Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila

Intramuros, Manila, Philippines

College of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences

In Partial Requirements in

Introduction to Communication Media

Written Report

Submitted by:

BAC 1-2: Group 1

ALCAPARAZ, Rocelle D.
AREVALO, Gabriel J.
CONCEPCION, Klariz May B.
DE GUZMAN, Jule Ervin
INFANTE, Prince Dannel M.
PIANO, Cristine Joy H.

Submitted to:
Mr. Emmanuel Martinez
 Media and Culture

Mass Communication refers to the exchanging of information to a wide range of

people. This transmission can occur using one or many different kinds of media, which is
the means for delivering data.

Mass media refers to a means of communication- whether written, broadcast, or

spoken- that reaches a wide audience. This includes newspapers, television, radio,
magazines, books, movies, advertising, internet, and so forth.

Culture is the shared customs, practices, values, attitudes, and beliefs of a social
group, organization, or institution.

Media and culture are different from each other yet exert a huge influence on each
other in subtle, complex ways. Mass media has been present ever since the existence of
humans. The culture of one group gets affected or influenced by the effect of the different
kinds of mass media. An example of this was the 2019 Senatorial Election. Social media
became a huge instrument for the politicians’ campaigns as they used this for
advertisement and promotion purposes. Social media was also used by the people during
that time to be updated about the campaigns and to voice out their opinions about the
candidates. This just proves that the influence of media and culture goes both ways;
culture molds media and media changes culture.

The Evolution of Media

Newspaper

In the 15th century, Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press, which made
the mass production of print media possible. Due to this device, production of written
material were cheaper and such new transportational inventions made it easier for texts
to reach a wide audience. Gutenberg’s print media helped usher in cultural movements
like the European Renaissance and Protestant Reformation.
 In 1810, Friedrich Koenig, a German printer, enabled the industrialization of printed
media. He hooked the steam engine up to a printing press which resulted to doubling the
production of pages compared to a hand-operated printing press producing about 480
pages per hour. By 1930s. 3.000 pages can be produced by many printing presses per
hour.

During the 1830s. Major daily newspapers faced a new threat when penny papers
were introduced. These were low-priced broadsheets that served as a cheaper, more
sensational daily news source. Its contents favored news about murder and adventure. If
newspapers center on a wealthier, more educated audience, the penny press’ audience
were a wide range of people who prefer entertaining (often scandalous) stories. The
penny press can be affiliated to today’s gossip-hungry tabloids.

Radio

In the 20th century, radio, the first major nonprint form of mass media, was
introduced. It was a boon for advertisers as it allowed them to reach a mass audience
and helped spur the consumerism of the 1920s and the Great Depression of the 1930s.

Television

At the end of the World War II was the introduction of the television, which consists
of an image being converted to electrical impulses, transmitted through wires or radio
wavesm and then reconverted into images. It boomed in the United States and all across
the world. During this time, broadcast television was the dominant form of mass media.
The Vietnam War was the nation’s first televised military conflict.

Broadcast media includes radio and television where is usually air programs on a
fixed schedule which allows to provide a sense of immediacy and fleetingness.

In the 1980s and 1990s, the spread of cable television and subsequent
deregulation led viewers a wide menu of channels but not particularly to a more diverse
ownership.
Technological Transitions Shape Media Industries

 New media technologies both spring from and cause social changes. It is hard to
pinpoint whether technology caused a cultural shift or a resulted from it.
 The contemporary media age started with the introduction of the electrical
telegraph invented by Samuel Morse in 1837. Due to this device, communication
was no longer linked to the physical transportation of messages. Information from
distant places became more accessible. In this way also, the telegraph acted as a
precursor for future technological advancements.
 In 1858, the first translantic cable was laid, allowing mearby instantaneous
communication from different countries. The London Times described it as “the
greatest discovery since that of Columbus, a vast enlargement… given to the
sphere of human activity.”
 Wireless technology then emerged as an extension of telegraph technology.
Italian-born Guglielmo Marconi developed the first practical wireless radio system.
 As audio broadcasting was progressing, in 1800s, inventors made significant
advances in visual media. In 1888, the Kodak camera was invented by George
Eastman, providing people with inexpensive, easy to use camera into their homes
just as owning a radio and telephone.
 By 1969, Peter Drucker, a management consultant, predicted that there will be a
next major technological invention that would revolutionized the way people lived.
The appliance would sell for less than a television and will be capable of plugged
in wherever there is electricity. It will give immediate access to all information
needed in school or work. These technological advancements are the personal
computers and the Internet.
 In the 1970s, the random access memory (RAM) chips and microprossesors were
invented. The introduction of these were important steps to the Internet Age.

What Does Media Do for Us?

 Media has been around us for decades and has ever since fulfills various roles in
the society. This includes the following:

1. Entertaining and providing an outlet for the imagination

Media can act as a springboard for our imaginations, a source of fantasy, and an
outlet for escapism. It can be a form of escape to those people who wan to run away for
a while from their lives.

2. Educating and informing

Presently, we can easily get information through the help of media. Newspapers,
news-oriented television, radio programs, and social media make information available.
Today, such information can transfer from all across the globe, allowing viewers and
readers in Asia to have access from America.

3. Serving as a public forum for the discussion of important issues

Media can be a way for the public to voice out their opinions towards a certain
event, situation, and important issues. An example of this is through social media, where
people comment on the posts of news-related pages. People can easily voice out their
opinions through social media.

4. Acting as a watchdog for government, business, and other institutions

The role of media in this case is to monitor the practices and doings of the
government, companies, and other institutions. People acting as a watchdog, such as a
journalist, alerts the public when a problem is detected. They supply the peopke with
information in order to prevent the abuse of power and to warn the community about those
that are causing them harm.

