H1114 Six Sigma For The Shop Floor by Roderick Munro PDF

Six Sigma for
the Shop Floor

A Pocket Guide
Six Sigma for
the Shop Floor
A Pocket Guide
Roderick A. Munro, Ph.D.
ASQ Quality Press

Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Munro, Roderick A.
Six Sigma for the shop floor : a pocket guide / Roderick A. Munro.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-87389-516-9
1. Process control. I. Title.
TS156.8 .M845 2001
658.5'62--dc21
2001004040
© 2002 by ASQ
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN 0-87389-516-9
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Dedication
To shop floor operators and supervisors everywhere,

those who do the actual work in small plants that
keep industry moving. It is hoped that you find this
book useful in your daily work to help answer the
question “How do I work smarter, not harder?”
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiii
Suggested Use of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xv
The DMAIC Matrix Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
What Is Six Sigma? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Your Role in Six Sigma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
What Is Variation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Things You Might Be Involved With . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
The DMAIC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
The Six Sigma Road Map for Shop Operators . . . . . . .35
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Advanced quality planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Auditing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Benchmarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
Brainstorming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Cause-and-effect diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Central limit theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Checksheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
vii
viii Six Sigma for the Shop Floor
Continual improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

Control plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
Cost-benefit analysis (cost of quality) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Customer feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Dynamic control planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Employee involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Experimentation—your role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Flowchart (flow map, process flow diagram) . . . . . . . .88
Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) . . . . . . . . . .92
Gage control plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Geometric dimensioning
and tolerancing (GD&T) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Histograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Improvement team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
Lean manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
Lessons learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
Management commitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
Measurement system analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
Mistake-proofing (error proofing, poka-yoke) . . . . . .120
Organizational development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
PDSA (plan, do, study, act) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
Pareto chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
Preventive maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
Problem solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
Process behavior charts (originally
statistical process control—SPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
Process capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
Process identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
Process improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
Project planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
Run chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
Sampling plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
Scatter diagram (correlation, regression) . . . . . . . . . .158
Contents ix
Self-directed team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162

Short-run statistical process control . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
Standardization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166
Standard operating procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
Systems thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Team meetings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
Variation reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
Works Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
Preface
T
his book is a continuation of a series of works started
by the author and referred to as QUIT© (Quality in
Training). It is hoped that this series helps people
find joy in their work and lead healthier, happier lives.
The writer of a Zen Buddhist text on the art of living
writes:
The Master in the art of living makes little distinc-

tion between his work and his play, his labor and
his leisure, his mind and his body, his education and
his recreation, his love and his religion. He hardly
knows which is which. He simply pursues his vision
of excellence in whatever he does, leaving others
to decide whether he is working or playing. To him
he is always doing both.
It will be left to the reader to decide at what point the

author is doing each in this text.
xi
Acknowledgments
A
s in any work, a lot of people were involved in devel-
oping this book. I would like to thank all the class par-
ticipants, suppliers, and peers that I have worked with
in the past 20 years. I continue to learn from all your input.
I especially would like to thank Dr. Dean Stamatis and
Dr. Elizabeth Rice for their years of friendship and their
encouragement and support in this work. Also Ed Risk,
a quality manager in a small shop who recently achieved
his ASQ certified quality engineer level, for testing this
book in his workplace.
Thanks to the staff at ASQ Quality Press and the
reviewers for their time, efforts, and support to make this
book a reality. Especially Annemieke Koudstaal in her
relatively new role as the acquisitions editor.
Suggested Use of This Book
T
his book is for those of you in small manufacturing
organizations whose customers may be encourag-
ing or requiring you to use Six Sigma in your work-
place. The book is intended to be a complete,
easy-to-read, quick, and handy reference to the Six Sigma
topics that are so important in industry. The first seven
sections of the book cover the basics of Six Sigma (“What
Is Six Sigma?” through the “Six Sigma Road Map”) and
how it should be implemented in the plant. The tools
matrix guide beginning on page 2 has been arranged
alphabetically to allow for ease of finding tools as needed.
The remainder of the pocket guide gives a brief descrip-
tion of the various tools and methodologies used in Six
Sigma. Each discussion has purposefully been kept sim-
ple to allow for basic understanding. If more detail is
needed, other references can be consulted.
Everyone in the organization, from the sweeper to the
president or owner, should know the basic information
found in this book. Persons who can pass a designated
test, either internally created or one of many offered by
various organizations, can be designated as Six Sigma
“green belts.” Green belts work with teams to gather data
and to analyze, improve, and control the processes in
the plant. People who become exceptionally expert in
the use of Six Sigma methods and who can pass
advanced testing are called Six Sigma “black belts.”
Black belts use experiments and other advanced tools
to help solve especially difficult problems.
xiii
Your company may or may not have a black belt (a
full-time or part-time person dedicated to doing Six
Sigma in your shop). However, everyone should become
involved in continual improvement efforts to help ensure
your organization’s survival. This can be accomplished
by using this book and the tools within it on the shop
floor to guide improvement efforts.
In addition, you may deal with customer “supplier
quality assurance” personnel, people designated as
“rent-a-black-belts,” or other consultants to help with the
advanced aspects of Six Sigma. By using all the
resources that become available, you can help your
company stay competitive in today’s global marketplace.
xv
xvi Six Sigma for the Shop Floor
The DMAIC
Matrix Guide
T
he DMAIC model (shown in Figure 1) is referred
to throughout this book. The acronym stands for
define, measure, analyze, improve, and control.
The reader will find the following matrix helpful as he or
Define
SDCA SDCA
Control Management commitment Measure

Employee involvement
Team meetings
PDSA PDSA
Improve Verify Analyze
PDSA Design
Figure 1. The DMAIC model.
1
2 Six Sigma for the Shop Floor
she matches particular tools to particular phases in the

DMAIC process.
When Used
Name of Tool in Six Sigma Page
Advanced quality planning D 39
Auditing A 39
Benchmarking MA 45
Brainstorming AI 49
Cause-and-effect diagram DMA 53
Central limit theorem A 57
Checksheets M 59
Cleanliness A 65
Continual improvement AC 67
Control plan IC 70
Cost-benefit analysis
(cost of quality) MAIC 74
Customer feedback DC 78
Dynamic control plan IC 80
Employee involvement DMAIC 84
Experimentation (setting up
design of experiments—DOE) AI 86
Flowchart/flow-map DI 88
Failure mode and effects
analysis (FMEA) IC 92
Gage control plan MC 103
Geometric dimensioning
and tolerancing (GD&T) A 105
Histogram M 107
Improvement team I 110
Lean manufacturing IC 112
Lessons learned DIC 114
Management commitment DMAIC 116
The DMAIC Matrix Guide 3
When Used
Name of Tool in Six Sigma Page
Measurement system analysis
(MSA)—gage repeatability
and reproducibility (GR&R)
(variable and attribute) MC 118
Mistake-proofing (error
proofing—poka-yoke) IC 120
Organizational change IC 122
PDSA (plan, do, study, act) MAI 125
Pareto chart M 128
Preventive maintenance A 133
Problem solving I 136
Process behavior charts
(statistical process
control—SPC) C 138
Process capability C 146
Process identification D 149
Process improvement I 150
Project planning D 152
Run chart M 154
Sampling plans MAIC 156
Scatter diagram M 158
Self-directed teams MAIC 162
Short-run statistical
process control C 164
Standardization
(SDCA-standardize,
do, check, adjust) DC 166
Standard operating
procedures (SOPs) DC 168
Systems thinking D 170
Team meetings DMAIC 173
Variation reduction IC 176
What Is Six Sigma?
6σ
S
ix Sigma is a term describing the overall concept of con-
tinual improvement (Deming 1993). Continual improve-
ment can be defined as the use of problem-solving
techniques and quick deployment to implement improvements
and then the use of process behavioral studies (Wheeler and
Poling 1998) to maintain the gains. Six Sigma has been
described as a breakthrough system (Juran 1964) and is being
used in many organizations today in a variety of applications.
Basically, Six Sigma is about collecting data on a process and
using that data to analyze and interpret what is happening in
that process so that the process can be improved to satisfy
the customer. A basic process can be defined as an input,
transformation, and output (see Figure 2).
Six Sigma was begun at Motorola in the late 1980’s
and was then developed into what we know today at
General Electric. Following a prescribed process, an
entire organization starts to look at everything that it
does in the light of reducing variation and reducing
waste—with the result of increasing customer satisfac-
tion. Customers are defined as anyone from the next
5
Input Transformation Output
Figure 2. Process.
person who uses the work we do (internal customer) to

the ultimate customer who uses the products or services
that our organization produces (external customer). To
assist in this process, sometimes the supplier and cus-
tomer are added to the basic process flow (input, trans-
formation, output), creating the SIPOC identification
(supplier, input, process, output, customer). This is espe-
cially useful in helping to define the boundaries of what
is to be studied (see Figure 3).
For some, the idea of improving a process is a waste
of time and should not be bothered with (we are already
working the hardest that we can). But as Juran (1964)
points out, “Changes creep up on us week by week, a
little bit at a time. Over a year or two, there are 50 or
100 of these bits, which amounts to quite a bit. The skills
of the operators or supervisors have not necessarily
kept pace, and we wake up to the existence of a wide
gap.” This is one explanation for why accidents and
product rejections happen in our shops. If the root cause
can be found for an accident or rejection of a product or
service, it usually will be traced back to many small
changes that occurred either in our organization or at our
supplier.
Using Six Sigma methodologies, we can find those
bits of changes and decide which ones should be fixed
What Is Six Sigma? 7
Supplier Input Transformation Output Customer
Feedback Feedback
Figure 3. The SIPOC model.
and which ones need to be improved. This process is

not meant to be a quick-fix approach (a silver bullet). The
logical use of the tools over time will save us resources
and effort in doing our daily jobs. This book provides an
overview of the tools and processes used in Six Sigma.
Detailed explanations for the use of each tool or process
can be accessed readily in other references or on the
Internet. For many of us, this book will serve as a quick
reference to what we may already have in our shop that
can be used by various individuals and teams to improve
overall processes.
Your Role in Six Sigma
Y
ou may find in the Six Sigma process for solving prob-
lems a number of tools and methods that you already
are familiar with and a few that are new to you. You may
very well ask, “How is this any different from what we have
done before?” The direct answer will need to be given by your
organization, and it depends on the various programs that
already have been used. For many companies, this process
is part of an ongoing evolution of how they do their work. One
of the main things that you should notice is that upper man-
agement will be more involved with your problem-solving
efforts and with the everyday problems found in your work
areas.
As we prepare for this exciting journey, look at the
representations in Figure 4 and see what you think.
What would you predict as the golfer’s next score if you
were looking only at the top box of numbers? Maybe a
score of from 100 to 105? Could you say anything about
the golfer in general? Now take a look at the run chart,
and a lot of information becomes very clear. Your new
estimated score for round 205 might be 95 to 100. You
could also say that up through round 180 the golfer was
relatively consistent, scoring around 120. But then some-
9
Which provides more insight?
Game number 180 185 190 195 200 205

Golf score 112 119 102 104 100 ?
or
Golf Scores
125
Score
115
105
95
164 174 184 194 204
Game number
What is your prediction for game number 205?
Figure 4. More insight.
thing happened—maybe lessons were taken—and

things began to improve. The golfer still has not stabi-
lized with whatever happened yet and may improve
more. Thus, this one picture is worth a thousand words.
During the change process, and while using this
book, you will be able to use the Six Sigma model for
improvement. It has been shown that by our using a
model or road map, we usually can accomplish some-
thing much quicker than we can without a guide. Some
organizations today use something called the MAIC
(measure, analyze, improve, control) model. They refer
to this process as being able to do “magic” without the
G (garbage) that we find in many operations. Many orga-
Your Role in Six Sigma 11
nizations have added a D (define) stage to identify the

process customers, resulting in the DMAIC model (see
Figure 5).
You may already use control plans, process sheets,
standard operating sheets, or any number of other things
in your daily work. The use of the Six Sigma model for
improvement should not replace anything you’re currently
doing. It should, however, help you to review your daily
work and look for areas or methods to improve the
process of considering what customers want and need.
Just because we are doing the same things we have
done before, do our customers still want the same things
from us?
Define

Team meetings

Design
Figure 5. The DMAIC base model.

