference are the preparatory committees (PrepComs)
sometimes called to prepare for a large conference (e.g. summit) or the
creation of a new organization. In many cases, the conference which set up
one of these will have finished its work and ceased to exist.
More typically, committees are said to be subsidiary to their parent

conference. They are given detailed tasks by the parent conference and
report to it regularly, sometimes making recommendations. Examples of
this kind of committee include the Subsidiary Body for Implementation
(SBI) and the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technical Advice (SBSTA)
of the UNFCCC, and the many functional commissions that report to
ECOSOC. (A commission tends to be a committee with a permanent
secretariat, although we should emphasise once more that formal
nomenclature in such matters is by no means uniform or consistent). Even
more closely connected to their parent bodies are the committees of large
conferences that focus on one aspect of the work of the parent (e.g. the
Second Committee of the UN General Assembly, which makes
recommendations to the General Assembly on its agenda items that relate
to economic issues). See section 3.6 below, on the structure of
conferences, which explains more fully the role of this type of committee.
The term working group tends to be reserved for a smaller conference

dedicated to a very specific issue or task, often with a relatively short time
frame. Working groups and/or sub-committees are often subsidiaries of
committees.
List of all committees under the General Assembly

Internet link:
http://www.unitar.org/diplomacy/elearning/m1/Committe
es under the General Assembly.pdf
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10
List of all committees under ECOSOC

Internet link:
http://www.unitar.org/diplomacy/elearning/m1/Subsidia
ry Bodies of the Economic and Social Council.pdf
Negotiating Conferences (in some cases called intergovernmental

negotiating committees - INCs) have been given the task to draft and agree
on a text (e.g. treaty, declaration, plan of implementation, etc.). This term
is often contrasted with deliberative bodies, which refers to conferences
which can discuss issues and make recommendations, but have not been
tasked (and therefore have no authority) to negotiate a text intended to
impose legally-binding commitments. Negotiating conferences, however,
are not empowered to go beyond agreeing on a text. In other words, the
conferences cannot take additional steps and commit governments to
adhere to the treaty or otherwise adopt the text. That is the role of yet
another type of conference:
Diplomatic Conferences are meeting of plenipotentiaries, that is to say

representative who carry full powers to commit their governments by
signing the text of a treaty. A diplomatic conference may be convened once
a negotiating conference has completed its task. The task of a diplomatic
conference is to finally approve the text of a draft treaty and declare it open
for signature.
As mentioned at the outset of this section, the terms used to describe

conferences vary widely and there is overlap. The COPs of many
environmental treaties are, for example, assembly, managerial and
negotiating type conferences.
2.2 Systems of conferences
The numbers and types of conferences taking place in both standing bodies
and in ad hoc arrangements can easily give rise to a system of conferences
(and negotiations). Although (and indeed because) each conference has a
specific purpose, several conferences often deal with different aspects or
stages of the same broad or narrow topic, and texts produced by one
conference are later taken up in one or more other conferences. In various
thematic areas, such as trade, human rights, environment and sustainable
development, this conference system is quite extensive with meetings and
their products intricately linked. In many cases, linkages across
conferences are mutually reinforcing, in the sense that each conference
helps the others to achieve their objectives. This is the case in the area of
criminal trade in narcotic drugs, where at least three dozen conferences are
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11
organized yearly to deal with this topic in a variety of ways. It is also the
case where global conferences require the organization of regional
conferences (or vice versa) to give practical effect to the implementation of
a conference outcome.
Flow chart showing the meetings held in connection with

the Mediterranean Action Plan
Internet link:
http://www.unitar.org/diplomacy/elearning/m1/Flow
Chart - Mediterranean Action Plan.pdf
Flow chart of the system of sustainable development

negotiations from 1992-2002. Internet link:
http://www.unitar.org/diplomacy/elearning/m1/System
of sustainable development negotiations 1992-2002.pdf
While there are many instances of conferences (and their products) being
mutually reinforcing, conferences can also appear to run against each other
in terms of mandates, objectives and approaches. This happens, for
example, when an issue that has been considered from one perspective is
subsequently re-examined from another. To provide just one example, the
Working Group on Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit-sharing,
established as a follow-up negotiating conference of the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) and convened under the auspices of UNEP, is
confronted with complex linkages to the outcomes of previous negotiations,
such as the WTO Agreement on Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights (TRIPS), the FAO International Treaty on Plant and Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture and the World Intellectual Property
Organization (WIPO) Patent Cooperation Treaty.
2.3 Functions of conferences
While the above discussion is by no means an exhaustive list of different

kinds of conferences, it is sufficient to enable us to begin to list and
describe some of the different functions which international conferences can
serve.
Common Functions of all Conferences
All conferences are devices for exchanging information. Indeed, they

are uniquely efficient mechanisms for this through a wide range of
formal and informal processes. This flow of information is so valuable
to governments that it justifies the cost of participation in many
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conferences, regardless of whatever else the conference does or is

supposed to do.
All conferences are also venues for organized discussion of issues of

concern to governments, which enables them to learn from each
other’s experience, to learn of each other’s intentions and to help
each other analyse many of the challenges they face. All this helps
governments to cope with these challenges.
Most conferences are also platforms and opportunities for

governments to demonstrate their commitment to particular
objectives or courses of action, their solidarity with others, the
strength of their emotion and so on. In this, and in their
effectiveness as a means of disseminating information, most
conferences are for governments a means of communication with
domestic and foreign audiences.
Functions that are specific to certain conferences only
In addition to these common elements, conferences

can also be devices for making decisions by
representatives of a number, often a large number, of
States or governments.1 This implies that they provide
a means of exposing the concerns of multiple
participants and finding ways of integrating,
reconciling or making partial allowance for these
concerns to the point where a widely acceptable
solution is identified and adopted. A conference
decision, therefore, is the pooling of knowledge,
concerns and authority of all the participants and the
States and organizations that they represent.
One function to which conferences are particularly suited is that of norm,

rule and/or standard setting (see box below).
Combining several of these functions, conferences are widely used as

devices for managing joint programmes or furthering international
cooperation in ways that enable governments to achieve objectives that
1
Most international conferences are composed (at least in part) by delegates who are
formally representatives of States but, in practice, are answerable to their respective
governments. However, at a number of conferences the delegates represent specific
government agencies, as in the case, for example, of Interpol, where membership may be
delegated by a country to its official police body.
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would be more costly or difficult – if not impossible – to address by their

national means alone.
Conferences can set norms, rules and standards in at least three ways:
The most formal of these is by negotiating treaties. In addition to their force in

international law, treaties also represent a political commitment, a solemn
promise made by a government, on behalf of the State it represents, to the
other parties to the agreement (in the case of treaties concluded within the UN
system, this usually means a large number of other states) and to all people
everywhere, including the citizens of the State which contracts the treaty
obligations. As such, it is a statement of how a government intends to behave
and by implication, and especially if the treaty is accepted by a large number of
States, it is a statement of how these governments believe all governments
should behave. In other words, such treaties are normative: they express a
widely and strongly held view about how governments and sometimes
individuals or organizations should behave. This means that they define
standards of behavior which all governments, organizations and individuals are
entitled to expect. Typically also, treaties concluded within the UN system
reflect pre-existing ideas about how governments and people should behave:
they are said to codify existing standards. A very simple example is the
requirement codified in the Universal Postal Convention (UPC) that the postal
service in each country should deliver at no extra charge letters which arrive
from other countries bearing foreign postage stamps. This is a legal obligation
under the UPC but it is also a standard of behaviour which has come to be
universally expected of postal services in all countries. But conferences can also
codify standards in texts which do not have the legal status of treaties. For
example, the International Atomic Energy Agency issues “information circulars”
(and many other UN agencies issue similar documents) which specify technical
standards or best practice.
These do not have the force of law because governments have not made formal
commitments to enforce them, but they do respond to a widespread need for
international standards in many fields. For this reason, they tend to be adopted
voluntarily and are often incorporated or other wise reflected in national
legislation, the rules of professional bodies and general practice. In this way
they become norms or international standards which are often just as effective
as those codified in treaties.
The third way in which a conference can help standards to become established
is by repeated exhortation. If conferences repeatedly applaud and encourage a
particular course of action or pattern of behaviour, and if they denounce
infractions against these, the majority of the world’s governments are in effect
making a statement as to what action or behaviour is correct and permissible:
in other words, they are expressing, reinforcing or some times creating
standards.
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14
Many conferences are also key elements in the international regimes