Convergence
 Media Convergence is referred to as the process by which previously distinct
technologies come to share tasks and resources. An example of this is a cell phone which
can take pictures and videos. This device is a convergence of digital photography, digital
video, and cellular telephone technologies.

An example of a technological convergence is a black box. This combines all the

functions of previously distinct technology and would be the device where we’d receive
all the news, information, entertainment, and social interaction.

Kinds of Convergence

1. Economic convergence

This occurs when a company controls various products or services within the same
industry. For example, the ABS-CBN Corporation is involved in cable television (ABS-
CBN, ABS-CBN Sports+Action, MYX, Cinema One), film (Star Cinema), music (Star
Music), book publishing (ABS-CBN Publishing), family entertainment center (Kidzania
Manila) and a lot more.

2. Organic convergence

This occurs when an individual is watching a television show online while

exchanging text messages with a friend and also listening to music in the background.
This is the natural outcome of a diverse media world.

3. Cultural convergence

This occurs when consumers are empowered to edit, annotate, and create content.
For example, novels that become a movie (Diary ng Panget, She’s Dating the Gangster)
or a television series (Precious Heart Romances).

Another aspect of cultural convergence is participatory culture. It is the way

media are able to influence culture in unprecedented ways. This allows an individual with
free expression of artistic talent and civic engagement sharing one’s creation with others.
Users can establish social connection with others by sharing their creations. An example
of this is YouTube as this social media platform gives anyone the opportunity to socialize
with people around the world and create and shape cultural trends with just a video
camera and an Internet connection.

4. Global convergence

This is the international circulation of media content. This occurs when different
cultures influence one another, despite the physical distance separating them. Media is
shared and spread across the world which causes it to become globalized because of the
difference present in various countries. The successful movies “Miracle in Cell No. 7” and
“Miss Granny” were adapted from Korean films.

The advantage of global convergence is access to wealth of cultural influence. Its

disadvantage, on the other hand, is the threat of cultural imperialism. This is the idea
that one culture can either influence or dominate another, the same as nations have
invaded and controlled other nations.

5. Technological convergence

This is converting media into digital technology such as viewing a book online. This
is taking old media (a book) and converging it into new technology. This shows that new
media is not really new but is actually developed through the help of convergence.

Effects of Convergence

Media convergence and its multiple forms are leading us to a period of transition
and transformation that will affect all aspects of our lives. It is still a debate whether these
different types of convergence will affect people on an individual and societal level. Some
believe that converfence and these new technological advancements make people
smarter by requiring them to make decisions and interact using the media while others
fear that the digital age is giving us access to more information but leaving us shallower.
 The Role of Social Values in Communication

Free Speech and its Limitations

Freedom of Speech is vital to communication. It is protected by the first

amendment of the Constitution of the United States. However, there are certain laws that
put limits on Free Speech. And these limits have changed and will continue to change
over time.

As the world progresses, new laws get signed or old ones change. Regulations on
the press, cinema, and other media are made which restricts freedom of speech for
various reasons. Notable laws are the Cybercrime law and Copyright law.

Freedom of speech and its limits and regulations continue to change as the social
values of the country change.

Example:

Homosexuality used to be freely presented in Cinema in the 1920s. However, this

changed when the Hollywood Production Code or better known as the Hays Code was
implemented in 1930 up to 1968. The Hays Code censored many contents, including
Homosexuality. It was during that time of conformity that the censorship of those viewed
as morally corrupt by the religious groups. But as the world progresses, social values did
too. Today there is a celebration of diversity in races, cultures, and sexes. And as people
become more accepting of the third sex, the presence of queer stories in Cinema bloomed
bigger than ever. This goes to show how social values and mass communication are born
out of each other.

Propaganda and other Ulterior Motives

Propaganda is the act of using media to persuade the public for political,
ideological, and commercials purposes. Through framing, emotional appeal, and
misrepresentation of facts by inventing new ones.
 The purpose of Propaganda varies from something as heavy as glamorizing war
to as light as marketing commercial products. This, again, is related to social values as it
can reshape the values of people with the help of mass media.

Example:

The unending was in the Middle East is very much upfront of the governments’
involved usage of propaganda. Israel and Palestine use the press and social media in
their war for land. Also, ISIS uploads its brutality on YouTube and Twitter. For the purpose
of sending shock and instilling fear to the world. At the same time, to display strength and
power to draw in recruits and support.

Gatekeepers

The gatekeepers are the people in the media industry that decide which event or
topic gets published or broadcasted. Being people with their own values, opinions, and
cultural biases, gatekeepers tend to influence society’s values by passing on theirs to the
audience consciously or unconsciously.

According to Glaser (2009), gatekeepers had a strong influence on old media. But
the act of gatekeeping continue on in the age of the internet, they only changed who they
are. Nowadays gatekeeping comes in the form of YouTube’s algorithm, Facebook’s
highlights, and many more.

Examples:

The notorious Los Angeles fire that destroyed homes and lives is an unfortunate
example of bad gatekeeping. Known for being the “home of the stars”, the land of
Hollywood burning is hot on the news for this reason. Unfortunately, instead of
broadcasting how the fire burned the Santa Susana Field Lab, which was a nuclear
reactor and rocket tests site. This means putting an alarming amount of nuclear waste
and other toxic compounds into the air that can cause cancer tumors to grow.