We are entering a journey of continual improvement

that can be used in our work and our daily lives. Some
of us have been on this journey for some time, while oth-
ers may just be starting. The process involves using
what Deming (1993) refers to as profound knowledge:
appreciation for a system, knowledge about variation,
theory of knowledge, and psychology. Through the Six
Sigma methodology which uses the Six Sigma model for
improvement you should see things around you work
better, be safer, and satisfy your customers more.
What Is Variation?
V
ariation is the basic law that no two things are exactly
alike. There are usually many reasons for things not
being constant. Have you ever noticed while driving that
your vehicle does not stay exactly the same distance between
the white and yellow lines! What causes this variation? Of
course most of us drive well, and the lines are on the road to
help us get to where we want to go without running into other
vehicles. But if we could measure our vehicle’s distance
between the lines, we would find that drift does occur (com-
mon cause variation). If a police officer pulls us over, however
(special cause variation), some of the reasons could include
these: wind velocity with a high-profile vehicle, alcohol or drug
involvement, cell phone usage, inexperienced driver, other
poor weather conditions, worn or damaged tires, or other fac-
tors. The author was recently pulled over by the police because
he was driving too close to the white line. It seems that to some
police, that only means the driver has been drinking! However,
on dark, foggy nights, the author prefers staying close to the
white line to give oncoming drivers more room on the road.
The same thing happens in our shops. We have pro-
cedures for how to do the work, but small things or per-
sonal preferences can and will cause differences in the
13
output of the process. A common way to describe this

today is with the formula y = f(x), or y equals the func-
tion of the x’s. Graphically this is most easily seen when
using the cause-and-effect diagram. The effect is the y
of the formula, and the causes are the x’s.
The traditional view of quality (sometimes called the
goalpost mentality—see Figure 6) depicts how many
people regard variation when dealing with produced
parts. It shows that some parts are clearly made within
specifications, while others are outside of specifications.
There is no relationship called out for y = f (x), but the
question that should be asked here is “What is the ‘real’
difference between parts if one is just inside the spec
and another is just outside the spec?” (See Figure 7.)
Compared, two such parts are very similar and proba-
bly will function equally well when used by the customer.
That is one of the reasons people who use this tradi-
No good Good No good
Loss No loss Loss
y
Lower Upper
specification Target specification Response
limit value limit
Figure 6. Traditional view of quality.

What Is Variation? 15
tional model tend to ship parts even if they are just out-
side the spec limits—because they think they can get a
few more sales to the customer that will not be noticed.
This usually happens at the end of the shipping period
(for example, the end of each month).
A change in how we regard variation can be seen in
the Taguchi loss function model (see Figure 8). This
updated view of quality states that all production (or ser-
vice), measured by the x’s, should aim for a target value
that should be in the middle of the specification limits.
Notice that the specification limits are not shown on the
graph. In this case, parts that are just in or out of spec-
ification have nearly the same “loss” to the customer and
will not be accepted very well. As parts move away from
the target value, the cost to the customer, and thus soci-
ety, increases as issues or problems with the use of
those parts increase. The goal today is to reduce vari-
y y
Lower Upper
specification Target specification
limit value limit
Figure 7. Part goodness.

Poor Poor
Best
$
Fair Fair
Loss Good Good
y
Target Response
Figure 8. Taguchi loss function.
ation (both common cause and special cause—to be dis-

cussed later) so that the customer will see more parts
that are closer to the target value of what they want ver-
sus what we can produce.
This means that in many cases the way we measure
things today needs to be changed so that as we reduce
variation, we can still measure what is occurring in our
production areas. Say you want to check a weight on the
scale in your shipping department. If the scale is of the
older, balance type, it may be accurate to the nearest
pound. But if you need to know more, you might find a
scale that will measure in fractions of pounds (say, a dig-
ital readout). The main question is: How precise a scale
do you need for the variation that you want to investigate?
We will look at this and other issues as we proceed.
Note: Be aware of the difference between variation
and variability. Variability comprises three components:
variation (discussed earlier), instability (when a process
has high amounts of unknown [special cause] variation),
What Is Variation? 17
and off-target conditions (which happen when a process

is not centered between the engineering specifications)
(Bajaria and Copp 1991).
Things You Might Be
Involved With
Y
our organization may be using Six Sigma (Chowdhury
2000) or another quality methodology (for example,
quality operating system [QOS], continuous improve-
ment [CI], total quality management [TQM], or a system known
by some other name). As an operator or supervisor of a
process, you will be asked by your area supervisors or man-
agement to help implement improvement of the process or
processes that you work with. Your challenge will be to look
at the process with an eye toward both simple improvements,
which you may already know need to be made (preventive
maintenance, cleanliness, parts wearing out, and so on), and
how you can measure certain factors of the process to inves-
tigate better ways of performing the process.
You will be asked to use the tools in this book, and
maybe others, to study your work and process or
processes to look for improvement ideas and to imple-
ment those ideas. You may already be familiar with some
of these tools—the challenge will be learning how to use
them in new ways to make the changes that will help
your company stay in business in today’s fiercely com-
petitive world. We no longer compete only against other
domestic companies, but against companies in countries
19
around the world. How can they do a better job than we

can, ship the parts that we make, and sell them to our
customers faster, better, and more cheaply than we can
(“If Japan Can” 1979; “Quality or Else” 1992)? That is
the question that should be on your team members’
minds as you look for ways to improve work areas and
processes.
Many of us find that by using a model or framework,
we can do things more simply—a picture is worth a
thousand words. This is also true when trying to improve
processes. Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa (yes, the man who cre-
ated the fishbone diagram) gave us a road map to fol-
low when first looking at a process that needs to be
improved. The words may not make much sense right
now, but as you work with process improvement, you will
come to understand the importance of what is said here:
POINTERS IN EXPRESSING QUALITY

(ISHIKAWA 1976)
1. Determine the assurance unit. (What is to be
measured?)
2. Determine the measuring method. (How will we
measure it?)
3. Determine the relative importance of quality
characteristics. (Is this key to our process?)
4. Arrive at a consensus on defects and flaws. (Does
everyone agree on what is good and bad?)
Things You Might Be Involved With 21
5. Expose latent defects. (Look at the process over

time.)
6. Observe quality statistically. (Use process behavior
charting.)
7. Distinguish between “quality of design” and “quality
of conformance.”
After we know what we can change (quality of con-
formance) versus what we cannot change right now
(quality of design—this is left to Design for Six Sigma
[DFSS] process), we can start working on our processes.
Many operators start out viewing this effort as only more
work, but many find that doing these studies actually
saves them a lot of time and grief in the future as things
start to improve and machines start to work better. One
question to ask yourself now is “How often does my
process slow down or stop because something is not
working the way it should?” Or “Is the output ever
scrapped by someone down the line (including my exter-
nal customer) because something did not happen right
at my operation?”
The next section discusses the DMAIC model. In that
section you learn when to most appropriately use the
methods and tools presented in this book to improve
your processes. As we proceed, please be willing to
experiment with the tools to look for ways to apply them
in your work and process or processes to learn as much
as you can about how a process operates so that you
can modify as appropriate and give your organization
and your customers the best possible output.
DMAIC Model
T
hroughout this book, you’ll find a number of models
and/or steps to assist you in applying the tools or meth-
ods being discussed. For the use of Six Sigma, a model
has emerged that is well recognized and that you’ll need to
use in your shop to show customers that Six Sigma is being
used. The DMAIC model (see Figure 9) stands for define,
measure, analyze, improve, and control and is very similar to
the PDSA (plan, do, study, act) or PDCA (plan, do, check, act)
model that you already may be using.
A key factor in each step of DMAIC is management’s
commitment to work with the process and allow the oper-
ator the time and resources to accomplish each of the
phases and strive for continual improvement. This is one
of several driving forces that make Six Sigma different
from other quality improvement programs. Other driving
forces include getting everyone in the organization
involved, getting the information technology group to
assist in supplying data more quickly to everyone, and get-
ting financial data in the form of cost-of-quality analysis.
23
Define
SDCA SDCA

Team meetings
PDSA PDSA
PDSA Design
Figure 9. The DMAIC model.
Operators and supervisors, as well as the rest of the

shop operation, will be asked to get involved with the
Six Sigma model and look for continual improvement
opportunities in work areas. Basically, you will do the
following:
Define Identify the issue causing decreased
customer satisfaction.
Measure Collect data from the process.
Analyze Study the process and data for clues to
what is going on.
DMAIC Model 25
Improve Act on the data to change the process for

improvement.
Control Monitor the system to sustain the gains.
A number of tools and methods can be used in the
steps of the DMAIC model. This book gives a quick
overview of many of these items as they relate to the
shop floor. More detailed information can be found in ref-
erences, on the Internet, or probably in the quality office
of your shop. The DMAIC model uses the following tools:
Define:
Management commitment
Team meetings
PDSA (plan, do, study, act)
Advanced quality planning
SIPOC (supplier, input, process, output, customer)
Define the problem—five whys and how
Systems thinking
Process identification
Flowchart
Project planning
Customer feedback—compare
Cause-and-effect diagram
Lessons learned—review
Standard operating procedures
Measure:
Team meetings
PDSA
Sampling plans
Self-directed teams
Identify a data collection plan
MSA (measurement system analysis)
Collect data—check sheets, histograms, Pareto
charts, run charts, scatter diagrams
Identify variability—instability, variation, off-target
Benchmark—start by setting the current baseline
for the process
Cost of quality—start collecting information
Gage control plan
Analyze:
Team meetings
PDSA
Sampling plans
Self-directed teams
Continual improvement
Preventive maintenance
Cleanliness
Benchmark—how others do things
Central limit theorem
GD&T (geometric dimensioning and tolerancing)
Cause-and-effect diagram
Brainstorm
Shop audit
Cost of quality
Experiments—shop operators will have only lim-
ited use of this tool (unless expert help is
available)
Improve:
Team meetings
DMAIC Model 27
PDSA
Sampling plans
Self-directed teams
Process improvement
Organizational change
Variation reduction
Problem solving
Brainstorm alternatives
Create “should be” flowcharts
Conduct FMEA (failure mode and effects analysis)
Cost of quality
Improvement teams
Control plans
DCP (dynamic control plan)
Lean manufacturing
Lessons learned
Mistake-proof
Experiments
Control:
Team meetings
SDCA (standardize, do, check, analyze)
Sampling plans
Self-directed teams
Organizational change
Control plan—update
FMEA—update
DCP—update
Standard operating procedures—update
Long-term MSA
Mistake-proof
Process behavior charts