governments use to manage the problems which they confront. Thus, for
example, there is a nuclear non-proliferation regime, which consists of
many elements, including firmly established norms, mutual expectations
and ways of handling issues in this area of policy. Other important
components of the regime are a number of international treaties (most
notably, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and the five nuclear
weapon free zone treaties (NWFZ), the IAEA safeguards regime and many
policies and programmes of national governments. Quite central to the
operation of the regime are a number of international conferences, notably
meetings of the General Conference and Board of Governors of the IAEA,
the Nuclear Suppliers Group, the Zangger Committee, a range of technical
meetings, the preparatory process for Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
(NPT) Review Conferences, some meetings of the Security Council, sessions
of the General Assembly, and many others. Similarly, as noted above, there
are clusters of conferences dealing with the control of narcotic drugs,
climate change, international maritime affairs, health, trade and almost
every other broad or narrow topic of interest to governments – in each case
constituting elements of entire regimes for addressing these issues.
Changing the world
It is not an exaggeration to say that conferences can be a means of

changing the world. A world in which governments have mechanisms for
pooling information and informing each other of their priorities, attitudes
and intentions, for organized discussion of common concerns, for making
their policies widely known, thereby increasing domestic and international
transparency, is a very different world from one in which they were limited
to the possibilities that bilateral diplomacy provides. Governments make
different decisions as a result of being better informed. Moreover, the joint
programmes, enhanced multilateral cooperation and complex regimes
which international conferences make possible have very important real
world results (e.g. liberalizing trade and otherwise helping economic
development, increasing security, facilitating international communications
and transport, etc.)
This observation prompts the question: how can you change the world, to
make it better for all humankind, including your country? One example of
how this has been done is given in the following video which, although
filmed as an animated version of events that took place some 150 years
ago, has important parallels in what takes place today.
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Video 3

The Story of an Idea.

Video courtesy of International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
see Annex, Video 3.
In this short video, we see how an idea originated in the mind of one
individual, Henry Dunant, and how the idea was disseminated (through his
book, A Memory of Solferino, and the groups that were formed to develop
and promote his ideas) and found a receptive public and hence was taken
up by governments, leading to the adoption of the First Geneva Convention
of 1864 on the laws of war and the International Committee for the Relief
to the Wounded (later to become the International Committee of the Red
Cross). The point of special interest to us is that once governments became
interested in the idea, an international conference was organized to discuss
it and, subsequently, a second conference, the Diplomatic Conference, to
finalize the text of the Convention.
Parallel processes lie behind all the international organizations, treaties and
programmes that exist today. In each case, first came the idea; then its
wide discussion, development and ultimate acceptance (sometimes starting
outside government, often confined to official instances), followed by a
succession of international conferences to further explore and refine the
concept and to transform it into an internationally agreed text. This is one
of the most effective ways of changing the world, far more so than anything
most governments can do on their own or exclusively through bilateral
diplomacy.
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Outcome of the 1863 Geneva International Conference.

Internet link:
http://www.unitar.org/diplomacy/elearning/m1/Outco
me of the 1863 Geneva International Conference.pdf
2.4 Real-world outcomes
It is easy for conference delegates to get heavily involved in their work and
in matters whose importance is largely confined to the conference room
(e.g. who prevails in negotiations over a small detail or who gets elected to
a prestigious position), and they run the risk of forgetting the real-world
consequences of what is done (or more often not done) in the conference
room. Quite literally human lives are often at stake, as is the general
security and well being of countries. Conferences in the UN system are
mainly directed at addressing the woes of humankind: poverty, disease,
underdevelopment, environmental degradation, oppression, insecurity, etc.
The exchange of information among governments, constructive discussion
of the relevant issues, well
You can
formulated standards, effective
international programmes and wise,
well informed and efficient decision-
change the making have enormous potential to

mitigate these problems. Conversely
if there is any failure to do these
world! things well, and/or delay in doing
them, people may die and many
more will continue to suffer.
This is the most basic reason why conference diplomats need to be well
versed in the skills of their trade so that they can use them to produce a
better world for all of humankind, including the portion thereof which they
represent.
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17
3. Purpose and power in conferences
3.1 Mandates
We have listed above some of the functions which conferences can serve. It
follows that the purpose of each conference is likely to be one or more of
these. The purpose of each conference will have been decided before
governments are invited to send representatives. Very often in the UN
system the decision to hold a conference for a particular purpose is taken
by a prior conference. Two examples are:
The statutes of each of the

specialized agencies (which were of
course drawn up by international
conferences) provide for regular
meetings of its governing body or
bodies (see above) and indicate,
either explicitly or inferentially,
what these conferences should do.
As a result the secretariat of each
organization will send out letters of invitation for each session of that
organization’s general assembly or executive committee.
The GA has frequently decided, by adopting a resolution, that a

conference should be called for a particular purpose (e.g. to review
the Law of the Sea or to negotiate a Convention on Climate Change).
Again, on each occasion, letters of invitation were sent out stating
the purpose for which the conference was to be held.
The statement of what the conference is supposed to do (in other words,

what it is instructed and authorized to do) is called the mandate and is
often contained in a decision, resolution or statute. As noted above it can
be fully explicit (e.g. to conclude a Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban
Treaty) or clearly inferred (e.g. an invitation to attend the World Health
Assembly does not need to spell out the inference that this conference is
expected to perform the functions assigned to it by the statute of the World
Health Organization). Mandates are both permissive (i.e. they say what the
conference can do) and limiting (a conference convened to negotiate a
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty or to perform the function the
statute of the World Health Organization assigns to the World Health
Assembly has no standing to address other topics such free trade; and a
conference called to discuss an issue cannot draft a treaty).
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General Assembly resolution calling for the negotiation of

a framework convention on climate change. Internet link:
http://www.unitar.org/diplomacy/elearning/m1/GA resolution calling
for the negotiation of a framework convention on climate change.pdf
In one of the decisions of the first COP of the UNFCCC, in 1995, Parties
decided to further discussions on commitments for industrialized countries,
referred to in Annex 1 of the Convention. This decision, known as the Berlin
Mandate, paved negotiations for the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997.
Excerpts from the Berlin Mandate
“The Conference of the Parties, at its first session,

Having reviewed Article 4, paragraph 2(a) and (b), of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change, and
Having concluded that these subparagraphs are not adequate,
Agrees to begin a process to enable it to take appropriate action for the period
beyond 2000, including the strengthening of the commitments of the Parties
included in Annex I to the Convention (Annex I Parties) in Article 4, paragraph
2(a) and (b), through the adoption of a protocol or another legal instrument: …
II.
2. The process will, inter alia:

a) Aim, as the priority in the process of strengthening the commitments in
Article 4.2(a) and (b) of the Convention, for developed country/other
Parties included in Annex I, both
- to elaborate policies and measures, as well as
- to set quantified limitation and reduction objectives within specific
timeframes, such as 2005, 2010 and 2020, for their
anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of
greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol, …
b) Not introduce any new commitments for Parties not included in Annex I,
but reaffirm existing commitments in Article 4.1 and continue to advance
the implementation of these commitments in order to achieve
sustainable development….”
Full text of the Berlin Mandate. Internet link:

http://www.unitar.org/diplomacy/elearning/m1/Berlin Mandate.pdf
By accepting an invitation to a conference for a stated purpose, a

government inferentially accepts the mandate. The mandate is the purpose
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19
which all participating governments accepted for the conference. It is their

collective purpose.
Question 1
Permissive and limiting conference mandates
In what way(s) is the Berlin Mandate permissive? In what way is

it limiting? Think about this question and then to see below our
suggested response.
Suggested Response to Question 1
In the section quoted, the mandate is permissive in that it clearly invites the
COP to elaborate policies and measures, as well as to set quantified limitation
and reduction objectives within specific timeframes for Annex 1 Parties under
the Convention. It also indicates a readiness to receive recommendations that
involve departures from the paragraphs it describes as inadequate.
The mandate is limiting in that it narrowly defines the topic to be addressed:

“strengthening of the commitments of the Parties included in Annex I to the
Convention (Annex I Parties) in Article 4, paragraph 2 (a) and (b)…”, thereby
inferentially prohibiting work on any other topic. It explicitly prohibits any
attempt to increase the obligations of Parties not included in Annex I.
3.2 National purposes
Of course, some individual governments may be more strongly committed

than others to the purpose set out in the mandate, and each government
will have other preoccupations and may see the conference as an
opportunity to pursue other objectives as well. For example:
Many governments send representatives to major UN conferences as

a matter of routine, without any immediate and particular objective.
It is a matter of general policy and of meeting expectations, both
international and domestic.
All governments are interested in knowing the outcome of most

conferences in the UN system, in case they have consequences for
them.
They also wish to be present to have an opportunity to attempt to

head off or mitigate any development at the conference which they
see as undesirable.
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20
Similarly, they see such conferences as opportunities to advance a

wide range of objectives, including giving publicity to their own
policies and achievements.
One very common purpose pursued by governments is to use the

occasion of the conference to hold exchanges with other
governments, often on matters beyond the mandate of the
conference.
Typically, however, at every

conference, a number of
governments have a very
focused interest in at least
some aspects of the
conference’s work. Some-
times this derives from
idealism or ideology (e.g.
belief in respecting and
upholding human rights or
promoting free trade). More
often, however, it comes
from a belief that that
government’s national objectives can be served by identifying a community
of purpose with other governments and ways, acceptable to them, of
advancing these common purposes. If this can be achieved, it is a way of
harnessing the energy and resources of other government to the service of
one’s own government’s objectives. It enables individual governments to
achieve objectives that would be much more costly and possibly
unachievable by their own national efforts alone. Thus, for example,
concerted international action against malaria or bird flu on a global scale is
widely supported for idealistic reasons. But for many of the countries
afflicted by the disease, it is also by far the most effective strategy
available to them for tackling a domestic public health problem. Parallel
examples could be drawn for all the fields in which UN agencies are active:
in addressing global problems they also address the problems of individual
countries. This is the basic idea behind the United Nations.
Question 2
Why is it incoherent to say: “I am not very interested in global
or regional conferences, my focus is the needs of my own
country”? Think about the answer and to see below our
suggested response.
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21
As explained in section 3.2, international and regional conferences,

overwhelmingly are directed at generating benefits for all participating countries
which means, including your country, in ways they could not achieve by
themselves or exclusively through bilateral dealings. International conferences
are often by far the most effective way—and sometimes the only way—of
advancing national objectives and interests.
3.3 Purposes of individual delegates
Governments (and sometimes other entities such as intergovernmental

organizations and non-governmental organizations) are represented at
international conferences by delegates. These are individuals who have
their own purposes. The prime one in most cases is to do their jobs
properly, as they see them, which includes acting on any instructions they
have from their government and otherwise in accordance with its known
objectives. But as human beings, they have differing degrees of knowledge
and enthusiasm as to the different issues before the conference. Often, if
they know an issue well, they have more developed ideas than their
government does about some aspects of it. They may also have other
concerns which are more personal than national: such as developing their
knowledge and professional experience, being seen to perform well and
achieving a sense of personal accomplishment, pursuing bilateral
exchanges at the conference rather than following whatever the conference
itself is doing, etc. Others may be distracted by personal, family or national
difficulties. A few sometimes allow themselves to be carried away by
personal or national vanity, or by their combative spirit or other emotions.
Such individual purposes are very similar to the notion of private interests
that negotiators have. This will be discussed at greater length in Module 4.
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22
The interaction between these three categories of purposes causes much of

the complexity and, at times, the drama of international conferences. For
optimal outcomes in terms of a conference’s mandate, it naturally helps if
governments and delegates have common views, approaches and positions,
or, in our diagram, if there is a large overlap of the three circles. But the
co-existence of different purposes or agendas is not all negative. Most
national purposes of governments and personal purposes of individual
delegates are neither nefarious nor illegitimate. On the contrary, as has
been explained earlier, governments and countries derive many benefits
from conferences other than those which flow directly from their mandates.
Moreover, it often happens that individual delegates are more closely
informed about the details of issues than their governments and more
dedicated to achieving technically sound outcomes. This can produce better
results in the real world.
Successful conference managers (that is to say chairmen, supported by all

constructively motivated delegations), set out to accommodate the national
and personal agendas of governments and delegates to the extent that this
is not inimical to fulfilling the mandate. But in the contrary case, if these
individual purposes are damaging for the collective purpose, they must
frustrate them.
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23
3.4 Power in conferences
In the next section we will learn how these three different categories of
purposes interact, but before we turn to that question, we need to dispel a
widely believed fallacy. This is the idea that the outcome of an international
conference is largely determined by the relative power of the countries
represented.
Of course, it is true that the

relative power of governments
(or other actors) does not
evaporate when their
representatives enter a
conference room, and that
representatives of governments
with extensive resources,
knowledge and influence have
unquestioned advantages. But
such factors do not automatically
translate into an ability to determine the outcome of conferences. The
history of international conferences is full of examples of representatives of
relatively small and less wealthy countries playing a very important role.
Two noteworthy examples is the influential role that Malta played in
launching the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea and
the role that the Cairns Group played in the Uruguay Round of trade
negotiations.
The general rule is that the leading delegations are those which
contribute most to determining the outcome of the conference. Many
factors can come into such a leadership role but the most obvious one is
not the power of the country represented but the ability to develop
proposals which attract widespread support because they meet the
objectives of many delegations. There is also power, in a conference, in a
willingness to consult widely and take account of the views of other
delegations and in the ability to operate within the rules of procedure and
more generally to understand the sometimes arcane conference process.
This course aims to increase your power in these respects.
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24
4. Basic elements of conferences
Later modules will take us in detail through the various aspects of the work
of a conference, but at this stage we will introduce eleven basic elements
which are common to all conferences and quite fundamental to
understanding how they work.
4.1 Mandate
We have already discussed the point that every conference needs a

mandate, defining what it is supposed to do. Clearly, this is one of the basic
determinants of what the conference will actually do. The point to
emphasize here is that the mandate is determined before the conference
begins and cannot be changed by the conference.
4.2 Delegates
As noted in the introduction, an international conference is a meeting of

representatives of States (and sometimes other entities as further
explained below). As also previously mentioned, these representatives are
called delegates because authority has been delegated to them to speak
on behalf of their government or organization.
The other categories of entities which are sometimes invited to send

delegates to international conferences are international organizations, the
EU and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). A donor’s meeting might,
for example, include representatives of UN agencies such as the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the World Food Programme
(WFP), besides the representatives of donor governments. NGOs focused
on Human Rights are represented at meetings of the Human Rights Council
as observers. Other NGOs are full members of some conferences, notably
conferences of the International Labour Organization (ILO) where Worker
and Employer Delegations, (representing national NGOs) sit alongside
government delegations.
International Labour Office’s Explanatory Note for