The gatekeepers instead decided to broadcast the celebrities affected. So the

audience grew concern more for what is less insignificant in the story, the burning
mansions of the celebrities instead of the danger the fire imposed on their health.
 Cultural Periods

Cultural Period

A time marked by a particular way of making sense of the world through the
influence of culture and technology. A change of cultural period doesn't mean a change
of truth, rather only the way humans attempt to comprehend the ever-changing world.

In the Middle Ages, people relied on what the dominant authority like the Royalty
or the church presents as truth. In the Renaissance, however, when information became
more accessible. The truth is based on scientific inquiry. Truth has become more
research-based. That is why it's called the Age of Reason.

Examples:

There is a Renaissance in the 21st century. In the fast-paced rise of phones and
the Internet, communication has never been more efficient and information is right exactly
underneath fingers. In effect, the generation today is more educated and more open to
differences in culture, belief, and race. The diversity of humans is celebrated.

Now, the United States had its first African-American president. Same-sex
marriage, among other human rights for LGBT people, is legal around the globe. Social
and economic justice and human rights have become the most significant themes in the
global conversation. There is a dramatic cultural growth. The values held dear of society
changed to a more accepting one.

Modern Age

A cultural period marked by technological innovations, rise of literacy rate, scientific

discoveries, urbanization, and globalization.

Johannes Gutenberg pioneered the Modern Age because of his invention, the
movable type printing press. By making book publication more efficient, his invention
helped spread knowledge. Opening doors to scientific inquiries, which in turn helped
improved education reforms, transportation, politics. In general, leveled up mankind's way
of thinking. Reason, rationalism, and science replaced the Royalty and the church as a
presenter of truth.

Industrial Revolution (Late Modern period)

The period characterized by fundamental changes in Economic, Social, and

Cultural frameworks. Urbanization boomed as more people moved to cities. People
became more socially aware as news and books became more accessible.

Capitalism has also grown hugely in this period. As the manufacturing of goods
became easier, with the help of the invention of steam power and factory machines,
people began relying more on manufactured goods instead of agriculture. Changing how
the workplace functions--minimum wage factory laborers working machine jobs. New
problems in society arise like the inhumane working environment and the expanding
income gap between higher class and lower class.

New forms of mass media like radio and television helped mass communication
easier. Contributing a sense of mass culture. Uniting people across social, regional, and
cultural boundaries.

Modernism

A cultural movement that stemmed from the wide changes brought by the Modern
Age.

An art form that questioned traditional forms. In a way, a reaction through art to the
period's progress and rationality. Examples of modernism are Abstraction, Surrealism,
Experimentalism, Pessimism or Nihilism.

Examples:

Modernism in literature can be seen in Franz Kafka's stories. Kafka lived through
the beginning of the modernism movement. He was an insurance company worker for the
rest of his life. And from there, it can be traced where the modernist influence on his works
came from. His plots were absurd. In his 'Metamorphosis', the protagonist suddenly woke
up as a beetle without explanation. And instead of worrying and pondering the reason for
his situation, he worried about how he'd be able to fit into his office uniform to go to his
job. The term 'Kafkaesque' was coined after his stories' absurdity that shows the
complexities brought by an industrialized society.

Post-Modern age

A cultural period characterized by skepticism, self-consciousness, and celebration

of differences. Where Modern age valued order, reason, and presented truth as absolute.
Postmodern reveled to instability, contingency, and relative truth.

Due to the effects of technology in culture, like the Internet, Globalization rose
greatly. People got introduced to other cultures from around the world, and subcultures
were formed as cultures converged. Hence the celebration of the diversity of human
experience.

This chain of the event led to this period's belief of truth being relative, and rejection
of "grand narratives".

In art, postmodernism also converged different genres, forms, and from different
cultures. Building a mistrust in the idea of originality. People became open to inspiration
and borrowing whether in art, fashion, and music.

Example:

Indian music is of great influence on musical scores of various genres of Hollywood

movies. From the thrilling background music of horror films to the well-known theme of a
James Bond movie. A snippet of traditional music of a whole different culture was
borrowed to be used in a movie produced on the other side of the planet. This is a
convergence of traditional Indian music and American cinema.

Mass Media and Popular Culture

Tastemaker

Highly influential figures in the media that introduce certain trends. Thereby
influencing what happens to popular culture. Tastemakers may popularize a singer to the
music world, a restaurant, fashion trends, movies, and basically anything that people pay
attention to.

How tastemakers and gatekeepers differ is by their target audience. Whereas

gatekeepers decide which will reach the mass, tastemakers introduce to a smaller,
concentrated group. In that way, Tastemakers' influence is stronger because they
communicate to people that pay attention to them. For example, a literary magazine, a
media outlet, a food blog.

Example:

Vogue Magazine has climbed its way to be the leading fashion magazine in the
world. To the point that people no longer ask for what's in fashion nowadays, they ask
what's in vogue. Their influence is so great that they gained the title as the authority of
fashion. They pioneer trends. The designers, models, stylists, and photographers they
feature on their glossy pages become recognized and celebrated.

A Changing system for the Internet Age

From the late 20th up to the 21st century, the power of Tastemaking started
declining as the Internet became widespread. The Internet age provided a platform for
anyone that has access to it. Despite having no supporting media institutions or
professional background. People became content creators themselves. Which expanded
the competition of being the source of content, thereby depleting the influence of
traditional media tastemakers.

Digital age media like cellphones and computers also spread, that transmitting
information through them became the alternative to traditional mass communication.
Politicians used them as a medium to communicate with the public. Plus news reaches
people through phones faster.