Lessons learned—update
Continuous improvement
Cost of quality
Lean manufacturing
Process capability
Gage control plan—update
Variation reduction
Many operators will find this process very exciting as
they will have the tools and methods to demonstrate the
improvements that they are helping the organization to
achieve. There have been times when an operator tried
to “tell” a supervisor that something was wrong with a
machine or process. Now we have the means to not only
tell but show and demonstrate what needs to be done.
Following this process creates a road map for continual
improvement, and once started, it is a never-ending jour-
ney. These tools and methods have proven themselves
useful everywhere: from shop floors to front offices, from
schools to hospitals, and even from churches to the home.
Teams
T
he first thing we need to look at with respect to teams
is the difference between a team and a group. A group
(as in a natural work group or department within the
shop) is a collection of individuals who may be working toward
a common goal but who are not necessarily interdependent.
A team is a group of people who have come together for a
specific common purpose, often to be accomplished in a spe-
cific time frame, and that has established for itself a common
definition of what the members will be doing. Each person
understands and can discuss the common object. Teams
develop over time with a lot of work being done among the
individual members to become a fully functional unit.
Many philosophies and books are available on teams,
team building, and how to create effective teams (for
example, the Association for Quality and Participation
[AQP] has a lot of material). An important problem many
managers face with respect to teams is failing to ask the
individuals in the group what they want from their expe-
rience on the team! Lack of communication within the
team and between it and management thus causes a
vast number of failures. Finding a solution to this should
be the manager’s number one concern anytime groups
29
of people come together. Just saying the words one time

is not enough for effective communication to take place.
The second-most-important issue has to do with the
team itself. The members must be able to answer three
basic questions before they can start and continue the
process of teaming. These questions are summed up in
the acronym MCG. M stands for who will be the mem-
bers on this team and why. C stands for who will han-
dle what roles and responsibilities and who is in control.
G stands for the goals of the team and to ensure that
those goals are communicated to everyone who inter-
acts with the team. Each team needs to ask these three
questions and ensure that its members share a common
purpose.
This can be expanded upon by using another
acronym, SGRPI: systems, goals, roles, procedures,
and interpersonal relationships. The term systems
refers to thinking about how this team fits into the struc-
ture of the shop. Goals, as in MCG, refers to what the
team wants to accomplish and to communicate that to
others. Roles, as in the C of MCG, refers to the vari-
ous roles involved in a well-operating team and who will
fill each. Procedures refers to agreed-to and commu-
nicated ground rules and logistical agreements that the
team has made with itself. Interpersonal relationships
refers to the relationships that any team must work out
in advance, as this becomes a major issue if things are
not resolved early. People need to know how to relate
to each other and agree that they are all working for a
common purpose.
The following are some rationales for team building
from the National Training Laboratories Institute (1984):
Teams 31
Every team must go through a series of stages

toward group development. Five states commonly are
The Obvious The Less Obvious

Goal clarity and commitment Identify wants and
Surfacing control/influence needs
issues Support needs
Inclusion/cohesion needs Creative
Exploration of working norms interdependence
Control/management of (synergy)
destructive competition Discovery of
intrinsic needs
involved: forming, storming, norming, performing (pro-

ducing), and ending. The process usually takes a lot of
time, and if at any point something changes (for exam-
ple, new managers, new team members, economic con-
ditions, a significant emotional event experienced by
one of the existing members, and so on), the team as
a whole may need to go back to some prior stage and
repeat efforts to become a top-performing unit.
You should keep in mind several points for each
stage. Forming involves the people on the team getting
to know and trust each other. There can be many frus-
trations here (for example, lack of action, no clear
assignments, poor communication, and so on), and there
is a lot for the team to work through leading to the ulti-
mate goal of acceptance and commitment of the group
to becoming a team. In storming, team members need
to work out their differences with each other. Because
of the forming activities, team members should feel they
are able to talk things out with each other without hurt-
ing feelings and risking rejection just because they see

things differently. The primary outcome of this stage
should be to clarify the team’s major activities and
develop members’ sense of belonging to the team.
Norming occurs when the team sets its boundaries, and
members become more sensitive to each other and to
the goal or goals of the team. The team is now ready to
work on projects and enjoy a level of internal support.
In the performing stage, the team can work to full capac-
ity to achieve its goals with the pride that develops from
performing well. The last phase is ending. We all at var-
ious times in our lives must deal with something com-
ing to an end. At the end of a team or upon losing a team
member, we want to be able to have satisfaction with,
and recognition of, a job well done.
Many managers want teams to jump into the per-
forming stage of teamwork, but this usually causes fric-
tion and a disconnect in the group, which has not been
given the opportunity to form into a team. Each team,
ideally during its formation phase, will identify what its
goal or purpose is for existing. There are a number of
team structures or types of teams:
• Cross-functional team. This team’s members come
from various functional areas of the organization
and/or customers and suppliers to achieve the goals
of the team.
• Improvement team. This team has a specific
assigned task to make one or more operational
improvements (cost, cycle time, quality) in the shop.
• Self-directed team. This team operates with virtually
no management or supervisor involvement. Its
Teams 33
members have been given the time and resources

to accomplish the tasks assigned to them.
• Quality circle. This is a team with the specific
assigned task to improve the quality of an opera-
tion, service, or product. These groups are com-
monly called improvement teams today.
• Project team. This is a project-focused team that
has a specific goal to accomplish. It could be a
start-up of new operations, the launch of a new
product or service, a preventive maintenance or
cleaning issue, or other goal that may not involve a
continual improvement issue.
A team is far more than just a group of people who
happen to work in a given area. Well-functioning teams
take time to form and arrive at their level of functional-
ity, but once that has been accomplished, such teams
have a lot of fun and take pride in what they accomplish.
Your overall goal should be to develop well-functioning
teams in the shop to achieve customer satisfaction and
continual improvement.
The Six Sigma Road Map for
Shop Operators
A
s you prepare for the Six Sigma journey, you’ll do well
to take a look at the following suggested road map:
1. Recognize that variation exists in everything you

do—standardize your work.
2. Identify what the customer wants and needs—
reduce variation.
3. Use a problem-solving methodology to plan
improvements.
4. Follow the DMAIC model to deploy the
improvement.
5. Monitor the process using process behavior charts.
6. Update standard operating procedures and lessons
learned.
7. Celebrate successes.
8. Start over again for continual improvement—
PDSA/SDCA.
35
Summary
W
e are starting a journey for continual improvement
on the shop floor. The way may be familiar to a lot
of you as you have been using the tools and meth-
ods for some time. Others of you may be new to this path,
and the author can assist you along the way. This book is
designed to be a guide rather than a detailed description of
each tool used. Follow the process, and use what seems to
be appropriate at given times. Every tool and method will not
be used each time a new study starts. You may even find uses
for these tools and methods in different phases of the DMAIC
model, and that is encouraged. The goal of all this work is to
continually improve your processes and operations to satisfy
the customer and grow your business.
Here are some other points the operator should
remember when using this process:
1. If the method seems to be getting too complicated,
it probably is, and you should step back to see if
you can simplify what you’re trying to study!
2. Most problems can be solved without using
designed experiments. If the process is an old
37
established one, and it used to work okay, then

keep asking why until you find the problem!
3. Remember the KISS principle: keep it simple (or
keep it simple statistician)!
4. Sometimes all you need is an updated histogram
to see the problem!
5. Never give up!
6. Have fun!
At times, your shop might run into problems that
seemingly cannot be solved, or you just don’t have
enough time and resources to handle everything. It will
be during those times that consultants or customer per-
sonnel may be called in to assist with the issues at
hand. Many times, such people will have advanced train-
ing in the tools and methodologies discussed in this
book. We usually call the people Six Sigma black belts,
and they may ask you or your team to start a green belt
project. That is what you are doing with this book—Six
Sigma green belt projects. Thus you will be able to call
yourself a Six Sigma green belt.
If you would like to earn a formal title in this arena,
check with the quality office in the shop and ask about
the American Society for Quality (ASQ) certified quality
improvement associate (CQIA), or call 800-248-1946 for
more information. Good luck.
Tools
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
ADVANCED QUALITY PLANNING

Have you ever heard the old saying “a stitch in time saves
nine” or “a penny saved is a penny earned”? How about
“measure twice, but cut once”? What do these sayings
mean? Most people will answer by saying that if you plan
ahead of time, you can save time, money, resources, and
sometimes frustration. In my own experience, I have
sometimes started something only to have it change later
and have to redo work that was already done. The idea
that we can plan, as best as possible, ahead of time to
help prevent surprises and save valuable resources works
39
in our jobs as well as in our homes. Anything that is to

be done can be thought out first, or written plans can be
completed to lay out a pattern or blueprint of what we are
going to do. This concept is referred to as advanced qual-
ity planning (AQP).
AQP is a process whereby we first look at the para-
meters of what we are going to do. Do we have the right
amount of material available? Do we have the right peo-
ple to do the job or provide the service? Do we have the
right tools to do the job well? Do we know the correct
way of using everything we have to provide a safe work-
ing environment? All these questions, and many more,
should be answered before we start work! One of sev-
eral tools you can use for this is the cause-and-effect
diagram to ensure that you have thought of all the ele-
ments (causes) that will give you the desired output or
effect. You can also think of AQP as the first step of the
PDSA cycle, where you are going to plan before you do
something.
Your organization may very well use some form of
checksheet to ensure that the elements of AQP are
being done in your organization in preparation to start a
new project or job. The checksheets can take on many
forms and can be made using the cause-and-effect dia-
gram as a balance to help ensure completeness. You
can and should use various tools reviewed in this guide
to help ensure that the work you are going to do is of
the best quality and reduces the most amount of time
and scrap possible. The typical AQP model shown in
Figure 10 incorporates a lot of the tools and processes
Tools 41
found in this guide. Your role in this process is to ensure

that the work you will be doing is the best given the tools
and resources provided by management.
Act Plan
Determine
goals and
targets.
Take appropriate
action and
follow-up. Determine
methods of
reaching goals.
Engage in
Study the effects of education and
implementation. training
Implement
work.
Study Do
Figure 10. The AQP model.

Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
AUDITING
Most people have heard of certified public accountants,
or CPAs. A CPA maintains and checks financial records
to ensure accuracy of the numbers. We need to work
with our management in checking the working processes
in our organizations to ensure that the processes are
doing what they are designed to do.
This checking process is sometimes called quality
auditing, and it commonly is done in organizations that
are ISO 9001 registered or have applied for a quality
award (Baldrige or state-level awards). Many customers
require their suppliers to check the products and ser-
vices before they are delivered. This is one reason your
organization may have its own inspectors who check
things before they are shipped. Some organizations
also use supplier quality engineers and/or have incom-
ing inspection to check products as parts come from
suppliers.
The first thing you need to know, if asked to audit
something, is “What is the standard that I will be audit-
ing against?” If you are going to conduct a process audit
in another department, you must ensure that there are
Tools 43
standard operating procedures (SOPs) or some other

form of process sheets that are used to ensure things
are being done in a standardized manner. If you are to
conduct a safety audit, then having the written safety
rules would be important. As you are starting to see,
there are a number of things that can be audited. Some
of the others are cleanliness, quality of product, knowl-
edge of system, and emergency procedures. If your
shop is ISO 9000 or 14000 registered, you already know
the number of things that can be audited. If you have
not seen either of these standards, you may wish to ask
your supervisors about getting a copy.
When you are asked to be part of an audit team, you
need to be aware of some basic guidelines:
• Be pleasant to the person being audited. You are
not a cop looking to catch him or her doing some-
thing wrong.
• Be factual in what you observe. Hiding things does
not help the company improve, and being too criti-
cal may harm personal objectivity.
• Be thorough in looking at the process as it relates
to the standard. If you miss something, customer
satisfaction may suffer or, worse yet, someone
might get hurt.
• Ask questions for clarity. You want to be as positive
as possible given the situation.
• Record your observations for the records and the
next person who will audit this area.
• Follow what the internal lead auditor directs you to
do.
Being an internal auditor for your organization can be

both challenging and informative as we usually get a bet-
ter view of what our companies are doing if we have a
chance to look at other operations. For some of us, it
breaks up our everyday routine and gives us a chance
to see how others might be doing things and to bench-
mark (see appropriate section for discussion) that
against what we do.
Tools 45
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
BENCHMARKING
Benchmarking is the process of looking at a system or
systems and applying those concepts to another system.
Granite Rock, a Malcolm Baldrige National Quality
Award-winning company located in California, has used
benchmarking in a dramatic way. Its process had been
the same as those of nearly any gravel yard in the United
States. Anytime a customer wanted some road materi-
als it sent a truck and driver to the yard. The driver then
placed the order at an office and waited for a Granite
Rock employee to get a front-end loader, go into the
back yard to obtain the material, and fill the truck with
the appropriate amount of materials. Then Granite Rock
capitalized on the technology of the ATM, the automated
banking machine that allows a customer to walk up and,
by inputting some basic data, handle any number of
banking transactions. The new process allows the truck
driver to pull into an area with overhead filling stations
and punch in the customer codes and the materials
desired. Automatically the material is loaded into the
truck. This new process cuts wait time to minutes instead
of hours and allows customers to get materials 24 hours

a day, seven days a week, year-round.
Some managers think benchmarking is only about
taking trips to competing organizations and trying to
copy something that they do that is felt to be better than
what is currently being done in their own organizations.
During the late 1970s and early 1980s, many managers
went to Japan to learn what was being done there and
to see why their quality was so much better than that in
the United States. Most of those trips resulted in disap-
pointment, as you can always see a physical difference
in operations. Sometimes it is the small, subtle things
that operators have learned over time and shared with
fellow workers that make the big difference.
Here are the basic process steps of benchmarking:
1. Flowchart the current process.