National Delegations. Internet link:
http://www.unitar.org/diplomacy/elearning/m1/ILO
Explanatory Note for National Delegations.pdf
In the preceding paragraph we drew a distinction between observers and

full members. Strictly speaking, in many UN conferences there is only one
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25
delegate per participating State who leads a delegation. In general usage,

however, all members of delegations are referred to as delegates. The word
delegate is also loosely applied to people whose formal title is observer or
who are members of a delegation and led by an observer (informally known
as an observer delegation). These are representatives of entities which are
not entitled to full participation in the conference but nonetheless are
allowed to attend at least part of the time. For example, at a meeting of a
COP to a treaty, non-parties are not full members but may wish to follow
the proceedings. Or, to take another example, the Executive Committee of
WHO consists of representatives of 32 Member States elected by the WHA;
but again, other Member States might also wish to follow its work. As a
third example, at conferences in which only States participate, international
organizations and or NGOs may also wish to be present. Many conferences
have arrangements to accommodate non-members by providing for
observer status.
NGOs in International Conferences
In the UN system, the term NGO applies not only to not-for-profit, civil society
organizations, but also to business associations, the private sector and
academia. In many conferences and particularly those organized to discuss
economic and social development, the environment, labor, health and human
rights issues, NGOs have become highly visible. In fact, NGO delegates
accredited to some conferences outnumber government delegates by a margin
of 4 to 1.
In some cases, NGOs are full members of conferences and, as such, send
delegates who participate alongside the delegates representing States. This is
the case in the annual International Labour Conference and in the meetings of
the ILO’s Executive Council.
At some conferences, duly accredited NGOs are invited to send observers. This
was the case with the former Commission on Human Rights (now the Human
Rights Council) and is the case with many conferences on the environment and
sustainable development. Some NGOs are also implementing partners for
various UN agencies and programmes. They can be represented at some
conferences in that capacity (e.g. some donor conferences).
Some national delegations include members of NGOs (it is the sovereign right of
any State to determine the composition of its own delegation). And some
governments at times engage an NGO to act as their representative in an
international conference (for example where that NGO has particular skills or
knowledge).
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26
Consultative relationship between the United Nations and

non-governmental organizations (Resolution 1996/31).
Internet link:
http://www.unitar.org/diplomacy/elearning/m1/Consultative
relationship between UN and NGOs.pdf
Link to the United Nations Department of Social and

Economic Affairs NGO page.
Internet link:
http://www.un.org/esa/coordination/ngo/
The degree of access allowed to observer delegations – if indeed any are

allowed to attend - varies considerably from conference to conference, as
we will see in Module 2. The main point to register now is that observer
delegations have not accepted the mandate of the conference and in no
case can they participate in decision-making.
Yet another category of participants are present at some conferences, who

are neither full member delegates nor observers. These might be called
“interested parties” although in most conferences they have no official
designation. An example is the representatives of the secretariat of an
international organization at a meeting of the governing body of that
organization. Another example is that of an expert invited to contribute to a
discussion. Any such participants are present by invitation and, like
observers, excluded from some meetings and from all decision-making;
they are only allowed to participate in other conference activities to the
degree determined by the conference.
Credentials
All delegates need to establish their entitlement to be present in the

conference room. This involves satisfying two criteria:
1. that they represent the State or other entity which they claim to
represent; and
2. that that entity is entitled to send a representative to the conference.
The word credentials (originally, “letters of credence”) was initially applied

to the document identifying an ambassador and introducing him or her to
the host authorities. For an international conference, credentials take the
form of a letter of appointment - usually from a minister or Head of State,
and for less formal conferences, sometimes from a permanent
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27
representative. Non-State delegations likewise need documents from the

organization they represent to establishing their status. In the case of an
NGO this is called an accreditation form.
Sample form of credentials for the First Review

Conference of the Chemical Weapons Convention.
Internet link:
http://www.unitar.org/diplomacy/elearning/m1/Sample Form of
Credentials for the First Review Conference of the Chemical Weapons
Convention.pdf
It is usual for the conference secretariat (see below) to check the

credentials and entitlement of observers and at less formal conferences for
other delegates as well. Many of the larger conferences have a credentials
committee composed of full member delegates to perform this task. In
most cases, this checking is only a formality and often no fuss will be made
if credentials arrive late. But technically, a delegation which does not have
credentials in good order is not entitled to participate in the conference and
in particular it cannot take part in decision-making by the conference - and
these rules could be enforced at any time.
Warning: Failure to submit credentials or to submit them

properly can result in exclusion from decision-making. Many
conferences also establish time limits before the opening of the
conference for the submission of credentials. Note also that
credentials need to be submitted in their original; faxes and
copies are not accepted.
Any delegate can at any time query the credentials of another delegation. A
frivolous or quarrelsome query could be costly to the delegation raising it,
as a majority of delegations would see this as inappropriate and inimical to
their objectives. However, there are some situations in which a challenge is
unavoidable. For example, if (as has occurred) two governments or two
delegations claim to represent the same State; or if there are grounds for
questioning a State’s right to participate in the conference (e.g. following
the break up of the Federal Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia and the demise
of that State, several UN members objected to the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia’s claim that as successor State, it automatically inherited the
FRSY membership.)
The final and perhaps most important observation about delegates (and
other participants) is this: these are the people who actually perform the
conference. Everything that happens there is in their hands and hostage to
their individual abilities and frailties. You, and your fellow delegates, have
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28
centre stage and personal responsibility for the course and outcome of the
conference.
4.3 Bureau
Every conference needs to be managed, which means it needs a manager
(known as chairman) or management team. Usually in the UN system, this
team is elected by the conference; but it is appointed in some
circumstances (mainly for some working groups, expert groups, contact
groups, etc.)
As previously noted, each national

(or other) delegation has its own
objectives and concerns. To be
successful a conference needs not
only a manager but also someone
who serves the collective purpose
or mandate of the conference, as
opposed to the concerns of any
particular government or
organization. A conference
chairman (who carries the title of
president at some large conferences) combines the roles of conference
manager and what might be called “delegate for the conference as a
whole”. Although the chairman controls the formal proceedings of the
conference and can exercise leadership, he or she can only act with the
consent of the conference. (See Module 5 for a fuller account of the role
and function of the chairman).
“The chairman is the servant of the

conference.”
In larger conferences, the chairman is assisted by a number of vice-
chairmen and a rapporteur. The role of vice-chairman is largely honorific,
but they substitute for the chairman if the latter has to be out of the
conference room during a meeting. The rapporteur is in charge of the
conference report. As this is a more hands-on role, it is sometimes
allocated to a lower ranking officer than are the offices of chairman and
vice-chairmen.
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29
This team of conference officers is often referred to as the bureau of the

conference. The vice chairmen and rapporteur are elected by the
conference and from among the delegates. Chairmen come to their position
by election, or by rotation or again by prior arrangement; but (as a general
rule) a chairman does not concurrently act as representative of one of the
Qualification: In some conferences, the bureau may include

other entities, such as the secretariat. This is usually the case
when the bureau serves as a steering committee. In the CITES
COPs, the bureau includes the chairman, vice-chairmen,
rapporteur and the secretariat. The bureau’s composition is
usually indicated in the rules of procedure of a conference or the
statutes of a body.
Member States or organizations. If (as is usually the case) he or she is a

delegate, on becoming chairman he or she ceases to act in that role and
another delegation member takes over to speak and vote for the delegation
(there are several exceptions to this and will be discussed in Module 5).
How the bureau is elected will be explained more fully in Module 2.
4.4 Secretariat
Every conference has one other conference officer: the secretary, who
heads the conference secretariat. The secretary and secretariat staff are
not elected; instead, they are international civil servants (often
members of the secretariat of an international organization or an ad hoc
body mandated to service a conference, sometimes a team specially
recruited from a variety of sources for a particular conference). As such,
they do not represent any State or party participating in the conference.
Warning: Do not confuse the secretariat of a conference with

that of an international organization. As explained in the
previous paragraph, the conference secretariat is often
composed of staff of the secretariat of an organization, but they
are quite distinct and have different functions.
The formal role of the conference secretariat is to provide administrative

support to the conference. Similar to the procedural roles of the presiding
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30
officers, the functions of a conference secretariat are often indicated in the

statute of an organization, in a treaty and/or in a conference’s rules of
procedure. For example, secretariats receive and distribute papers for the
conference; some of them write verbatim or summary records of what is
said in the conference; others provide translation and interpretation
services, etc. They may also write papers at the direction of the conference
or its chairman (e.g. a compilation of proposals or a draft report).
Rule 26 of the Rules of Procedure of the Functional Commissions

of the Economic and Social Council
The Secretariat shall:

(a) Interpret speeches made at meetings;
(b) Receive, translate and circulate documents;
(c) Print, publish and circulate as appropriate e the records of the sessions, the
resolutions of the commission and the required documentation;
(d) Have custody of the documents in the archives; and
(e) Generally perform all other work that may be required.
The informal role of the secretariat is much wider. They are a storehouse of
knowledge of precedent and procedure and as such well placed to advise
the chairman and delegations. More generally, they have a very important
role in disseminating information to delegations. Although they are
supposed to be impartial, in practice they are often committed to the
mandate of the conference and, as such, are natural allies of the chairman
and all delegations that do not want the conference to fail. In both their
formal and informal roles, the secretariat can be very helpful to
delegations.
The secretariat’s task is very

demanding, always subject to severe
time and often financial pressures
and difficult working conditions. Just
as conferences can fail if they are
poorly managed, or if delegates
behave unconstructively, the work of
a conference will be severely
impeded if the secretariat’s
performance is inadequate.
Conversely, a smoothly and
professionally functioning secretariat can play a big part in the success of a
conference.
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31
Wise delegates not only make full use of the assistance the secretariat can
give them, they also go out of their way to help the secretariat in every
way they can.
4.5 Host Country
Many conferences hosted by countries, including large ad hoc conferences

(e.g. World Summit on Sustainable Development - WSSD, World Summit
on Information Society - WSIS, etc.) and regularly scheduled conferences
(e.g. annual COPs) require a host country secretariat to assume
important on-site preparatory arrangements in close coordination with the
(international) secretariat. These tasks include identifying and securing a
suitable conference venue, ensuring that there is sufficient
accommodation given the expected number of delegates, arranging venues
for parallel events, etc. Apart from the considerable amount of income that
can be generated locally, governments often want to host an international
conference for reasons of visibility and reputation, and because they
support and are committed to the conference’s collective purpose.
Beyond supporting the conference through on-site operations and logistics,

some host countries organize pre-conference events that address important
issues related to the substance and process of the conference.
Switzerland as Host to the Geneva

Phase of the World Summit on the
Information Society (2003)
In December 2001, prior to the first phase of the World Summit on the
Information Society (WSIS), Switzerland (host of the Summit’s Geneva Phase)
organized in close cooperation with the ITU (secretariat of the Summit) the
Coppet Workshop to assist in identifying possible themes for discussion at the
Summit and the most effective way to prepare the Summit as a result of this
content. Following this workshop, Switzerland undertook a number of diplomatic
preparations, including organizing with the host of the Summit’s second phase,
Tunisia, informal consultations and information sessions on the concrete issues.
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32
4.6 Conference Structure
Conferences generally have a hierarchical structure, with the plenary of the

conference always at the top. Any conference can (and most do) create a
subsidiary body, that is to say a conference-within-the-conference or
daughter conference with a mandate assigned to it by the main conference
or parent body, to perform a specified task and to report back. As
previously mentioned, these subsidiary bodies are often called committees
or sub-committees (for instance, to draft a text for consideration by the
parent body), which, in turn, sometimes establish working groups to
continue discussion and negotiation on more detailed elements of a
document. Usually, such subsidiary bodies are smaller than their parent
conference. If they are open-ended any delegation can participate but
some choose not to; if their membership is restricted the selection is
usually by election. The many functional commissions of ECOSOC, such
as the Commission on Narcotic Drugs and the Commission on Sustainable
Development, are subsidiary bodies of ECOSOC, with a restricted
membership, elected by ECOSOC from among its members.
Plenary
Committee I Committee II Committee III
Working Group Expert Group
Drafting Committee
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33
In the following video, you will see the chairman of sub-committee 2 of the
third and final session of the Preparatory Committee of the first phase of
the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) propose the creation
of a working group to continue the negotiations on the draft Declaration of
Principles, which was one of the Summit’s principal outcomes.
Video 4

Organization of Work, Establishment of a Working
Group
H.E Mr. Asko Numminen, Ambassor, Finland,
Chairman, Sub‐committee 2, PrepCom 3 of the World
Summit for the Information Society. Geneva, 22
September 2003

Video courtesy of International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
Video Link: http://stream.unitar.org/module1/m1video4.ra
see Annex, Video 4.
Large conferences, notably in the UN system, often have a pre-determined

structure. Besides the full conference, known as the plenary, there are a
number of open-ended main committees amongst which the work
programme of the conference is distributed. Questions are discussed and
any suggested decisions by the conference worked over ‘in committee’.
Sometimes there is a committee of the whole (COW), which is effectively
a single main committee; there can also be a credentials committee
(usually of restricted membership). Sometimes there is also a steering
committee, which is composed of the bureau and sometimes other
participants such as the chairmen of the main committees to help the
chairman manage some aspects of the organization of the work of the
conference.
The Main Committees of the UN General Assembly

First Committee: Disarmament and International Security Issues
Second Committee: Economic and Financial Issues
Third Committee: Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Issues
Fourth Committee: Special Political and Decolonization
Fifth Committee: Administrative and Budgetary Issues
Sixth Committee: Legal Issues
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34
But the committees and other subsidiary bodies do not take decisions on
behalf of the parent conference. Instead, they report to and can make
recommendations to the plenary. The plenary considers these reports and
recommendations and takes all the decisions (which usually follow the
committee’s recommendations but can depart from them). From this
relationship and division of work between the plenary and its subsidiaries, it
follows that subsidiary bodies tend to do more detailed work and more
negotiation and to be less formal and less open to the public than their
parent conferences. This is least pronounced in the case of large,
important, long established subsidiaries, such as the Main Committees of
the GA and the functional commissions of ECOSOC (which are very formal
and public); but it remains true of their subsidiary bodies.
Question 3
Negotiating v. Decision-making Forums
Why is detailed discussion (and especially negotiation) often

assigned to a committee, while decision-making is reserved for the
plenary - to the point that some conferences give themselves a
committee of the whole? The membership of the COW is the same
as that of plenary but nonetheless the COW maintains its separate
identity and operates as a distinct body. Think about this question
and see below our response.
It seems likely that the main reason that this tradition became established is
that detailed discussion and especially negotiation often involve a degree of
discord, whereas decision-making is a matter of agreement or accord. The
prospects for agreement are enhanced if the venue in which it is to take place is
segregated from the arena of discord.
4.7 Venues
Conference venues include, first and foremost,

the conference rooms. Although they come in
different shapes and sizes, they have several
points in common. There are rows of desks or
tables, with each desk or section of table
identified by a nameplate or placard for each
delegation. With each nameplate, there are a
number of seats, with up to three rows in some
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35
conferences behind the desk or table and, in large rooms, a microphone. All
the desks face a raised podium at which there are seats, nameplates and
microphones for the chairman, secretary and rapporteur. A variation on this
arrangement is used in conferences where the chairmanship rotates
monthly (examples are the Security Council where the table is a broken
circle and the Conference on Disarmament where it is a hollow square).
The seating is arranged in alphabetical order.