Traditional media still has a strong influence on the public. As people find the news
more accurate when published in the newspaper or broadcasted on Television. And a
popular culture that stemmed from social media still gets absorbed into mainstream
media.
Getting Around Gatekeepers

 The Internet paved the way for new tastemakers--influencers. And also makes
tastemaker-to-audience communication easier.
 Digital age media provides more independence for content creators. Whereas to
be featured by gatekeepers and tastemakers in traditional media is hard, on the
Internet they can easily promote themselves.

Example:

The Internet can teach lessons that are costly in colleges. Because of this, amateur
artists learned more. New genres and forms in pop culture arise. In music, there is a genre
named 'Bedroom'. A low cost produced music by independent artists. It can be rock, pop,
hip-hop, etc. In literature, self-publishing books became popular and helped a lot of
authors get recognition. The Internet shaped popular culture by giving people the
opportunity to interact, decide, and even create what will be pop culture.

Democratizing Tastemaking

Tastemaking has become everyone's job as the internet platforms empowered its
users the right to rate and review anything. A product, a movie, a hotel, and many more.
Tastemaking has also become a crowdsourcing process. And no longer require
professionals' recommendations. As people start to trust those with more reviews than
those only having one with knowledge.

On the downside, the legitimacy of this modern-day tastemaking is questionable.

Various studies show how satisfied customers don't write any review. Only those
dissatisfied feel the need. People can also set up a lot of accounts to rate how many times
they want.
 Media Literacy

Why be Media Literate?

The ability to analyze dissect and evaluate messages transmitted using media--
radio, television, film. And the ability to communicate effectively using media.

A media literate should be able to ask the following questions:

1. Who created the message?

2. What are the author’s credentials?

3. Why was the message created?

4. Is the message trying to get me to act or think in a certain way?

5. Is someone making money for creating this message?

6. Who is the intended audience?

7. How do I know this information is accurate?

Media has a lot of users that share information. And this bombarding amount of
information can reach you. So it's important to be able to analyze a message to fact-check
it, to see the intention behind it, and to know what to do about the information.

According to Culkin (1993), media information is as omnipresent and easy to

overlook as the air we breathe and likewise, it is just ask polluted. We are exposed to
media of any form that there may be information that goes unnoticed problems like being
falsely led by fake news, messages wrongly sent and received, and many more can arise.

Advertising

Many advertisements appeal to the emotions of the audience. Inflicting fear, worry,
excitement, and sometimes even destructive thoughts just to encourage a purchase. For
this reason, it is important for people to become media literate. To be able to detach
themselves from these messages, and to also ponder about the intention behind it and if
it's for them.
Example:

A controversial skin lotion advertisement spark conversations in social media. The

advertisement features a light-skinned filipina getting praise and showing positive
emotions. While a brown skin girl is shown to have negative emotions towards her color.
This is said to appeal to emotions of inadequacy in people. Perpetuating colorism and
negative body image to sell their product.

Bias, Spin, and Misinformation

Messages transmitted via media are created by individuals and each individual
has their own set of values, assumptions, and priorities. And because of this, it's inevitable
to receive the messages with political biases, hidden agendas, and just plain lies.

Example:

In the 2016 presidential election, the Philippines saw a tremendous amount of fake
news shared everywhere in social media. Commonly these fake news indirectly targets a
candidate. For the purpose of sabotaging their public image. Filipino saw fake news
revolve around a wide range of topics. Like health problems, corruption, to something as
critical as allegiance to a political cult.

Individual Accountability and Popular Culture

Today people are living in the media-saturated world. People have the power to
interact with popular culture by deciding on what's in it and even creating the next popular
culture. Culture is characterized by what society values. For this important reason, media
literacy should be a common skill of people. Knowing the power of media, if better used,
people can be better citizens, smarter shoppers, and more skeptical media consumers.

When analyzing media messages, consider the following:

1. Author: Consider who is presenting the information. Evaluate the legitimacy of the
sender

2. Format: Television and print media often use images to grab people’s attention.
3. Audience: Imagine yourself in another’s shoes. Being mindful of people of the opposite
gender, people of a different race or nationality, and older or younger people. Know the
message’s specific audience?

4. Content: Even content providers that try to present information objectively can have
an unconscious slant.

5. Purpose: Nothing is communicated by mass media without a reason. Examine the

information closely and look for possible hidden agendas.

Mass Media and its Message

Propaganda and Persuasion:

- defined as the “manipulation of information to influence public opinion”

(Encyclopedia Britannica).

- it is not good or bad. Its effect on the society and culture differs with the motivations
of the people who use it.

- propaganda and persuasion only tells that the media holds a great power that can
stimulate people’s views and opinion.

- the outcome of propaganda and persuasion is still a product of personal

understanding and interpretation regardless of how a certain propaganda and
persuasion is presented in any extent or form.

Example:
As the usage of social media becomes prominent, it became a means to
disseminate and gather information whether be it in the form of a post, news article, video,
or photograph. In the Philippines, with the current situation of the relationship of the
current administration of Pres. Rodrigo Duterte with the press, it is more likely for the
media to present point of views in contrast to what the allies of the administration would
be pleased to see even if it is based on facts. On the other side, if a post was written by
a pro-Duterte site or portal, it is more likely to show a feline and innocent approach in
response to Duterte’s behavior or action as an attack or response based on how they
processed and interpreted the information they gathered from the “opposing” side, which
for their view is the media.

Media and Behavior:

- It is created solely for public consumption; to inform, entertain, and express. Thus,
it does not mean that the mass media can be defined as a propaganda or
persuasion.
- There are topics and themes that have explicit contents such as violence, sexual,
and compulsive behavior that is susceptible to young people’s behavior which is
suspected to take effect on the culture.
Example:
Despite of the precautions of MTRCB about shows that are suitable for general
and specific target audience which are classified with tags such as general (G), parental
guidance (PG), and strong parental guidance (SPG), it is inevitable that there are
circumstances wherein even minors can watch such explicit contents like sex, adultery,
criminal and violent acts. With all of these, it can influence and partake in shaping young
people’s mind which can affect the culture of a certain nation.