2. Identify the areas to be improved.
3. Brainstorm ideas (blue sky—this term is discussed
in a moment).
4. Investigate how others (internal and external) do
similar processes.
5. Develop plans for application of ideas.
6. Pilot test ideas.
7. Initiate the new process.
8. Evaluate the new process.
Tools 47
Before starting a benchmarking project, you are

advised to make sure you know exactly how your cur-
rent process works. That may sound funny, but it has
been shown that when people attempt to flowchart (see
“Flowchart” section) a process, there is often a lot of dis-
agreement about the exact steps and/or the order of
those steps. Thus, anytime there is more than one per-
son who works on or around a machine, the process
should be flowcharted.
Once everyone agrees about how a process oper-
ates, you can start looking at the process for bottle-
necks or other things that may not work or flow as well
as you might wish them to. This could be anything about
the current process from wanting to reduce the amount
of variation at one part of the process to changing cer-
tain things about it that may help employees’ ergonom-
ics. In looking at the process, it sometimes helps to get
as creative as you can and ask, “What if?” This is the
“blue sky” part of benchmarking. What might this
process look like in an ideal world? If money and tech-
nology were no objects, how might it work?
Then it is time to do some research about how oth-
ers (internal or external) in your organization may do
similar things. By becoming internal auditors (discussed
in “Auditing”), we sometimes get to see how others do
similar things in our own organizations. Also, as in the
case of Granite Rock, sometimes going outside the
industry helps give you ideas about a different way of
doing things. Say you want to move something from one
place to another: maybe looking at mail service or deliv-
ery organizations would help.
Once you have seen other ways of doing things, it is
time to figure out how you can do things differently in
your own operation. Establish a plan for the changes,

and acquire needed resources from management. The
plan should list materials needed, when and where new
operations will be installed, any training that may be
needed and when it will take place, and other details that
allow for the changeover to the new idea. Then prepare
and run a pilot test to ensure that the plan will work. It
usually is unwise to just jump right in to the new idea
without testing it first. Even the best-laid plans may have
unforeseen bugs that can cause problems, so run a
small test first.
As you move forward into the new operation, you
should monitor it carefully to ensure that it lives up to
your hopes for the new process. Sometimes,
changeovers will be conducted in stages instead of all
at one time. Either way, watch and evaluate the process
to ensure that you are still meeting the customer’s wants
and needs—and doing it faster, better, and cheaper than
before.
A point to remember: Walt Disney was well known for
showing any carnival company exactly how Disneyland
was set up and operated. One day, after being criticized
for this practice, Walt said, “I hope they copy me. That
way as I create new things, they will always be playing
catch-up, while I have the newest and greatest.” Bench-
marking is not just about copying something; it is look-
ing at our processes for ways of doing things better
overall. The challenge is to distance yourself from the
way that it has always been done to see if other tech-
nologies now exist that might help you in your work
areas.
Tools 49
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
BRAINSTORMING
Brainstorming is the process whereby an individual or
team develops as many ideas about a topic as possi-
ble using various creativity techniques or methods. Two
basic phases make up brainstorming: the creative
phase, which is used to generate a large number of
ideas, and the evaluation phase, where the ideas gen-
erated are looked at for usefulness or reality. Note that
the team should take a time break between the two
phases, as different parts of the brain are used in each
phase. At a minimum, a 10-minute stretch break should
be taken instead of going directly into evaluation after
being creative. It is very important that during the cre-
ative phase no criticism or other distractions are
allowed.
During the creative phase, team members should
keep their minds open to all possibilities, no matter how
wild the idea. One method here is to call for “blue sky”—
that is, if anything were possible, what might it be? Dur-
ing this phase of brainstorming, the goal is to generate
as many ideas as possible. If ideas are being put on a
flip chart with a large group, you should have two or more
available to capture all the ideas as they develop. Oth-
erwise you could have each person say what he or she
is thinking and have him or her or someone else record
the idea on a Post-it note and put it on the wall. Facili-
tation can be used during the creative phase, but free-
wheeling also works well. Here are some basic guidelines
to follow in the creative phase of brainstorming:
• No criticism, compliments, or questions
• Wild ideas are welcome
• Don’t wait
• Quantity is important (versus quality)
• Hitchhike—build on previous ideas
During the evaluation phase, at some point after the
creative phase, it is best to have a facilitator work with
the group to look over the ideas in a sequence. There
are many ways to go about evaluating the ideas you
have generated. One good starting point is to organize
the list of things into like groups or categories to help in
the evaluation process. The caution here is not to get
overly critical, as there may be something in one of
those “crazy” ideas that might actually work for the given
situation. This is often true because of new technology
or different ways of doing things that are not common
in our organizations.
The brainstorming process can be fun and hard work
at the same time. The main purpose is to “think outside
the box” to get a new perspective on doing things. If you
• • •
Tools 51
• • •
• • •
Figure 11. Nine dots.
are unsure, try this exercise: In Figure 11, try connect-

ing all the dots by drawing four concurrent straight lines
without lifting the pencil (or pen) off of the paper. One
possible answer appears on page 181.
The brainstorming technique can be very helpful in
looking at a process from all angles. It is also helpful if
the group working on the project is cross-functional to
the plant, that is people who work in different parts of
the plant. And optimally people from various areas and
levels of responsibility should be working in the brain-
storming group. But during this exercise, there should be
no rank or level of employee recognized. Everyone has
an equal right to say what he or she thinks, from the
sweeper to the president. However, a few comments to
watch out for are listed here as idea stoppers—they are
a warning signal that the brainstorming process may not
be working as well as it could. If any of these idea stop-
pers come up during the meeting, stop and address
them right away so that things can move forward in a

positive manner:
Idea Stoppers
Don’t be ridiculous. We’ve never done it
Let’s shelve it for right before.
now. I have something better.
It won’t work here. It’s too risky.
Our business is different. Let’s be sensible.
Let’s think about it some We’ll never get it
more. approved.
We did all right without it. They won’t like it.
It’s too radical a change. It’s good, but . . .
Management won’t like it. Let’s check on it later.
Where did you dig up Too much work.
that idea? Let’s get back to reality.
It’s not practical. That’s been tried before.
It’s too expensive. That’s not my job.
You can’t be serious. You do not know how we
You can’t do that. do things around here.
The technology will not That’s too high-tech for
allow that. us.
Where will you get . . . It will never work.
Tools 53
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
CAUSE-AND-EFFECT DIAGRAM
(FISHBONE DIAGRAM,
ISHIKAWA DIAGRAM)
Originally developed in the 1940s by Kaoru Ishikawa in
Japan, the cause-and-effect diagram is a graphical
analysis tool that allows the user to display the factors
involved in a given situation. “Cause-and-Effect Dia-
grams are drawn to clearly illustrate the various causes
(x) affecting product quality by sorting out and relating
the causes. Therefore a good Cause-and-Effect Dia-
gram is one that fits the purpose, and there is no one
definite form” (Ishikawa 1976). The causes can comprise
any item or occurrence that is related to the effect (y)
being studied. Thus, the effect of a situation is the result
of the function of the causes: y = f(x). This tool is some-
times called an Ishikawa diagram (for its originator) or
a fishbone diagram, or even a feather diagram, given the
shape of the graphic (see Figure 12).
Reminder: Ask the five W’s and H: what, why, when,
where, who, and how?
When using this tool, it is best to try to keep an open
mind and to work in a team to view and discuss what the
Causes
Man Machine Methods
Effect
Materials Mother Nature Measurement
Figure 12. A basic cause-and-effect diagram.
system or process is doing. You want to capture everything

you can about the process looking for the real state of the
system, not just what you think is happening. Besides
using the five W’s and H in creating the cause-and-effect
diagram, most people start with the six M’s:
Man (people—operator)
Machine (equipment)
Methods (operating procedures)
Materials
Measurement
Mother nature (environment)
This tool is relatively simple to use; yet it is very pow-
erful. Once completed, it can show graphically the fac-
tors of the system or process to management and other
teams. Imagine you want to have donuts at your next
team meeting. What are some of the factors that would
be involved? You first need to decide where the donuts
Tools 55
will come from, what type you want, who will make or
buy them, and other issues. A simple cause-and-effect
for this appears in Figure 13.
As the team works on the process, more detail can
be added to the diagram. Let’s say that in our donut
example, the team wants to look at the measurement
stem of the diagram to see how the amount of cream in
the donut is achieved. Some additional factors you might
need are consistency of the cream, types of cream used,
size of insertion equipment, cooking temperature effect
on cream, and so on (see Figure 14). This allows the
team to get as detailed as needed to ensure that it under-
stands the process and can show the cause and effects
of the given situation. Once completed, the cause-and-
effect diagram can be shown to other groups (for exam-
ple, engineers, maintenance, cleaners, other operators,
Man Machine Methods

Training Deep fryer model Convenience store
bought
Donut shop
Care Homemade
Individual mastery Equipment
placement
Good
Room temp. Measurement donuts
plan Amount
Fresh dough Light
intensity cream filled
Type of Cooking Amount
oil location jelly filled
Room humidity Age of donuts
Materials Mother Nature Measurement
Figure 13. Cause and effect: Donuts.

Amount of cream filled

Consistency of cream
Types of cream used
Size of insertion equipment
Cooking temperature's effect on cream
Measurement
Figure 14. Cause and effect stem: Measurement breakdown.
management, customers, suppliers, and so on) to ensure

that the system is producing what is expected and
wanted and that anyone involved in some piece of the
process understands what the system is doing.
Tools 57
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM

Remember in high school when you had to learn all
those laws of mathematics or physics? The central limit
theorem (CLT) is one such law used for continual
improvement. Simply stated it says that when many
readings from a process are gathered into small groups,
the averages of each of these groups will be an approx-
imation of the normal curve distribution. As an example:
If we take two dice and start throwing them, keeping
track of the values, over time we would get something
like what is shown in Figure 15, a normal curve. When
shop floor data are grouped and their averages plotted,
the distribution will look like Figure 15 even if the data
are not normally distributed because of the CLT. The
beauty of using the CLT is that the statistics for normal
distributions are much simpler to use than for nonnor-
mal distributions.
In the real world, not all processes are normally dis-
tributed by applying the CLT. When taking measurement
samples (see the “Sampling” section for more detail), the
status of the process can be monitored. The central limit
theorem allows us to see whether the process is follow-
ing a normal distribution so that it is stable or indicates
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Dice face value
Figure 15. The central limit theorem.
changes that need attention to improve the system. Since

computers do most of the work today, you will not need
to know much about calculating these values, but they
will be useful to you and others in understanding what
the process is doing.
Because of this law, you will be able to use process
behavior charts and other tools of continual improvement
to monitor and improve your systems. Even if the
process is not normal, which will be the case most of the
time, we can use statistical problem-solving tools and
generally observe the process using normal distribution
statistics because of the central limit theorem.
Tools 59
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
CHECKSHEETS
A checksheet is any set of words, tally lists, or graphics
designed to assist us in conducting a planned review or
observation of our process or system. An aircraft pilot,
before taking off or landing a plane, is required to use
a checksheet to ensure proper operation of the airplane
(see Figure 16). For us on the shop floor, checksheets
are typically a data collection method that allows us to
tally the issues/items being monitored on a list or on a
pictorial image.
As can be seen in Figures 17 and 18, the checklist
is designed to collect data for analytical purposes from
our work areas. Operators need to have simple tools that
allow for quick and easy collection of the data. During
the collection of data on a checklist, it is common to see
developing patterns or trends that may affect the out-
come of a process. You want to make this as easy as
possible; otherwise the information you obtain may not
be as reliable as you need or the time it takes you to
Preflight Inspection: Cessna 152
1) CABIN
1.
Control Wheel Lock—Remove
2.
Ignition Switch—OFF
3.
Master Switch—ON
4.
Fuel Quantity Indicators—CHECK
QUANTITY
5. Fuel Shutoff Valve—ON
2) EMPENNAGE
1. Rudder Gust Lock—REMOVE
2. Tail Tie-Down—DISCONNECT
3. Control Surfaces—CHECK freedom of
movement and security
3) RIGHT WING Trailing Edge
1. Aileron—CHECK freedom of movement
and security
4) RIGHT WING
1. Wing Tie Down—DISCONNECT
2. Main Wheel Tire—CHECK for proper
inflation
3. Before first flight of the day and after
each refueling, use sampler cup and
drain small quantity of fuel from fuel tank
sump quick-drain valve to check for
water, sediment, and proper fuel grade.
4. Fuel Quantity—CHECK VISUALLY for
desired level
5. Fuel Filler Cup—SECURE
5) NOSE
1. Engine Oil Level—CHECK, do not
operate with less than four quarts. Fill to
six quarts for extended flight.
Figure 16. Cessna 152 checklist.