This order can be the main working language
of the conference, of the States and
organizations represented, starting with either
A or a letter chosen at random. For example,
at the UN General Assembly in New York,
Member States are seated according to the
alphabetical order in English. In Geneva, at
the Council for Human Rights for example, this
order is according to the alphabetical order in French. The seating at the
front is reserved for the delegations of full members of the conference.
Following these, or down the sides of the room are seated, again in
alphabetical order, delegations representing observer States, then observer
delegations of international organizations and finally observer NGOs.
Sometimes there is also separate seating for media representatives and for
the public. In large conference rooms there is also provision for various
categories of secretariat staff: record writers, interpreters, documentation
service, etc. (see Module 2). The following illustration provides an example
of such a seating plan:
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36
Secretariat Support Staff
Secretary Chair/President Rapporteur
State State State

Delegates Delegates Delegates
Interpreters
Observers (Non-Party Member States, UN agencies and other

intergovernmental organizations)
NGOs Media NGOs
In addition to these large conference rooms (which are used for plenary
and the main committees) there is a need for several smaller conference
rooms (the smallest often have desks arranged in a hollow square, no
nameplates and no microphones or interpretation) and extensive lobbies or
wide corridors. The uses which delegates make of these rooms will be
explained in Module 2.
Information for delegations attending the General

Assembly. Internet links:
http://www.unitar.org/diplomacy/elearning/m1/I. Introductory
information.pdf
http://www.unitar.org/diplomacy/elearning/m1/II. The General
Assembly and its Main Committees.pdf
http://www.unitar.org/diplomacy/elearning/m1/III. Conference
services.pdf
http://www.unitar.org/diplomacy/elearning/m1/IV. Media, public and
library services.pdf
http://www.unitar.org/diplomacy/elearning/m1/V. Facilities and
services for delegations.pdf
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37
4.8 Rules of Procedure
Just as a conference needs a manager it also needs a rule book. The rules
of procedure have been called the highway code of the conference. They
are a set of rules, which describe in detail how the conference should
operate. One of the main functions of the chairman is to apply the rules
and when necessary enforce them. Each conference has its own rules of
procedure, which it has adopted or received from a parent body (e.g.
ECOSOC has adopted a set of rules of procedure which apply to all of its
subsidiary bodies). In Module 2, Section 1, we will learn more about the
rules of procedure and how they impact on conferences and delegations.
4.9 Sovereignty
One of the defining characteristics of international conferences is that they

are composed of representatives of sovereign States (and sometimes
various organizations). By definition, these States are independent and
equal in law and dignity. The consequences are far reaching.
For example, the representatives of sovereign States are entitled to be

treated with respect and they are entitled to strictly equal treatment. Thus
for example, in a typical formal conference room, each delegation has the
same desk space and the same number of seats reserved for it, whether its
national population is 100,000 or over 1,000 million. Likewise, whether its
State has nuclear weapons or no armed forces, if it comes to a vote, each
delegation has one vote, which is equal to that of any other delegation. If
time is short and limits have to be imposed on how long delegates can
speak, the same limits will apply to all.
Qualification: There are a very few exceptions, where

unequal treatment has been accepted by all participating
States: In the World Bank there is a system of weighted voting,
reflecting the level of contributions and, in the Security Council,
the five “Great Powers” that were victorious in 1945 have
permanent seats and a veto right. Other exceptions to the
equality rule, again adopted by universal agreement, is the
preferential treatment given to developing and least developed
countries in a number of UN programmes and the assessed
contributions scheme which takes account of differences in GDP.
Beyond this, no-one can tell sovereign States (represented in conferences

by their delegates) what to do. They only do what they consent to do. A
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
38
chairman never directs representatives of sovereign States, he or she asks

or invites them to do certain things or suggests a course of action. The
conference mandate and rules of procedure apply to delegates and limit
their freedom of action, but only because the States and organizations they
represent have accepted them - either by participating in their adoption or
by accepting an invitation to participate in a conference that is subject to
them.
Another consequence of the sovereignty of the States represented in an

international conference is that “every conference is sovereign”. It can alter
its own rules of procedure and take whatever decisions it chooses2. Except
that it cannot issue directions to any other conference.
A most important consequence of

the sovereignty of States is that no
conference can issue directions to
any sovereign State3. But
conversely, all decisions or
statements by international
conferences are very authoritative:
they carry the weight and authority
of all the States which participated
(even that of any which abstained or voted against, since they are parties
to the agreement that voting is a way whereby the conference can make
collective decisions). A statement or decision by a conference is a
statement or decision by all the States represented (or indeed, in most
cases, all those entitled to be represented) in that conference. A
government can legitimately say that, its own views are different; but it
cannot change the fact that the statement represents the collective view of
the conference. In the case of conference decisions, governments are more
tightly bound (absent an explicit, legally valid – where possible – disclaimer
at the time the decision is made). Any government which does not conform
to such decisions is acting contrary to what it solemnly told all other
governments (and indeed all people, including its own electorate) it would
do. As it had made this commitment on behalf of its State, to later renege
is to bring that State into contempt. In addition, depending on the specifics
of each case, it may be acting illegally.
2
In theory this means a conference could act beyond its mandate – but any such act is
likely to be futile as States are likely to refuse to give them any standing, since they would
be inconsistent with the terms under which States agreed to participate in the conference.
3
Except in so far as that State has given the conference authority to direct it, e.g. as the
signatories to the UN Charter have given to the Security Council in specified circumstances
and the parties to the statute of the World Health Organization give it in some respects.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
39
4.10 Products of conferences: Agreement (or no agreement =

no product)
In section 2, we noted that conferences can do a range of things, including

demonstrating shared commitments or emotions and providing venues for
the exchange of information and the dissemination of the views and policies
of governments. However, in terms of concrete acts by the conference
itself, it can only do one thing: it can adopt sets of words (i.e. making
these words become words of the conference). These sets of words can be
exhortations, declarations, treaties, technical standards, reports of many
kinds, etc. but they are all adopted in the same manner: by consent.4
Indeed, it flows from the sovereignty of the States represented at the
conference that the conference can only act by agreement. It can only act
with the consent of all or, in those cases where the relevant rules of
procedure permit decisions by a vote, only in accordance with rules which
all have previously accepted. (States accept rules by becoming parties to
treaties or by accepting invitations to participate in meetings subject to
those rules.)
This is the foundation stone of conference diplomacy. Since conferences can

only act (by adopting words) by agreement, the only way each delegate
can hope to achieve his or her objectives is by securing the agreement of
the conference.
This means, for example, that there is

no point in demanding anything of an
international conference and little
point in seeking something on the
grounds that your government wants
it or that it would be good for your
country. Delegates may occasionally
agree to something (usually minor)
out of a wish to please you or your
government, but most of the time,
and for anything that puts them or
their government to trouble, they are
much more likely to agree if they see
benefit for themselves, their government or nation, or perhaps a principle
which any of these value.
4
Consent and agreement are virtually synonymous, although more precisely, to agree is “to
say yes” and to consent is “not to say no when the time comes to make a decision.” Either
way, a State which agrees or consents to a decision, allows it to be made.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
40
This in turn means that international conferences are usually unproductive

for advancing objectives which run counter to the objectives and or
principles of most governments. But they can be very effective for
advancing widely shared objectives and principles. Moreover, the best way
to achieve one’s own objectives is to reflect them in proposals which will be
attractive to most others because they serve their objectives. Indeed, since
we are dealing with sovereign States, they remain able to refrain from
complying even after giving their word or a legal commitment. So the best
way of achieving one’s own real-world objectives is to incorporate them in
proposals which other governments will willingly implement because they
serve their objectives.
Yet another set of consequences flow from the observation that conferences
can only act by agreement and that the only way you can achieve your
objectives is by the conference agreeing to a proposal which advances
those objectives. Anything which impedes agreement impedes your
achieving your objective. Conversely, if the conference is moving towards
agreement on a proposal contrary to your objectives, anything which
impedes agreement could help frustrate that proposal. But since the
proposal is one on which the conference was approaching agreement, that
means it is seen by most delegations as helpful to their objectives. They
will be resentful of any attempt to sabotage agreement and they will work
against the perpetrator. Impeding agreement or attempting to do so is not
only selfish, it can be costly. And the overwhelming majority will always be
on the side of agreement – as long as they are lucid. You have many
potential allies.
4.11 Conference dynamics
Earlier in this section, we introduced the delegates. An international