Violence and the Media:

 The modern generation is immersed with the media. Be it in the form of social
media platforms, TV shows, or mobile/video games etc. With all of these, everyone
can access different kinds of topics and themes that even the youth is actively
engaged with. Specifically, games and videos that are graphically mesmerizing
and are famous to their peers.
 Violence is one of the most common themes that can be observed in the media,
whether be it based on a true-to-life experience or fiction. There is no clear line
that shows the relation of violence and media. According to some studies there is
a correlation between the amounts of time spent playing violent video games and
increased incidence of aggression (Anderson, 2003.)
 However, there is no clear line that shows the relation of violence and the media.
Moreover, according to video game defenders, it is true that violent people are
 drawn to violent themed films and games but they point to lower the overall
incidence of youth violence in recent years compared to the past decade (Adams,
2010.)
 It can be said that the target audience of violence-themed media tools are those
who can appreciate this kind of theme. In can even lessen the violence acts that
they can do in real life because videos and games give them the contentment that
they need. In fact, violent media have contributed to a reduction of violence in
social acts (Goodman, 2008.)
 With this, it only proves that the media is indeed not limited to overt statements. It
can also use emotions and these emotional reactions partly account for the intense
power of the media in our culture.
Example:
Mobile Legends is a timely mobile game that the modern generation is hooked into
nowadays. It has a satisfying graphics and gameplay that made the players love it even
more. Despite that this game is an action game it still instills violence, for the number of
kills will give its players higher chance of becoming victorious. As I observe my 10-year-
old cousin play this game. I have heard him curse lots of time because of anger and
frustration with the game. However, what happens in the game doe not give clear
manifestation that he will be also be violent in real life situations.

Sex and Media:

 Many parents are still hesitant to talk about sexually oriented topics with their
children. With these, young people are most likely to appease their curiosity on
their own. If their parents cannot discuss such matter with them, the media acts as
their “super peer” that can provide more than sufficient information for them in the
form of movie, television, music, magazine etc. (Dohney, 2006)
 According to Researcher Jane Brown, the reason why children watch sexual
content is related to puberty and the desire to learn sex.
Example:
According to Rappler, for the 5th consecutive year, Philippines ranked first
worldwide for the most time spent on Pornhub. The average time Pinoys spend is 13
minutes, 50 seconds on the site per visit. Knowing that the Philippines hold a great
principle and dignity when it comes to sex as they connect it with the religion. It is more
likely to be considered a red flag topic specifically to those who practice Christianity.
Through media, people are enabled to explore more and know more about their sex and
how it works. Getting such high average may not be surprising as it may be a tool to know
for them to understand themselves more.

Cultural Messages and the Media

 The media sends messages that reinforce cultural values. It is easily observed in
celebrities and the roles that they adopt.
 The media depicts what the society assumes from a specific group, a race,
nationality, gender, etc. However, cultural messages do not necessarily illustrate
negative connotation of a specific group. The media can promote courageous truth
telling, hide and prolong social problems, or provide concrete example of an
abstract cultural value.
Example:
Filipino telenovelas often portray Visayan people’s role as maids. They talk in a
silly English or Tagalog accent. They are often dressed in colorful and mismatched
clothes. People now don’t feel surprised nor offended now because they came fond of it.
However, not because people got used to it doesn’t mean it is righteous.

New Media and Society

“New Media” is the term for the Internet and other digital forms of communication.
 According to Dennis Baron, all communication revolutions have created
upheavals and have changed the standards of literacy and communication.
 Media had evolved from generation to generation which generated new means
and opportunities to develop communication and culture.
Example:
In the 90’s students use the book-ish type of learning. Now, students can learn
through videos, e-books, and even online tutorials. This does not mean that the
traditional way of learning is not effective. It is just right to utilize technology because they
have it.

Information
 The internet has an enormous amount of new information available to the general
public. The information and the way people decipher it influences culture.
 Now that information is more convenient to access because of technology.
Information can easily transverse in several forms of media.
 Due to important development in the media’s approach to information, the
subjectivity has increased. A term for subjectivity has been coined as
“balkanization.”
 Balkanization means that people only surround themselves with information that
they want to. They filter information and block out unwanted stories and
perspectives.
Example:
Twitter is one of the most commonly used tool of media. Trending topics can be
seen by tweeting (posting) and retweeting (sharing.) People can also choose what they
want to prioritize to see. If a certain Duterte supporter only wants to see post from pro-
Duterte twitter accounts only, he can filter out topics that are only in shape with his views
and block those who oppose him.

Literacy
 The emergence of Internet at the primary source of information bared the public to
different levels of text that increased overall literacy.
 Web content is majorly text-based using blogs, forums, or a personal website. It
requires degree of textual literacy that is not necessary to television, music, or
movies.
Example:
People can easily make blogs online however, one needs to be literate and
knowledgeable enough to be able to produce a trustworthy output. What’s posted online
can be subliterate so one has to verify its authenticity.
News
 The internet has affected the way that cultures consume news. The public expects
to receive information quickly and news outlets respond rapidly to breaking stories.
Example:
Manila Bulletin and Philippine Daily Inquirer are two of the most prominent
broadsheets in the Philippines. With the emergence of technology and social media, they
also upgraded their service to be able to catch up with the emerging technology. They
created online news portal rather than sticking only to newspapers which is an effective
move.