Tools 61
Game Day: 6/1/01

Opponent: Falcons Game Stats Tally
Final score: 4 to 2 W
Fielder
Strike Walk 1st 2nd 3rd Home RBI Out Other
Pitcher 1 1 11
Catcher 11 1
1st base 1 1 1
2nd base 1 1 1 1
Short 1 1 1 1 1
3rd base 11 1 1
Left field 11 1
Center
field 1 1 1
Right
field 1 11
Other 1 11 1 1
Other 2 1 11
Other 3 11
Other 4 11
Other 5 11
TOTALS 11 5 3 4 2 1 3 16
Figure 17. Traditional checksheet.

Game Day: 6/1/01

Opponent: Falcons Game Stats Tally
Final Score: 4 to 2 W oooo
ooo o
xxxx
ssss ss
oo
xx xxx
s sss
o oooo
Walks Strikeouts
1111 1111 1111 1
x = On-base hits
Out by fielder s = Stranded Home runs
1111 1111 1111 1 o = Field location of "out" 1111
Figure 18. Pictorial checksheet.
collect the data may be prohibitive. Here are the basic

steps in making a checksheet:
1. Identify and agree on the causes or conditions that
are to be collected.
2. Decide who will collect the data, over what time
period or periods, and how the data will be
collected.
3. Create a checksheet that will work in the operation
where it is to be used.
4. Collect the data as designed to ensure consistency
and accuracy of the information.
Tools 63
Checksheets can be the basis for other analytical

tools and are incorporated into the attribute “process
behavior charts” (discussed in process behavior charts).
It is sometimes surprising how just creating and using
a checksheet helps you focus on continual improvement
and that changes may start to occur just because of the
checksheet. As you strive to improve your organization
using the tools of Six Sigma, checksheets become a
powerful tool.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
CLEANLINESS
An old Japanese quality auditing technique, after the ini-
tial greetings in the front office, is to visit a rest room in
the plant before conducting the rest of the audit. The
purpose of this detour, rather than to use the facility, is
to check for the cleanliness of the rest room. The belief
is that if management cannot provide clean facilities for
workers, then a number of other processes may be an
issue in the plant.
How clean is your shop and work area? Is there dust,
grease, oil, eye irritants, trash, or other unclean issues
in the work space? An unclean shop hides safety haz-
ards, health risks, equipment problems, lack of pride in
work, and a host of other issues. It has been researched
and proven that cleanliness at home and work leads to
much more productive settings and more pride in what
we do. Some people feel that far too much time is spent
talking about cleanliness; however, it has been shown
to be one of the more important factors contributing to
why things do not always work the way they are sup-
posed to. When things are not clean, the likelihood of
something going wrong increases exponentially.
Tools 65
Japanese (S) Translation English (S)
Seiri Cleaning Up Sort
Seiton Organizing Set
Seiso Cleaning Shine
Seiketsu Standardizing Standardize
Shitsuke Training & Discipline Sustain
Figure 19. 5S chart.
The Japanese created a process referred to as the

5S method (see Figure 19) that work groups use to
ensure a clean work environment. Many teams spend a
specific amount of time each day to ensure that their
work areas are cleaned. This has the added benefit of
allowing the workers who use the machines to take a
close look at their equipment as they clean the machines
to looks for signs of wear or other signs of future trou-
ble. Thus, preventive maintenance becomes a reality.
Using the 5S method will lead to a new level of safety
in the organization and help ensure that employees have
the right resources available at the right time. Here are
the five S’s:
• Sort. Review and sort to ensure that all unneces-
sary items are removed and to ensure workplace
organization. Look for unnoticed dangers: unpro-
tected moving parts, exposed electrical wires or
hoses, and other issues that might get in the way of
doing the work.
• Set in order. Have a place for everything and keep

everything in its place when not in use. Many com-
panies use shadow boards in work areas to show
what tools belong to the area and to ensure safe
storage of tools when not in use. Also, apply
ergonomics to help prevent accidents and move-
ment injuries.
• Shine. Clean everything in the work area inside and
out regularly, inspecting each item for signs of
defects or wear or other signs of future trouble.
• Standardize. Using the first three S’s, establish a
pattern of how things are to be done. This is not
meant to reduce creativity, but to help ensure that
things are done in a way that helps to reduce varia-
tion in the process. Continually maintain what has
been accomplished and ensure that standards are
lived up to.
• Sustain. Reinforce all the above to ensure that the
process becomes a daily part of your work.
The task for you and your coworkers is to help clean
your work areas and point out to management any
unsafe issues that may exist now or may occur in the
future before a problem occurs. Put a red tag or other
identification on anything that should be addressed. If
there is a safety officer in your organization, ask him or
her to periodically check your work space to help ensure
a safe and clean working environment.
Tools 67
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
Continual improvement (CI) is the process of keeping an
open mind and looking for ways to make the things that
you do better, do them less expensively, or do them
faster. As the Industrial Revolution progressed into the
early 1900s, Frederick Taylor developed a method of
work specialization that many organizations still use
today. It was during this time that workers first stopped
checking their own work and specialized inspectors were
employed in inspection teams. This process developed
for several decades, and professional organizations were
born that focused on doing inspection better.
During the late 1920s, Walter Shewhart developed
the first control chart, and statistical process control
(SPC) was born (we now call this process behavior
charting). Many organizations continued to rely on
inspectors, but the use of charting, which could bring the
operators back into the process of looking at the qual-
ity of their work, became a requirement in the United
States during World War II. It was in 1951 that Feigen-
baum first published the book Total Quality Control, and
the TQM (total quality management) age commenced.
During the 1960s and 1970s, the use of quality cir-

cles and employee involvement became the next evolu-
tionary phase in continual improvement. This was
followed by a major resurgence of SPC during the 1980s.
During the 1990s, the International Organization for Stan-
dardization’s quality management system (QMS, or ISO
9000) and the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award
were the big moves toward continual improvement.
Other terms used of late include value analysis/value
engineering, lean manufacturing/lean office, kaizen,
poka-yoke, and others. Six Sigma is the latest wave in
the ongoing continual improvement movement and is
bringing together many fields of study and putting them
in the hands of the people doing the work.
Some people refer to these various methods as con-
tinuous improvement because they feel we should
always make geometric strides in everything we do.
Unfortunately, nature and human beings do not work that
way. Even in evolution, things have to step back or level
off every now and then. As we learn new things, some-
times humans have to relearn old knowledge. Thus
Deming changed the term continuous to continual.
Concurrent with this change, Deming also devel-
oped a foundation he called profound knowledge. This
concept involves the following: appreciation for a sys-
tem, knowledge about variation, theory of knowledge,
and psychology. By using each of these aspects of pro-
found knowledge, continual improvement can and will
become a reality in our organizations. Our goal is
always to maintain and improve the quality of the prod-
ucts or services we provide to customers, both internal
and external.
Tools 69
A D
S
S
A D
Figure 20. PDSA and SDCA working together.
One common way of implementing continual

improvement is to use the PDSA cycle and SDCA cycle
together (see Figure 20): the operator will see a com-
plete process for identifying processes, improving those
processes, and applying lessons learned. The two cycles
working together with the other tools in this book will
help the operator continually improve the work that is
done with an eye on satisfying the customer.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
CONTROL PLAN
Control plans are an aid to manufacturing in the pro-
duction of quality products according to customer
requirements. They provide a structured approach for
the design, selection, and implementation of value-
added control methods for the total system. They can
take on many forms and sometimes are called dynamic
or dimensional control plans (DCPs—see separate sec-
tion in this book), quality process sheets (QPSs), stan-
dard operating procedures (SOPs), and so on. The
typical plan has a boilerplate of standard shop informa-
tion at the top indicating your shop’s name, contact per-
sonnel, the date the form was filled out, the part
information, the customer, and other pertinent informa-
tion. The main text then follows your shop’s prescribed
format for the intended use of the form. Commonly, con-
trol plans will contain information as in Figure 21.
Control plans come in many shapes and sizes and
contain any number of written items of which the oper-
ator needs to be aware for controlling parts and
processes during full production. In some shops the
process engineer creates them, while in others the
Tools 71
Part/process number
Process name/operation description
Machine, device, jig, tools for mfg.
Characteristics
Number
Product
Process
Special characteristic classification
Methods
Product/process specifications/tolerance
Evaluation measurement techniques
Sample
Size
Frequency
Control method
Reaction plan
Figure 21. Sample control plan—main text.
operators themselves may work on them with assis-

tance from other plant personnel. The control plan is a
document (updated as needed) that explains how to
control the work flow in your process. It should, at a min-
imum, do the following:
• Offer a flowchart or other graphical representation
of the process with the desired outcomes displayed
• Display any special or safety characteristics
• Describe the direct relationship between any high-
lighted characteristics and their controlling process
setting or parameters
• Identify any gages or test equipment needed for the

operations
• Identify appropriate sample sizes and frequencies of
all testing
• Spell out any reactions to FMEA conditions to pre-
vent nonconforming products or out-of-control
conditions
• Ensure that reaction plans are easily understood by
the operators
• Verify the part accuracy and what is the next opera-
tion in the process
A control plan should outline the steps to be followed
during each phase of the process—receiving, in-
process, out-process—as well as periodic requirements
to ensure that all process outputs will be in a state of
control. Some plants have any number of sheets or
instructions that the operator is required to follow. The
trick is how to make all these into a very simple and
understandable process for the natural flow of materials
and parts in the operation. If the various documents can
be formed into one operational manual, that is all the
better, but it is not always practical given the number of
parts running down a given line. Operators need to feel
comfortable working with the paperwork in their area and
should understand the need for it. If it does not make
sense (too much paper, conflicting issues, sequencing
differences, and so on), then it needs changing (versus
the operator needing more training!).
Deming was well known for his constant harping on
managers to fix the process, not the people. Time and
Tools 73
time again, whenever issues arise concerning the qual-

ity of parts in the system, many managers blame the
operators and typically say that the cause is operator
error. Studies have shown that 80 percent of the time,
the real issue is something in the system. Operators
need to use the data collection tools outlined in this text
to demonstrate that they are following the control plan,
so that issues that may arise in the parts can be traced
to the system’s operation.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS
(COST OF QUALITY, QUALITY COST)
Cost-benefit analysis is a finance tool to be used to
report how quality levels are being sustained on the
shop floor and in an organization. Many things that we
work on throughout the shop can be classified into one
of four categories: prevention costs, appraisal costs,
internal failure costs, or external failure costs. However,
not all expenses of the company are used for the cost-
benefit analysis, only those that relate in some way to
products or services that we ship to our customers (see
Figure 22). The real power of this tool is not so much in
our using the exact or “right” measures for each
expense, but in looking at trends over time to see what
the organization is doing. We want to look at what the
total cost is to provide our customers with products and
services.
Traditionally, when cost of quality is first calculated
for an organization, a picture such as that in Figure 23
will emerge. This is partly because many accountants
and managers have not been taught about this tool in
their formal education; nor does any government or
Prevention costs Appraisal costs Internal failure costs External failure costs
Marketing/customer/ Purchasing appraisal Product/service design Complaint
user costs failure costs (internal) investigations/customer
or user service
Product/service/design Operations Purchasing failure Returned goods
development (manufacturing or costs
service) appraisal
costs
Purchasing prevention External appraisal Operations (product Retrofit costs
costs costs or service) failure costs
Operations Review of test and Other internal Warranty claims
(manufacturing or inspection data failure costs
service) prevention costs
Quality administration Miscellaneous quality Liability costs
evaluations
Other prevention costs Penalties
Customer/user goodwill
Lost sales
Other external
failure costs
Tools
Figure 22. Costs of quality.