conference is a meeting of sovereign States (and at times organizations)
but that meeting takes place between representatives (i.e. the delegates,
including observers): in the last resort, a conference is a room full of
people. Of course, these are a special kind of people. They often carry
instructions from the authority which sent them and are always accountable
for their actions. They have responsibilities (most prominent of which is to
do the best they can for the entity that they represent). They have each
their own distinctive perspective (again, largely determined by the entity
which they represent). They have differing personalities, degrees of
motivation, value systems and capabilities etc. and, finally, they all are
human beings, with all the characteristics which that entails, including such
elementary things as a wish to be treated with respect and to sleep and eat
occasionally – preferably at a normal time.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
41
What happens in a conference room,

therefore, including the decisions which
conferences take, depends on the behaviour of
these people and thus on everything which
can influence their behaviour. This is why
conference managers - and by extension
everyone who is concerned for the outcome of
the conference - will see the merit of ensuring
that delegates are not subject to conditions which predispose them to
disagree (e.g. excessive stress of any kind, irritation on any grounds, etc.)
and of promoting everything that can contribute to a sense of harmony and
a predisposition to seek to accommodate each other’s concerns.
To a degree, one can observe in the behaviour of a room full of delegates

the same dynamics as in other crowds of people. There is a collective
mood, which can be constructive or on the other hand inimical to
agreement. High level conference diplomacy skills include an ability to
manipulate that mood. At the very least, delegates should be alert to the
evolving conference mood, not succumb to it without consciously choosing
to do so and notice attempts to manipulate it for nefarious purposes.
Ideally they should participate in defeating any such harmful manipulation
and join, on the contrary, in promoting an atmosphere conducive to
producing a positive outcome for their own country and humankind.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
42
ANNEXES
Glossary of Terms / Definitions
ad hoc
Established to undertake a particular task, usually within a relatively short

time frame, e.g. an ad hoc conference to draft a particular treaty, an ad
hoc committee to quickly examine and report on an urgent specific problem
etc.
contact group
A condensed forum for discussion and/or negotiation with the objective of

assisting the process of forging consensus. Contact groups are often
convened by the presiding officer. They count as informal consultations and
have no formal decision-making status.
consult (verb), consultations (noun)

To talk to another delegation, the secretariat, or home authorities, with the
purpose of learning their views.
parallel events
Events organized by someone other than the organizers of an international

conference to run concurrently with the conference. Parallel events are
often organized by NGOs and sometimes by a government or international
organization.
permanent representative (PR)
The head of a permanent mission. For some organizations the title may be
different (e.g. for the IAEA, the head is a resident representative).
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
43
specialized agency
One of a number of large autonomous international organizations

addressing broad fields on international cooperation and joined to the UN
through a special agreement. E.g the World Health Organization and the
Universal Postal Union.
standard setting
Establishing standards or bench marks, against which the behaviour of

governments, individuals and/or organisation can be assessed. The term
also applies to establishing technical standards or minimal levels of
adequacy. Standards which are widely accepted are known as “norms”. See
box in section 2.2.
treaty
A written agreement between international entities (i.e. States and/or

international organizations and/or the EC) which gives rise to mutual legal
obligations – regardless of what the agreement is called (Conventions and
the statutes of international organisations are examples of treaties that are
called something else).
For its specific legal meaning, see UN Treaty Collection – Treaty Reference
Guide. http://untreaty.un.org
UN system
The UN itself, together with all its main organs, subsidiary bodies, programs
and specialized agencies.
working language
The language in which interventions may be made or texts may be

circulated and considered. Although the UN has six official languages
(Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish), many
organizations and conferences limit themselves to only two or three of
these.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
44
Further Readings and External Links
1. These readings are available online as pdf downloads from

Course Documents
Lemoine, Jacques. “The United Nations System: A Geneva Perspective.” In

M.A. Boisard and E.M. Chossudovsky, Multilateral Diplomacy: The United
Nations System at Geneva, A Working Guide. The Hague: Kluwer Law
International, 1998.
Lydon, Anthony F. “The Making of a United Nations Meeting.” In M.A.

Boisard and E.M. Chossudovsky, Multilateral Diplomacy: The United Nations
System at Geneva, A Working Guide. The Hague: Kluwer Law International,
1998.
Petrovsky, Vladimir. “The United Nations Office at Geneva.” In M.A. Boisard

and E.M. Chossudovsky, Multilateral Diplomacy: The United Nations System
at Geneva, A Working Guide. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1998.
Rittberger, Volker. “International Conference Diplomacy: A Conspectus.” In

M.A. Boisard and E.M. Chossudovsky, Multilateral Diplomacy: The United
Nations System at Geneva, A Working Guide. The Hague: Kluwer Law
International, 1998.
Winslow, Anne. “Benchmarks for Newcomers.” In M.A. Boisard and E.M.

Chossudovsky, Multilateral Diplomacy: The United Nations System at
Geneva, A Working Guide. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1998.
Zyss, Witold. “The International Civil Servant.” In M.A. Boisard and E.M.
Chossudovsky, Multilateral Diplomacy: The United Nations System at
Geneva, A Working Guide. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1998.
2. Other suggested readings (not available online)
Kaufmann, Johan. Conference Diplomacy: An Introductory Analysis. Third

Revised Edition. London: Macmillan, 1996.
Walker, Ronald A. Multilateral Conferences: Purposeful International

Negotiation. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
45
3. Internet Links
United Nations Treaty Collection

http://untreaty.un.org/English/treaty.asp
Subscription information: http://untreaty.un.org/English/howtoreg.asp
Video and Audio Transcripts
Video Transcript 1
Geneva: A Hub of International Organizations and Multilateral Conferences and
Diplomacy, Marcel A. Boisard, Assistant Secretary General and Executive Director,
UNITAR

TEXT:
“With the largest concentration of inter‐governmental organizations in the world, the
city of Geneva is one of most important venues for multilateral conferences and
diplomacy. Today, Geneva is the home to over 30 such organizations, including the
United Nations Office at Geneva and a number of other important bodies, such as the
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights and the Office of the UN High
Commissioner for Refugees. Geneva is also the headquarters of five of the UN
specialized agencies:

• the International Labour Organization,
• the World Health Organization,
• the International Telecommunications Union,
• the World Meteorological Organization, and
• the World Intellectual Property Organization.

In addition to the specialized agencies, Geneva also hosts a number of organizations,
including the World Trade Organization and the International Committee of the Red
Cross. The largest and most extensive office and conference complex in Geneva is the
Palais des Nations. Originally built for the League of Nations, the Palais houses today
the United Nations Office at Geneva and a number of other bodies, including

• the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe;
• the Conference on Disarmament, established in 1979 as the world’s single
multilateral negotiating forum on disarmament; and
• the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
46

Beyond its secretariat role, the United Nations Office at Geneva has become the focal
point for multilateral diplomacy. It services over 8,000 meetings every year, ranging
from summits and ministerial conferences down to expert meetings, attracting over
28,000 delegates from around the world.

Among the different Geneva‐based specialized agencies, the ILO is particularly unique
in several respects. It emerged from the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 and then became
the first specialized agency in 1946 after the UN was founded. The ILO’s tripartite
structure clearly sets it aside from other organizations, with representatives from its
177 Member States and delegates representing workers and employers.

With Geneva’s complex horizontal network of intergovernmental organizations and
the presence of over 100 international NGOs, the city has clearly become a centre for
world discussion and debate on issues as broad as peace and security, disarmament,
human rights, humanitarian affairs, labour standards, health, telecommunications,
intellectual property, environment, trade and development. All told, some 15,000
meetings and conferences take place annually under the auspices of the various
organizations located in this important city and UN venue.”