Convergence Culture
According to the book “Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide”
of Henry Jenkins the term convergence means the flow of content across multiple media
platforms, the cooperation between multiple media industries, and the migratory behavior
of media audiences who will go anywhere in search of the kinds of entertainment
experiences they want (Jenkins, 2006.)
Example:
A video about an adorable dancing cat gained great amount of views and shares,
because of that a news outlet featured a story about the video, which in return gain
popularity as the featured video was poster on their official Youtube account.

Media Effects Theories

Challenges to the Direct Effects Theory
Direct Effect Theory
 This assumed that audiences passively accepted media messages and would
exhibit predictable reactions in response to those messages.
 A result of the People’s Choice Study conducted in 1940 challenged the Direct
Effect Theory. Wherein, it attempted to measure effects of political campaigns on
voter choice. The researchers found that the voters who consume most of media
had generally decided already who to vote, while undecided voters generally
turned to family and community members to help them decide. Thus, the study
 discredited the Direct Effects model and influenced a host of other media theories
(Hanson, 2009).
These theories do not necessarily give all-encompassing picture of media effects
but work to illuminate a particular aspect of media influence.
Example:

As a Facebook post about abduction of teenagers using a white van gone viral on
Facebook, many Filipinos got scared and believed the story to be true even if the
authorities deny the “abduction” story.

Marshall McLuhan’s Influence on Media Studies

McLuhan wrote two books that had an enormous effect on the history of media
studies:

 Gutenberg Galaxy published on 1962

 Understanding The Media published on 1964

Both traced the history of media technology and illustrated the ways these
innovations had changed both individual behavior and the wider culture.

Understanding the Media introduced a phrase that McLuhan has been known for:
“The medium is the message.” This means that the media is an instrument in shaping
human and cultural experience.

Agenda-Setting Theory
 It stated that mass media determine the issues that concern the public rather than
the public’s views.
 This theory focuses on issues that the media gives most attention to resulting for
it to become the topic that the public discusses, debates, and demand actions on.
 The media focuses on what will entice the public. What the public has a connection
to.
  Critics claim that media outlets have an agenda. Agendas can range from a
perceived liberal bias in the news media to propagation of political stand.
 Agenda-setting research traces public policy from its roots as an agenda through
its promotion in the mass media and finally to its final form as a law or policy
(Dearing and Rogers, 1996).
 People have a choice to believe in media or not but people’s thinking of
obstructiveness and un-obstructiveness of an issue affects it a lot.

Example:

Failon Ngayon is a television show that focuses on public concerns like illegal
mining activities, uncontrollable price hikes, shortage on water because it is closer to the
public’s heart and they can understand it’s importance. Failon Ngayon breaks down the
problem and present it to their audience based on how they understood it. It is on to the
public if they’ll be on the same page or not.

Uses and Gratification Theory

 This theory states that consumer use media to satisfy specific needs or desires.
 People has different reasons why they us media of any form. Whether be it in the
form of internet, television, or print media.
 The media gratifies a particular need. It satisfies the consumers in different ways:
relaxation, social interaction, entertainment, arousal, escape, and a host of
interpersonal and social needs.

Example:

Porn sites are subjective to everyone. It may appear disgusting to some, or useful
to other. Pornhub as an example is a porn site. Its consumers use it for it gives them
personal satisfaction in different ways. Other people may not understand or accept their
reason for using it but still they can’t meddle with other people’s lives.
Symbolic interactionism

 States that the self is derived from and develops through human interaction.
 To communicate effectively, people use symbols with shared cultural meanings.
 This theory helps the media researchers to better understand the field because of
the important role the media plays in creating and propagating shared symbols.
Because of media’s power, it can create symbols on its own.
 The media affects a society’s shared symbols, and in turn, the influence of those
symbols on the individual.
 The media can influence how a person think based on the symbols and shared
meanings they have with the media.
Examples:
In the Philippines, if a person uses Apple products, people will think that he is rich
or has a comfortable life because they know that Apple products are expensive.
Girls with lighter skin are considered more beautiful than Morena-skinned girls
(does not apply to everyone). It can be observed in advertisements on television and
online platforms. Even artist in the Philippines have lighter skin so people tries to achieve
it too.

Spiral of Silence
 States that those who have minority opinion tends to silence themselves to prevent
social isolation.
 It explains the role of mass media in the formation and maintenance of dominant
opinions.
 Due to the silence of the minority, the illusion of consensus grows, so does
pressure to adopt the dominant position.

Example:

In telenovelas, there’s a big gap with the elites and the poor class. Thus, it always
appears that only the riches have the guts and ability to make decisions and lead because
they are have the power to. Whilst the poor class is always the submissive one because
(in telenovelas) they are powerless and afraid to make a move because they might get
punished because they are well…poor.

Media Logic

 Media Logic Theory states that the common media formats and styles serve as a
means of perceiving the world.
 The deep rooting of media in the cultural consciousness mean that media
consumers need engage for only a few moments with a particular television
program to understand that it is a news show, a comedy, or a reality show.
 The pervasiveness of these formats means that our culture uses the style and
content of these shows as ways to interpret reality.

Example:

Tulfo in Action is a Youtube show by Raffy Tulfo, a known personality in the

Philippines. Through the show, may cases of injustice were solved. Now, people tend to
resolve their problem through it rather than to do it the usual way of filing a case in court
and so on. Why? Because after watching an episode it can be observed that Tulfo acts
faster than the court does.