Source: ASQ Quality Costs Committee, Jack Campanella, editor. 1999. Principles of Quality Costs: Principles,
75
Implementation, and Use. Third Edition. Reprinted with permission of ASQ Quality Press, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
Dollars $
Prevention Appraisal Internal External

failure failure
Figure 23. Traditional quality costs—Hidden factory.
professional organization require the reporting of finan-

cial data in this format.
On the other hand, organizations that have learned
to use the cost-benefit analysis of quality cost, as Six
Sigma calls for, typically are very surprised at the
amount of waste that they’re producing. By focusing on
prevention and appraisal, the failure costs will slowly
start to come down. This will not happen overnight, and
it may take years in some stubborn cases to show the
improvement as the old products work their way out of
the customer system.
No one should be blamed for the poor results of the
first measurement. It is important to look at those num-
bers so that a benchmark can be set against which to
measure improvement. The results of the measurement
should be made available to everyone in the shop so that
people can start to generate ideas about what can be
Tools 77
Dollars $
Prevention Appraisal Internal External

failure failure
Figure 24. Quality costs—Moving to continual improvement.
done and how to go about it. Remember the old adage

“What gets measured, gets done!” Thus, if everyone
knows that management is watching the numbers of
cost of quality, things should start to improve.
The ultimate goal is to change the overall picture to
look like the one in Figure 24. As an organization con-
tinually improves its products and services, it will see an
overall reduction in the total cost to manufacture and
produce products and services.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
CUSTOMER FEEDBACK
Customer feedback is a method or process of finding out
what the customer actually thinks of your products or
services. It is said that for every customer who actively
complains to you, there are at least 10 others who for
one reason or another will speak badly of your products
and services. Finding out what the customer thinks,
wants, and needs is a time-consuming effort, and many
customers are getting tired of filling out paper surveys.
Sometimes when customers (internal or external) do tell
us something, we cannot do anything about it, or we do
not want to hear what they are saying, or they expect
something other than what we offer.
There traditionally have been many techniques for
talking with customers, and with the advent of e-mail and
the Internet, even more exist today. The problem with
many surveys is that we really do not know what pro-
portion of our customers or which of our customers actu-
ally bothered to send them back. Also, paper surveys
tend to have a very low return rate overall; thus, they
really do not give us a very good picture. The point is
that we must keep trying to talk with customers as often
Tools 79
as possible to ensure we know what their wants and

needs are.
The most effective method still seems to be actually
getting out into the world with your customers to experi-
ence what they experience and to interact with them as
they use your products and services. Have you ever
thought about what you do? What is it like for the next
person in the organization to use your work? For opera-
tors, finding this out should be a lot easier than it will be
for companies, as operators can simply communicate
with the next person in the shop. Operators might want
to talk with that person directly, observe how he or she
uses the stuff supplied to him or her, and study the data
that are collected in the process to look for better ways
to do work to make things easier for the internal customer.
A good starting point for collecting customer feedback
is to set up a display for all employees and visitors to see.
On that display, have samples of the ultimate products
that are produced using the parts that your shop makes.
It often has been noted that employees work all day and
do not know how their work is used. Once the display is
up, employees can point out their work to others and take
pride in what they do. Also, as they see people using the
products that contain their parts, employees can ask how
the customer likes using the product. Some of this infor-
mation may not relate to the specific parts from your
shop, so it should be passed up to an immediate cus-
tomer who buys the parts. Doing this well will allow your
shop to provide additional service to your immediate cus-
tomers that they did not ask or pay for, giving you an
advantage over your competition.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
DYNAMIC CONTROL PLANNING

Dynamic control planning is the process of getting every-
one who is a party to a job, especially the operator, to
look at what is done in producing high-quality products
and services. This process actually combines a number
of things you may already be using and locates them in
one document that you will use at your job site to help
plan, monitor, control, study, and maintain your process.
Documents you may already be using include SOPs,
control plans, failure mode and effects analyses
(FMEAs), gage control plans, quality planning sheets
(QPSs), and others.
The dynamic control plan (DCP) often is called a liv-
ing document. That means that even in an ISO 9000
shop, operators have the right and responsibility to
update the DCP anytime things change and the docu-
ment needs to be updated and the changes communi-
cated to others. The recipients of this communication
could be other operations (so they know what is hap-
pening with the machine), the engineers who may work
with you, the quality office to ensure that records are
maintained properly, or your supervisors so they know
that something is different in the process.
Tools 81
The basic DCP includes a matrix (sometimes referred

to as the DCP critical path) made up of the following
items:
DCP launch
• Team structure
• Question log
• Support information
• Prelaunch or preliminary controls
• Process failure mode and effects analysis (PFMEA)
• Control plan (see Figure 21)
• Illustrations and instructions
• Procedures for implementation and maintenance
Each of the items in your shop matrix needs to be
tracked using some format, such as in Figure 25.
When starting a DCP process, everyone needs to
know what is going to happen, and management must
be committed to support the effort. The process itself will
support company goals for achieving continual improve-
ment and lean manufacturing and for attaining and main-
taining customer quality programs the organization may
be faced with (for example, ISO 9001 registration).
The teams’ focus in developing the DCP is to main-
tain the control plan and the control-planning process.
The team also should remember to maintain a question
log so that there is a history of what has been done in
regard to the DCP process. That information can be
used in the lessons-learned database as well as for
DCP process element
Identification number
Deliverables
Responsibility
Deliverable status
Completed by (day, month, year)
Percentage complete
Target
Actual
Figure 25. Typical dynamic control plan information.
detailed study of the process when designed experi-

ments are to be used.
Supporting information includes any number of items
that the engineering groups have used in the design of
the targeted process. Those can include but are not lim-
ited to blueprints, engineering specifications, prototype
plans, FMEAs (design and process), special or critical
characteristic identification, process sheets, flowcharts,
statistical information, and so on. All this information
should be available, and the operators should be involved
prior to any new line being started in the plant. It has
been shown many times that when operators work with
engineers and management prior to launching a new
product or process, things tend to work more smoothly.
The PFMEA and the control plan are the primary
focus of the DCP process and should become the pri-
mary documents that help ensure that your manufac-
turing process continues to run smoothly. They should
Tools 83
both include any necessary illustrations and instructions,

with some of these being enlarged and posted on the
job site to allow for ease of use by those running the
operation. It is the responsibility of operators and super-
visors to ensure that once started, the DCP process is
maintained and updated regularly to ensure quality of
products and services. If something should ever go
wrong downstream, the records and documentation will
go a long way toward helping fix the process, versus
blaming the people.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT
Some companies call their employees their most valu-
able assets. When this is true, managers spend time and
resources to coach and train the employees to be bet-
ter at whatever they do. This is especially true when it
comes to allowing employees to become more involved
with the work that is done in the shop. Employee involve-
ment is about encouraging and allowing all employees
to do better work by using their minds as well as their
hands to do the job. This notion is feared by many man-
agers who were trained in classical management the-
ory—as they may think they will lose power over the
work environment. By using the whole person instead of
having the employee check his or her brain at the time
clock, managers actually can have more productive
processes and better operations. Going from “do what I
say” to “what will it take to satisfy our customers?” will
go a long way toward developing an environment where
continual improvement is a way of life.
Thus, a basic definition of employee involvement is
the process of including employees at a variety of levels
and across functional areas for the purpose of having
Tools 85
meaningful input/involvement in the business (Rice

2001). This is different from prior business models (for
example, Theory X, Taylorism, and so on) where man-
agers sat in their offices and dictated their wisdom to
employees and directed them to “just go do it.” Empow-
erment is about personal responsibility and having per-
sonal and organizational goals aligned.
Evidence that employee involvement is alive in your
shop includes but is not limited to the following: no sur-
prise decisions are made, as input is sought from many
people; instead of managers telling employees what to
do, an atmosphere of cooperation is evident in the shop;
if something does go wrong, groups of people work on
fixing the issue versus the manager or supervisor giv-
ing orders; employees are not afraid to approach man-
agers or even the owner of the shop. Every shop needs
to define employee involvement given its culture, its
organizational goals, and its customer base. Just as real
teams take a long time to become efficient operating
units, so too it takes time to build employee involvement
into the culture of a shop. But the personal and pro-
ductivity awards for doing so can be outstanding.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
EXPERIMENTATION—YOUR ROLE
A planned experiment (often called design of experiments,
or DOE) on your operation can be very useful in under-
standing the variation (through testing and optimizing) of
the process. The purpose of running a DOE is to determine
better ways of running the machinery or understand the
other factors in the manufacturing process. As a person
who will support these experiments (sometimes called a
Six Sigma green belt), you can expect to assist in the use
of any number of the other tools mentioned in this book.
Here is the process the DOE tends to follow:
1. Map the current process.
2. Brainstorm causes of variation in the process.
3. Use a cause-and-effect diagram to list all sources
of variation.
4. Determine the key factors that cause the variation.
5. Determine the variation levels that are usable in
the process.
6. Lay out the experiment (you might hear the terms
classical, Taguchi, or Shainin).
Tools 87
7. Run the experiment by operating the process a

specified number of times using the various factors
that have been identified.
8. Collect samples from each run of the experiment
and test the parts according to procedures.
9. Use a computer to determine what factors affect
the process.
10. Do a confirmation run to see if the process actually
has been improved.
11. Update the operation sheets to show the new
parameters of operation.
Operators will work with engineering, supervisors,
and sometimes Six Sigma black belts to run the
machines in a planned way to look for variation. The
operators know the machines the best and will be able
to offer valuable insights about what might happen if dif-
ferent settings are used. During the DOE, a list of exact
machine settings will be designed for each trial. Typically
eight or more test runs will be made for each DOE, and
the operator will be asked to run the machine at the
designed settings and take random parts from the
machine for measuring. Once the sample parts have
been measured, the person who designed the DOE will
probably use a computer to calculate the optimal set-
tings based on the samples.
A confirmation test should then be run using the new
settings to see whether the experiment has worked to
identify a better process condition for the machine. If
proven out, the new settings should become part of the
operation, and the operator will then need to update all
documentation to reflect the new settings and parameters.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
FLOWCHART (FLOW MAP, PROCESS

FLOW DIAGRAM)
When you create a flowchart, you are creating a picture
of the steps in a process or system as it actually oper-
ates or is supposed to operate. Given the old adage that
a picture is worth a thousand words, this tool allows you
to communicate, using standard symbols (see Figure
26), how your process works (see Figure 27). The flow-
chart is very useful when looking at a machine or
process that you want to improve (note that it is included
in the control plan). By actually creating three flow-
– Process step or operation

– Delay
– Quality check, inspection, or measurement
– Storage
– Decision
– Movement of material
Figure 26. Sample flowchart symbols.