Video Transcript 2
Donor Conferences: Responding to the Threat of Bird Flu

TEXT:
“Bird flu experts are urging wealthier countries to contribute some or all of the US $ 1.5
billion they say are needed to slow the spread of bird flu and to prepare for a potential
pandemic. Proceeds from the two‐day meeting sponsored by the European
Commission, the World Bank and the Government of China will allow poor countries
to carry out national programmes to control the disease. Experts say the battle against
bird flu needs more information sharing, access to vaccines and broad research.
China’s deputy foreign minister, Qiao Zonghuai, underscored the stakes for wealthy
and poor countries alike: “Facing as we are the avian flu situation, no country can
really maintain its integrity against the flu by itself.” Human cases of this deadly
disease are tied to contact with infected birds. Therefore, some of the funds raised at
the conference would be devoted to improvement of veterinary medicines and to
detection of the disease in poultry. That, in turn, could reduce the chances the virus
will mutate into a form that spreads directly between people, which might cause a
pandemic. Margaret Chan, the World Health Organization’s Asia Regional
Representative, says even delaying a pandemic is important: “Delaying it has two
advantages: number one would be that countries would be getting early warning, so
that they can gear up with their plans to prepare for the pandemic and the second
advantage is WHO, working with the collaborating centres, can gear up pandemic
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
47
vaccine production.” The current outbreak of bird flu first appeared in Asia and has
spread to portions of Europe. The disease has claimed the lives of at least 79 people.
Peter Fedynsky, VOA news.”

Video Transcript 3
The Birth of an Idea: Henry Dunant’s Appeal that led to the Geneva International
Conference of 1863

TEXT:

“It was June 1859. A lone carriage struggled across Northern Italy. The gentleman
inside, the Geneva merchant Henry Dunant, was on important business. He was
determined to be given an audience by Napoleon III, the powerful emperor of France.
Dunant knew that Napoleon was now somewhere nearby with his troops. Dunant
suddenly found himself in the midst of a battlefield. Dunant was horrified. Outside the
normally quiet village of Solferino, the French and Austrian armies were fighting a
terrible battle. By evening, thousands lay dead, dying and wounded. But the medical
troops simply could not cope and the weary and bloodied soldiers on both sides had
enough to do just saving themselves and were fighting their way back to their lines.
Dunant forgot all else. Help was crucially needed. Resolutely, he set up a makeshift
hospital in a church in the village, where the dying and wounded could receive
attention and care in peace and quiet. He was joined by the villagers, the women, the
elderly, who tried to help as best they could. They treated the French and Austrians
alike, even taking care take to record and send their last goodbye to loved ones. Day
and night, they worked tirelessly, nursing the victims. Dunant finally returned to
Switzerland but he could not forget. His book, A Memory of Solferino, was published in
1862. Dunant proposed the establishment in every country of a neutral, independent
body of helpers who could provide protection and care for the wounded in case of war,
regardless of side. The idea was revolutionary and had found willing ears. Shortly
afterwards, Dunant and four other men, formed the International Committee of the
Red Cross (ICRC). In 1864, an international diplomatic conference in Geneva was
called. The result was the adoption of the first Geneva Convention for neutral
humanitarian aid and protection for wounded soldiers. Many years later, following the
First and Second World War, other visionaries added more Geneva conventions. These
help protect wounded, sick or shipwrecked sailors, prisoners of war, and civilians
affected by war. But it was Henry Dunant’s whose initiative and enterprise which
paved the way and made a difference, showing humanity amidst inhumanity. ”
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
48
Video Transcript 4
Organization of Work, Establishment of a Working Group
H.E. Mr. Asko Numminen, Ambassor, Finland, Chairman, Sub‐committee 2, PrepCom
3 of the World Summit for the Information Society, Geneva, 22 September 2003

TEXT:
“Distinguished delegates, the meeting of the Subcommittee 2 is called to order. You
heard my report in Plenary, a moment ago, and as I said, I would like to discuss, firstly,
in this meeting, the organization of work. I would like thereafter to take appropriate
action. As you know we have still tremendous work to do in this Subcommittee. On
the Declaration, we have made good progress and we have a new text which is
available, but it contains a lot of square brackets. It has to be negotiated and agreed
upon. On the Plan of Action, you will have the English version of the new draft which
will be distributed in my name. Now, we have to consider how we organize the work
effectively. In my view it is absolutely necessary that we work separately on the
Declaration and the Plan of Action. My proposal is that our able facilitator, Lyndall
Shope‐Mafole (South Africa) will continue the work on the Declaration and she will
take the lead in the negotiations on that document. And my proposal is that this
Subcommittee will form a Working Group where Lyndall Shope‐Mafole will have the
chairmanship. This is the same modality that we used in PrepCom 2. And I hope that
we can decide on this matter in this meeting soon and, actually, when these
organizational matters have been considered in this Plenary, we can turn this Plenary
of the Subcommittee into the Working Group and Lyndall can start working with you
on the Declaration already this morning.”
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
49

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PERFORMING EFFECTIVELY

IN MULTILATERAL CONFERENCES AND DIPLOMACY

Module 1: Welcome to the World of

3. Purposes and power in conferences

4. Basic elements of conferences

Examples of wording heard

Video clip or webcast

Definitions of terms in blue print are provided in the Annex.

Multilateral conferences have increasingly become a highly visible and

The aim of this module is to introduce you to the world of multilateral

After successfully completing this module, you

 Define a “conference” and describe

 Identify the various forums in which conferences

 List and explain the main functions and outputs

 Differentiate between the collective, national and individual

 List and define the basic components of international

 Understand the different types of outcomes of multilateral

 Differentiate between permissive and limiting mandates, and

2. Introduction – Why Conferences?

2.1 Many conferences and many kinds of conferences

While the number of conferences convened yearly is difficult to calculate

Video Link: http://stream.unitar.org/module1/m1video1.rm

Summit Conferences. These are conferences of

Management Conferences. Most UN specialized agencies and

UN Agency or Governing Bodies

General Assemblies (or General Conferences).

Conferences of the Parties or Meetings of the Parties (COP or MOP).

Donor Conferences. This term is sometimes applied to conferences of

Video Link: http://stream.unitar.org/module1/m1video2.rm

Committees and working groups. These are conferences usually

More typically, committees are said to be subsidiary to their parent

The term working group tends to be reserved for a smaller conference

List of all committees under the General Assembly

List of all committees under ECOSOC

Negotiating Conferences (in some cases called intergovernmental

Diplomatic Conferences are meeting of plenipotentiaries, that is to say

As mentioned at the outset of this section, the terms used to describe

2.2 Systems of conferences

Flow chart showing the meetings held in connection with

Flow chart of the system of sustainable development

2.3 Functions of conferences

While the above discussion is by no means an exhaustive list of different

Common Functions of all Conferences

 All conferences are devices for exchanging information. Indeed, they

conferences, regardless of whatever else the conference does or is

 All conferences are also venues for organized discussion of issues of

 Most conferences are also platforms and opportunities for

Functions that are specific to certain conferences only

In addition to these common elements, conferences

One function to which conferences are particularly suited is that of norm,

Combining several of these functions, conferences are widely used as

would be more costly or difficult – if not impossible – to address by their

The most formal of these is by negotiating treaties. In addition to their force in

Many conferences are also key elements in the international regimes

Changing the world

It is not an exaggeration to say that conferences can be a means of

Video Link: http://stream.unitar.org/module1/m1video3.rm

Outcome of the 1863 Geneva International Conference.

2.4 Real-world outcomes

change the making have enormous potential to

3. Purpose and power in conferences

 The statutes of each of the

 The GA has frequently decided, by adopting a resolution, that a

Define a “conference” and describe

Identify the various forums in which conferences

List and explain the main functions and outputs

Differentiate between the collective, national and individual

List and define the basic components of international

Understand the different types of outcomes of multilateral

Differentiate between permissive and limiting mandates, and

All conferences are devices for exchanging information. Indeed, they

All conferences are also venues for organized discussion of issues of

Most conferences are also platforms and opportunities for

The statutes of each of the

The GA has frequently decided, by adopting a resolution, that a

Many governments send representatives to major UN conferences as

All governments are interested in knowing the outcome of most

They also wish to be present to have an opportunity to attempt to

Similarly, they see such conferences as opportunities to advance a

One very common purpose pursued by governments is to use the