Cultivation Analysis

 It states that the heavy exposure to media causes individuals to develop an illusory
perception of reality based on the most repetitive and consistent messages of a
particular medium.
 This theory focuses on television.
 The focus of this theory is the spontaneous influence on the viewers.

Example:
 Television and the social media have created a mindset in people that females are
supposed to be pretty and with lots of make-up. This has encouraged teens and young
girls to follow what they see and also think that being pretty is equal to wearing make-up.

Methods of Researching Media Effects

1. Content Analysis
 involves analyzing the contents of various forms of media.
 it seeks to understand the creator of the content, the reason the content
was created and the intended audience who would view the content.
 does not involve elaborate experiments, rather, access to the appropriate
media to analyze.
 needs to define what media type to study.
Example:
A lot of parents complain how hidden sexual content are depicted from children’s
TV shows such as cartoons. To elaborate and learn the reasons why, the researchers
would need to distinguish, define and analyze characters, scenes and settings that
involve and portray such acts.
2. Archival Research
 involves studying and reviewing historical documents such as newspapers,
or online development that can be found in Internet Archives (e.g.
www.archive.org).
Example:
Students wants to study the history and development of the Philippine Star as a
newspaper and as an online newspaper.
3. Surveys
 involves questionnaires for people to answer.
 A descriptive survey aims to find the current state of things, such as public
opinion or consumer preferences.
 An analytical survey attempts to find out why a particular situation exists.
  it may give an open-ended question (generate answers in their own words)
or close-ended question (forced selection of answers)
Example:
Descriptive: Identifying the reasons why ABS-CBN’s unending show, Ang
Probinsayano is the most favored and most liked by most Filipino viewers.
Analytical: Identifying the reasons why televising Manny Pacquiao’s fights
decreases crime rate.
4. Social Role Analysis
 involves examining various individuals in the media and analyzing the type
of role that each plays.
 analyzing roles used in media allows researchers to gain a better
understanding of the messages that the mass media sends (Berger, 1998).
Example:
Learning the greater impact of the portrayal of gay lovers in GMA’s My Husband’s
Lover than portrayed gay lovers of Bubble Gang of the same network.
5. Depth Interviews
 an anthropological research tool that is also useful in media studies.
 allows researchers to give direct and specific questions to further
understand of the participant’s view, perception and experience.
 involves individual interview
Example:
Identifying the criteria for one’s story to be featured in GMA’s Kapuso Mo, Jessica
Soho.
6. Rhetorical Analysis
 involves examining the styles used in media and attempting to understand
the kinds of messages those styles convey.
 media styles include form, presentation, composition, use of metaphors,
and reasoning structure.
 rhetorical analysis reveals the messages not apparent in a strict reading of
content.
Example:
 In commercials, initially, companies want to advertise directly the price and quality
of their product. But Jollibee, Inc. stands out of all. The advertisements of this fast food
chain uses all heart-melting stories, which captures most viewers, rather than the typical
commercial ads. The researchers then wants to analyze why this kind of strategy captures
more consumers than the typical advertising schema.
7. Focus Groups
 unlike depth interviews, which are done individually, this method is done in
groups, preferably involving three or more individuals.
 allow researchers to better understand public responses to media.
Example:
A lot of Generation Z Filipino teenagers wanted to discuss and react on to the
banned commercials aired on Philippine network.
8. Experiments
 uses controlled experiments that expose a test group to an experience
involving media and measure the effects of that experience.
 usually done to compare certain results.
Example:
Parents are tasked to compare the CGI quality of Filipino films and international
films. They were then divided into two groups: one group to watch Si Agimat at si Enteng
Kabisote; the other to watch Marvel’s The Avengers. Questions on the quality and the
story are then inquired to both groups after watching the films.
9. Participant Observation
 researchers try to become part of the group they are studying (immersion).
 the researcher becomes part of the experiment and can reveal important
influences of media on culture.
Example:
In order for parents to understand why games such as Mobile Legends (ML),
League of Legends (LoL) and Defense of the Ancients (DOTA) are very popular and very
addictive to teenagers, they are then tasked to play these games together with their
children.
 Media Studies Controversy
“Important debates over media theory have questioned the foundations and
hence the results of media research. Within academia, theories, and research can
represent an individual’s lifework and livelihood. As a result, issues of tenure and
position, rather than issues of truth and objectivity, can sometimes fuel discussion over
theories and research.”
A. Problems with Methodology and Theory
The use of such theories in public debate generally follows a broader
understanding.
Example:
Since some of the portrayal of minor police officers in Ang Probinsyano are evil,
some viewers view today’s police officers as such, without introducing further and
possible explanation.

Active Versus Passive Audience

 there is a significant division between passive and active viewers or audiences.

 Passive: passively accepts the message media sends.
 Active: fully aware of what media sends and has process to decide and analyze
the message sent.
Example:

Some Facebook users are easily deceived by online articles and hoaxes about a
celebrity’s death.

Arguments against Agenda-Setting Theory

 people argues that this theory is unable to prove cause and effect; essentially, no
one has truly shown that the media agenda sets the public agenda and not the
other way around.
 public concern over issues generates media coverage as well, making it difficult to
tell if the media is responding to public desire for coverage of an issue or if it is
pushing an issue on its own agenda (Kwansah-Aidoo, 2005).
Example:
 In 2019, most of media’s coverage were the SEA Games event. Mostly, it
highlighted the achievements Filipinos garnered, which made the public proud, but at the
same time, disappointed, since the Cauldron Fund controversy was totally erased and
completely forgotten in media.