Tools 89
Scrap
Bad Bad
Good
Good
Warehouse
Figure 27. Basic flowchart structure.
charts—(1) what you think it is (before you check real-

ity), (2) what it actually is, and (3) what you would like
it to be (see Figure 28)—you can analyze what changes
need to be made and study whether the changes are
doable given your training and resources.
Each organization should decide for itself what sym-
bols to use, as there are many versions available today.
After you decide what symbols to use, you can follow
some basic steps to create the flowchart:
1. Create the boundaries that you intend to flowchart.
This might be the input/output of the process or to
identify who the supplier/customer is for the
process.
2. Determine the various steps in the process. Do not
worry about sequence here, but do collect all the
steps. The foundation material from the FMEA and
the control plan can be used if available to help
start this process. If a group is brainstorming
What you would

What you think it is… What it actually is… like it to be…
Figure 28. Versions of flowcharts.
ideas, you could list each idea on the wall or a flip

chart using Post-it notes.
3. Build the sequence of the process, putting
everything into the appropriate order.
4. Draw the flowchart using the appropriate symbols
for your organization.
5. Verify that the flowchart is complete and
appropriate for the given operation. This can be
very important if more than one group is working
on similar processes. Overlaps or deletions may
occur between processes.
Tools 91
Flowcharts are a good analytical tool to monitor a

process over time and also to conduct training for new
operators or supervisors. By referencing the flowcharts
on a regular basis, you can use them as visual standards
to help ensure that things are still running as they are
supposed to. Note that if a change is made to the
process, it is important to update the flowchart to reflect
the change. Regular audits may be done in your area
for any number of issues (safety, quality, environmental,
and so on), so having the flowcharts readily available
helps everyone involved.
Tip: Some organizations like to start with the “what you
think it is” flowchart to get a sense of what is happening
on the shop floor. Other groups like to start with “what
you would like it to be” so that they can set the vision for
the future. The challenge for many organizations is to
finalize the “what it actually is” flowchart, as there are
many views in the plant as to how and why things work
the way they do. That is part of the reason there are three
general types of flowchart instead of just two.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
FAILURE MODE
AND EFFECTS ANALYSIS
The failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) was used
first in the aerospace industry to look at all the possible
effects of a given operation. These documents typically
have been created by engineers or the quality office and
do not get down to the shop floor very often. Sometimes
three versions of the FMEA are created during the
design, development, and implementation of a new part.
The systems FMEA looks at the concept of creating a
new part, what might be the effects on the part, and
operations that it will need to go through to be produced.
Design engineers use the design FMEA to look at how
the part should be made. The process FMEA (the one
operators should have available to them) looks at how
the part actually is produced on the shop floor and the
various effects that can arise.
The FMEA is useful as it looks at the process to
determine what could go wrong if things are not con-
trolled, maintained, and set up properly and what to do
about each issue. If done well, the FMEA should predict
what could happen if something goes wrong in the man-
Tools 93
ufacturing process and it should give a number score for

each issue raised. One of the more famous FMEAs was
done on O-rings used in the space shuttle program.
Engineers predicted that if a certain series of environ-
mental circumstances occurred the shuttle would blow
up on takeoff. Sadly we all know what happened.
If you have never seen an FMEA for your operation
(see Figure 29), you should ask your supervisor or local
engineer if one exists. If it does, ask for a copy, as it will
be very useful as you create the DCP for the operation.
Otherwise, you might ask whether someone could work
with you to create a process FMEA for the work area.
The process of developing this document will assist you
in a number of ways; it will help ensure that the
machines and process in your work area are running as
smoothly as they can given the current environment, and
it will help you look for initial areas of improvement in
your shop.
The FMEA is a matrix of process issues that could
be caused in the system. A number scale has been
developed to look at the severity of an issue, the likeli-
hood of occurrence, and the possibility of detecting an
issue during the current operation before it gets down-
stream. One typical set of scores is shown in Figures 30
through 32.
The three scores in the tables are then multiplied
across the matrix to get a single number called the risk
priority number (RPN), which is used by management
to decide what issues, if any, need to be addressed fur-
ther. This document, along with others, should give the
operator a clear picture of the operation and how to run
the machinery settings.
Process FMEA
Failure
mode Effect Cause
The problem The The
ramifications cause(s)
of the of the
problem problem
Process FMEA
Failure
mode Effect Cause
The causes The effect New root
of the from the causes for
problem system FMEA the design
from the with perhaps failure
system FMEA a better modes
definition
Process FMEA
Failure
mode Effect Cause
The causes The same Specific
of the effect as the root causes
problem design for the
from the FMEA process
design FMEA failure
modes
Note: It is not unusual to have an iteration of the causes in a
process FMEA. The flow of the iteration is demonstrated. The
iteration stops when the RPN is sufficiently low—less than 50 in
a 1 to 10 guideline scale.
Figure 29. Relationship of a process FMEA in an iteration mode of

failure identification. (Source: Stamatis, D.H. 1995. Failure Mode and
Effect Analysis: FMEA from Theory to Execution. Reprinted with permission
of ASQ Quality Press, Milwaukee, WI.)
Rank Resolution
1 Minor: Unreasonable to expect Unreasonable to expect that If the numerical value
that the minor nature of this failure the minor nature of the failure falls between two
would cause any real effect on would cause any noticeable numbers always select
the product and/or service. effect on the product and/or the higher number.
Customer will probably not even the service. Customer most If the team has a
notice the failure. likely will not be able to disagreement in the
detect the failure. ranking value the
following may help.
2–3 Low: Low severity ranking due Low severity ranking due to 1. If the disagreement
to nature of failure causing only a slight annoyance of the is an adjacent
a slight customer annoyance. failure. Customer probably category, average
Customer probably will notice a will notice a very minor out the difference.
slight deterioration of the product deterioration of the product For example, if one
and/or service, a slight and/or service. member says 2 and
inconvenience in the next someone else says
process, or minor rework action. 6, the ranking in this
case should be 4 (2
and 6 are adjacent
categories. Therefore
2 + 6 = 8, 8/2 = 4).
Tools
Figure 30. Severity process and/or service guideline.*

*All the above guidelines and rankings may be changed to reflect specific situations.
Source: Stamatis, D.H. 1995. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis: FMEA from Theory to Execution. Reprinted with permission
95
of ASQ Quality Press, Milwaukee, WI.

96
Rank Resolution
4–6 Moderate: Moderate ranking Moderate failure causes 2. If the disagreement
because failure causes some customer dissatisfaction. jumps one category,
dissatisfaction. Customer is made Customer is made then consensus
uncomfortable or is annoyed by uncomfortable and/or must be reached.
the failure. May cause the use of annoyed by the failure. Some Even with one
unscheduled repairs and/or degradation of performance person holding out,
damage to equipment. is noticeable. total consensus
must be reached.
No average, no
Six Sigma for the Shop Floor
majority. Everyone
in that team must
have ownership of
the ranking. They
may not agree
100 percent, but
they can live with it.
Figure 30. Continued.

Rank Resolution
7–8 High: High degree of customer High degree of customer If the numerical value
dissatisfaction due to the nature of dissatisfaction due to the falls between two
the failure such as an inoperable nature of the failure. No numbers always select
product or inoperative safety or government the higher number.
convenience. Does not involve regulations issues. If the team has a
safety issues or government disagreement in the
regulations. May cause ranking value the
disruptions to subsequent following may help.
processes and/or services.
1. If the disagreement
is an adjacent
category, average
out the difference.
For example, if one
member says 2 and
someone else says
6, the ranking in this
case should be 4 (2
and 6 are adjacent
categories.
Therefore 2 + 6 = 8,
Tools
8/2 = 4).
97

98
Rank Resolution
9–10 Very high: Very high severity is Very high severity ranking 2. If the disagreement
when the failure affects safety and when safety issues are jumps one category,
involves noncompliance with involved or compliance to then consensus
government regulations. government regulations is must be reached.
ignored. Even with one
person holding out,
total consensus
must be reached.
No average, no
Six Sigma for the Shop Floor
In this scale 9–10 is reserved majority. Everyone

only for safety and government in that team must
compliance requirements. All have ownership of
other rankings may be used as
the ranking. They
they seem applicable.
may not agree
100 percent, but
they can live with it.

Rank Rank Resolution
1 Remote probability of 1 Failure is unlikely. CpK If the numerical value falls
occurence. Capability shows greater or equal to 1.67 (<1 in between two numbers
at least X-bar ± 3σ within 10^6 or ~ ± 5σ) always select the higher
specifications (1/10,000). 2 Very low: Process in statistical number.
2–5 Low probability of control. Isolated failures exist. If the team has a
occurrence. Process in CpK is greater or equal to disagreement in the
statistical control. Capability 1.33 (1 in 20,00 or ~ ± 4σ) ranking value the following
shows at least X-bar ± 3σ 3 Low: Process in statistical may help.
within specifications control. Isolated failures occur 1. If the disagreement is
(1/5000–1/500). sometimes. CpK is greater or an adjacent category,
6–7 Moderate probability of equal to 1.00 (1 in 4,000 or average out the
occurrence. Process in ~ ± 3.5σ) difference. For example,
statistical control with 4–6 Moderate: Process in if one member says 2
occasional failures, but not in statistical control with and someone else says
major proportions. Capability occasional failures but not in 6, the ranking in this
shows more major proportions. CpK is less case should be 4
than X-bar ± 2.5σ within or equal to 1.00 (1 in 1,000 or (2 and 6 are adjacent
specifications (1/20–1/200). 1 in 80 or ~ ± 3σ) categories. Therefore
2 + 6 = 8, 8/2 = 4).
Figure 31. Occurrence process and/or service guideline.

Tools
99

8–9 High probability of 7–8 High: Process not in 2. If the disagreement
occurrence. Process in statistical control. Have jumps one category,
statistical control with failures often (1/40 to 1/20). then consensus must
failures often occurring. 9–10 Very high: Failures are be reached. Even with
Capability shows X-bar ± inevitable. one person holding out,
1.5σ (1/100–1/20) total consensus must
10 Very high probability of be reached. No
occurrence. Failure is average, no majority.
almost certain. (1/10+) Everyone in that team
must have ownership of
the ranking. They may
not agree
100 percent, but they
can live with it.
Note: To use a criteria scale such as this, one must have a substantial amount of data to support
statistical control and CpK values. This is a very powerful scale if one has the data; if not, do not try
to generate the data to support the scale. Use a theoretical scale which is more qualitative but
through the synergy of the team becomes just as powerful.

1 Very high: Controls almost Remote likelihood that the product If the numerical value falls
certainly will detect the or service will be delivered between two numbers
existence of a defect. (1/10,000). The defect is always select the higher
functionally obvious and readily number.
detected. Detection reliability at If the team has a
least 99.99 percent. disagreement in the
ranking value the following
2–5 High: Controls have a good Low likelihood that the product may help.
chance of detecting the would be delivered with the defect. 1. If the disagreement is
existence of a failure. The defect is obvious an adjacent category,
(1/5000–1/500). Detection average out the
reliability at least 99.80 percent. difference. For example,
6–8 Moderate: Controls may Moderate likelihood that the if one member says 2
detect the existence of a product will be delivered with the and someone else says
defect. defect. The defect is easily 6, the ranking in this
identified (1/200–1/50). Detection case should be 4
reliability at least 98.00 percent. (2 and 6 are adjacent
categories. Therefore
2 + 6 = 8, 8/2 = 4).
Figure 32. Detection process and/or service guideline.*

Tools 101

9 Low: Controls more likely will High likelihood that the product 2. If the disagreement
not detect the existence of a would be delivered with the defect. jumps one category,
defect. The defect is subtle (1/20). then consensus must
Detection reliability greater than be reached. Even with
90 percent. one person holding out,
10 Very low: Controls very likely Very high likelihood that the total consensus must
will not detect the existence product and/or service will be be reached. No
of a defect. delivered with the defect. Item is average, no majority.
usually not checked or not Everyone in that team

checkable. Quite often the defect must have ownership of
is latent and would not appear the ranking. They may
during the process or service not agree
(1/10+). Detection reliability 100 percent, but they
90 percent or less. can live with it.