Arguments against Uses and Gratification Theory

 the uses and gratifications theory implicitly justifies and reaffirms the place of
media in the public sphere.
 because it focuses on personal, psychological aspects of media, the theory cannot
question whether media is artificially imposed on an individual.
Example:
Some viewers may find “dubbing” as a great tool for understanding and learning,
but people often disregards and wants to remove dubbed shows on Philippine network
since they find it “disgusting” and “creepily funny”.

Arguments against Spiral of Silence Theory

 this theory is weak when dealing with specifics.

 the phenomenon of the spiral of silence is most visible in individuals who are fearful
of social isolation.
Example:

Due to the minority’s fear of isolation, people becomes passive and just accepts
the fact that Nickelodeon’s Spongebob Squarepants is appropriate for children, despite
having a lot of hidden sexual, violent and inappropriate thematic content. The opinion of
the minority of avoiding such cartoon is disregarded by the majority.

Arguments against Cultivation Analysis Theory

 critics have faulted cultivation analysis theory for relying too heavily on a broad
definition of violence.
 any can claim that a clear message of violence could be understood in the same
way by an entire culture is false.
Example:
 Some viewers are often making delusion of shows they see and forgets to distinct
fiction and reality. The website, Creepypasta, is one of the best examples that creates
delusional thoughts and often makes people believe it is true.

B. Politics and Media Studies

 proponents are often oversimplified and can result in contradictory claims.
 when politicians and others employ media studies to validate a political
perspective, this is a common result.

Media Bias

 good example of the ways that media can bolster political opinion is through
coverage, which leads to the debate over media bias.
 personal views and opinions are often mixed to media, especially to news anchors
and reporters.
Example:

During the 2016 Presidential Election, a debate was lit when ABS-CBN News
Anchor Karen Davila was alleged to show signs of political bias, where she was in favor
of the Former DENR secretary Mar Roxas being the next president, and attacks other
candidates by giving “offensive” questions and subjective opinions.

Media Decency

 because of the regulatory powers that government possesses over the media,
decency is also an inherently political issue.
 media studies involving violence, pornography, and profanity are inherently
politically charged, and politicians have also conducted their own media studies.
Example:

Some directors and scriptwriters are often afraid of placing sexual content to their
films and shows because majority of people would judge these shows as “inappropriate”
and “disgusting”, where, in fact, they just wanted to educate their viewers about the reality
people are commonly facing. BuyBust is one of the films that was bashed by some people
since the film “exaggerated” President Rodrigo Duterte’s War on Drug Campaign.

Media Consolidation

 occurs when large media companies buy up smaller media outlets.

Example:

Channel 11’s QTv was an independent channel before when GMA bought it and
became GMA TV.

Introduction to Oral Communication

What is oral communication?

 Defined as the “communication through mouth. It includes individuals conversing

with each other, be it direct conversation or telephonetic conversation.”
 Oral communication is communication done through verbal exchange of
information. This can be done in either a formal or an informal manner.
Traditionally, oral communication is used to refer to face-to-face conversations or
large gatherings and discussions, but the recent boom of information technology
has expanded it to other types, such as VOIP and podcasts.
 There are many instances where in choosing oral communication makes a lot more
sense than using written and computer mediated communication.
 It is more flexible to communicate face to face especially when you need to find
quick resolutions because oral communication is effective in addressing conflict or
problems and you can discuss different aspects of an issue and make decisions
more quickly when you are conversing face to face.
Examples:
Some examples of oral communication includes face to face conversations,
telephone conversations, discussions that take place at business meetings,
Presentations at business meetings, classroom lectures, commencement speeches
given at a graduation ceremony.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Oral Communication

Advantages of Oral Communication

 There is high level of understanding and transparency in oral communication

as it is interpersonal.
 There is no element of rigidity in oral communication. There is flexibility for
allowing changes in the decisions previously taken.
 The feedback is spontaneous in case of oral communication. Thus, decisions
can be made quickly without any delay.
  Oral communication is not only time saving, but it also saves upon money and
efforts.
 Oral communication is best in case of problem resolution. The conflicts,
disputes and many issues/differences can be put to an end by talking them
over.
 Oral communication is an essential for teamwork and group energy.
 Oral communication promotes a receptive and encouraging morale among
organizational employees.
 Oral communication can be best used to transfer private and confidential
information/matter.
Disadvantages of Oral Communication

 Relying only on oral communication may not be sufficient as business

communication is formal and very organized.
 Oral communication is less authentic than written communication as they are
informal and not as organized as written communication.
 Oral communication is time-saving as far as daily interactions are concerned,
but in case of meetings, long speeches consume lot of time and are
unproductive at times.
 Oral communications are not easy to maintain and thus they are unsteady.
 There may be misunderstandings as the information is not complete and may
lack essentials.
 It requires attentiveness and great receptivity on part of the receivers/audience.
 Oral communication (such as speeches) is not frequently used as legal records
except in investigation work.

Introduction to Mediated Communication

What is mediated communication?

 Mediated Communication is communication carried out through information

communication technology. Nowadays, it is often used to refer to communication
using computers and the like, but letters and notes are also often mediated forms
of communication. Thus, it is defined as communication done through the use of a
medium to transmit information through time and space.

 Refers to communication carried out by the use of information communication

technology contrasted to face-to-face communication.
  There are many types of mediated communication in use today; emails, instant
messaging systems, boards, letters, and other communication types that require a
medium.

 Mediated communication is communication that relies on a technology channel in

order to send a message into two entities.

 Compared to face-to-face communication, mediated communication engages

fewer senses, transmits fewer symbolic cues (most mediated communication does
not transmit facial expressions) and is seen as more private.
Examples:

Some examples of mediated communication includes emails, instant messaging

systems, boards, letters, and other communication types that require a medium.