Tools 103
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
GAGE CONTROL PLAN

Just as the control plan looks at the process, a gage
control plan looks at the tools used to monitor and check
the process or processes we work with. Any gage or test
equipment needs certain things to happen for it to oper-
ate as designed and for it to have a long life and pro-
vide useful information. Maintaining our tools is
important to safety and the quality of our processes. The
gage control plan can be a type of FMEA for the tools
you use, and it should look at maintenance, calibration,
and proper handling of the instruments.
The gage control plan, as does the control plan, pro-
vides for a written method to describe the system that
controls proper usage of equipment; the plan helps
ensure that measurement variation is as low as possi-
ble given the current set of conditions. The gage con-
trol plan is not meant to replace the gage or test
equipment instruction sheets, but to guide the operator
in what to do if certain circumstances occur.
The parameters in a gage control plan can include

these: proper storage and care of the gage or test equip-
ment, calibration requirements, handling requirements,
and indication of what parts or processes the gage or
test equipment is used on. Please see “Control Plan” for
more information.
Tools 105
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING
AND TOLERANCING
Have you ever looked at a drawing or blueprint for the
parts you produce? If you see strange-looking symbols
or boxes containing numbers and objects, then the draw-
ing has been created using something called geometric
dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T) (see Figure 33).
It is not the intent here to teach this language, but to
make operators aware that it exists. If documents at
your workstation do not have the symbols yet, be aware
that future drawings may.
M L S P B F T
Figure 33. Sample GD&T symbols.

.01 M P 25 A B C
Figure 34. Sample GD&T information box.
GD&T is a standardized language of symbols used

around the world to help engineers (design and manu-
facturing) and operators communicate information on a
blueprint (the paper is not always blue anymore) or engi-
neering drawing for the parts that we produce. The pur-
pose of a blueprint or engineering drawing is to convey
clearly the size, form, orientation, and location of part fea-
tures. Using GD&T symbols, we can communicate with
others about the dimensions that a production part should
have so that we can ensure proper product function and,
when properly applied, have economic advantages in sat-
isfying our customers’ wants and needs.
Production uses the language to interpret the design
intent and to determine the best manufacturing
approach, and inspection looks to the language to deter-
mine proper setup. By providing uniformity in the draw-
ing specifications and interpretation, GD&T reduces
controversy, guesswork, and assumptions throughout
the design-manufacturing-inspection process. You will
notice boxes on the print that may resemble those in
Figure 34.
Tools 107
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
HISTOGRAMS
A histogram is a frequency distribution that graphically
displays the measurements taken from a process and
shows how those data are distributed and centered over
a measurement scale (usually horizontally—see Figure
35). Histograms give us a picture of what a process is
producing over a specified period of time and how much
variation exists. This picture can then be compared with
our expectations of the process or older histograms to
see if it is operating within specifications and to the
desired plan for that particular process. Sometimes you
will see a normal bell-shaped curve included with the
histogram to show the theoretical placement of the num-
bers as compared with the actual measurements taken
from the process (see Figure 36).
A histogram is usually quick and easy to construct
and is typically one of the first tools you will use in look-
ing at a process. It can be created by hand or with the
aid of a computer. Given that some gages and test
equipment now can be tied directly to computers, a host
of information becomes available very quickly using the
histogram as the base. Using the histogram, calculations
Count #
Value—measurement
Figure 35. Basic histogram.
Figure 36. Histogram with bell curve.

Tools 109
can be made on the process’s mean (average), median

(middle number), mode (most frequently occurring num-
ber), and standard deviation (measure of how the num-
bers are distributed in the data compared with the
normal curve).
If the operator needs to make a histogram by hand,
here are the basic steps:
• Set up a checksheet to collect the data—this could
be the histogram graph itself
• Collect the measurements as they occur and record
them on the checksheet
• Order the data on the histogram graph, if not
already done through the checksheet
• Post the histogram where others can see the
process
• Interpret the data
Since the histogram is made up of individual num-
bers, it is possible to show the specification limits for the
parts on the histogram. This is done to look for shifts in
the process or the overall capability of the process.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
IMPROVEMENT TEAM
An improvement team consists of a team of appropriate
individuals who have been chosen to work on a specific
process to find ways of improving the operation (cost,
cycle time, quality of product or service) to produce a
desired improvement in the process or part. These
teams are meant to be active for a certain time frame,
working on specific processes, and they will report to
management their findings and recommendations.
This is the team that works to make the big changes
(what Juran calls managerial breakthroughs) in
processes for continual improvements. These changes
usually will be a factor of 10 percent or more change in
the process as measured in the process or in customer
delight (versus satisfaction). It is important for members
of this team to keep an open mind and think out of the
box, and not be afraid to call in experts as needed to
make the big improvements.
The improvement team’s members usually will be
highly trained in the use of the tools and methodologies
surveyed in this book (as well as in other techniques)
and probably will be some of the teachers of these tools
Tools 111
to other shop personnel. Operators and improvement

team members do not need to be certified to be able to
use these tools, and because of their working every day
with the machines and processes, they can sometimes
solve problems better than those certified. When more
expertise is needed, some of the highest mastery certi-
fications that exist for using these tools are the Six
Sigma master black belt and the ASQ certified quality
engineer.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
LEAN MANUFACTURING
Lean manufacturing, sometimes called lean production,
is simply the banishment of waste. It is the elimination
of waste by better organizing and managing customer
relations, the supply chain, product development, and
production operations. Many manufacturing organiza-
tions, especially the larger ones, have been designed
with the idea of creating large production runs over short
periods of time—typically called mass production. In
lean manufacturing, the shop develops a process for pro-
ducing just what is needed as it is needed by the cus-
tomers that eliminates waste in time, energy, effort,
scrap, inventories, material handling, storage, and so on.
This process is also called the pull concept because the
customer “pulls” what is needed from suppliers instead
of the supplier making and stockpiling large quantities
until the customer decides it wants some—again, called
mass production.
Pull production processes are developed over time.
But many small shops may find that they are doing a
fairly good job with the lean concept even though they
may not be calling it lean manufacturing. You can study
Tools 113
a process to ensure that you are preventing waste by

following five basic steps (Womack and Jones 1996):
• Precisely specify value by specific product. What
are the customer’s wants and needs?
• Identify the value stream for each product. How
does the product move through the shop?
• Make value flow without interruptions. Do the entire
job at one time.
• Let the customer pull value from the producer. Make
only what is needed.
• Pursue perfection. Make it right the first time; pre-
vent rework.
When we talk about waste, please remember that we
are talking about far more than just the off-fall or scrap on
the shop floor. Any human activity that absorbs resources
but creates no value should be considered waste. This can
occur on the shop floor or in the shop office (sometimes
called the lean office). Here are examples of waste to look
out for: mistakes that require rework; making parts that are
not needed yet, resulting in surplus inventory; process
steps that are not really needed; movement of goods or
people without any purpose (storage is not a good pur-
pose); people anywhere in the system waiting because
something has gone wrong in the process; goods or ser-
vices that do not meet the needs of the customer).
Thus, the overall goal of lean is to develop a highly
effective operation that produces just what is needed for
customers as the product or service is needed with no
waste. This may sound impossible, but if you seek any-
thing less than perfection, you will get it!
Note: The Japanese word for waste is muda.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
LESSONS LEARNED
We have all learned to do things through our experi-
ences, through the people we have met and the things
we have read. We now apply this learning to the work
that we do every day. Some things are repetitive, while
others take thought to accomplish. Either way, there is
a standard process that we use to accomplish our work.
If we were to take a vacation day or be out sick, can the
work be done reasonably well without us?
We are not talking about replacing ourselves here;
however, there should be a way for someone else to be
able to figure out how to do our work if we are not there.
Some companies rely on standard operating procedures
(SOPs) to tell new or replacement workers what to do.
But those rarely tell the whole truth about a job. Lessons
learned is a system that allows for the collection, stor-
age, retrieval, and distribution of knowledge to other
people—the important learnings—to use when needed.
This could be used for many purposes: to do someone’s
job in his or her absence, to conduct internal bench-
marks, or to look for better ways of doing another job in
the organization.
Tools 115
Learning just to gather knowledge is part of what a

learning organization is all about. In lessons learned,
companies formally establish a system for collecting
important learnings about particular tools, machines, or
processes for use at a later time. Say a particular
machine is being studied during a given week of inves-
tigation. During the week, operators and engineers write
down their observations of what the machine is doing.
At the end of the week, during the analyzing of the data,
we may have an “aha” about how the machine works.
That is a lesson learned that needs to be captured for
use by the organization. A process should exist for col-
lecting and using the ahas. What are we going to do dif-
ferently in this plant around this process based on what
we have learned? Thus, we learn not to repeat our past
mistakes.
In the ideal setting, the culmination of lessons
learned should lead the operation to becoming a best
practice in the field.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
MANAGEMENT COMMITMENT
In the study of economics, one finds the theories of bub-
ble up (worker taking the lead to do things) and trickle
down (management taking the lead to do things). In either
case as we have seen on the shop floor, we need to have
management’s buy-in and support to ensure that things
last over time. Management commitment, then, is the
way that supervisors and managers support employees
through time and resource allowances to not only do the
job well, but to study how to do an even better job for
the customer. Merely asking workers to work harder or
work better will not be enough over time to make a real
difference for the customer.
To demonstrate management commitment, managers
and leaders need to operate with integrity and be guided
by moral principle. To be committed, they must be coura-
geous; be willing to ask the questions, even if they do
not like the answers; be willing to defend the decisions
of teams and employees who work for them; and be will-
ing to instruct upper managers to do what is right.
Employees must know that the environment is safe, that
Tools 117
machinery and equipment is being well taken care of,

and that things are being managed fairly. Also, the man-
agers and leaders must be willing to uphold practices
and principles that say, in effect, that this organization
will be successful and people will be proud to work here.
This is an area where you will know it when you see
it. If supervisors continually try to push product out the
door at the end of the month to make their numbers,
then you know that quality and customer concerns are
minimal. On the other hand, if supervisors care that the
products that are sent out are the best they can be for
the customer and they show concern for satisfying or
delighting the customer, then they are showing commit-
ment for quality and how work is being done.
For Six Sigma to work well in your organization, man-
agement must be committed during all phases of the
process to ensure that adequate time and resources are
allocated to achieve continual improvement. Operators
will notice that managers are not cutting corners to save
costs, that safety remains a prime concern, and that
they, the operators, are being treated fairly. Also, oper-
ators will see workload distribution and expectations
being managed in an equitable fashion and that employ-
ment agreements are managed equitably.
Peter Senge’s comment on the subject is worth
repeating here: “Top management buy-in is a poor sub-
stitute for genuine commitment and learning capabilities
at all levels in an organization. In fact, if management
authority is used unwisely, it can make such commitment
and capability less likely to develop” (Senge, 1990).
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Each of us relies on instruments (test equipment and
handheld gages—tabletop, inline, automatic, or manual)
to measure parts of our processes, and if we do not do
so now, we will soon. The question measurement sys-
tem analysis (MSA) addresses is “How effective are
those instruments?” It is surprising how quickly a mea-
surement instrument can get out of calibration or other-
wise give poor readings. Even after installing the
instrument properly and using the gage according to the
manufacturer’s specs, things can still go wrong with how
the instrument is used. Sometimes two identical instru-
ments will give different readings. In other cases, two or
more operators will use the same or similar instruments
but get different readings.
MSA is a method of checking how well operators are
using gages and test equipment and judging whether the
measurement system is effective and efficient in order
to provide your customers with the products and services
they want. The process of testing is sometimes called
gage repeatability and reproducibility (GR&R), and
through the use of software we can look at the gage’s
Tools 119
accuracy, repeatability, reproducibility, and stability. If

the MSA shows problems, then you must take action to
ensure that the parts you produce will meet customer
requirements.
The process usually involves a group of operators
(two or more) using the same or similar gages and test-
ing a blind set of numbered sample parts (around 10 or
so). The parts are given to the operators randomly with
only the tester knowing which part is which. Each oper-
ator tests each part a total of three times in a random
order so the operator will not know what reading the part
may have had on a prior test. After all parts have been
measured the appropriate number of times, the data
can be put into a computer for analysis.
Depending on the industry, a gage error of 10 per-
cent or less is usually considered acceptable. If the gage
error is not to customer specifications, then the company
must find a way to reduce it. That may require buying
new gages, establishing a gage preventive maintenance
program, ensuring that calibration and annual checks are
done on the gages, or any number of other actions.
Operators can help ensure that the gage error found
in MSA tests is the lowest possible by making sure they
know how to use the equipment properly and that the
gage control plan is followed. If any issues or problems
develop with the gages, operators should contact their
supervisor or quality office immediately and start a
problem-solving campaign if needed.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
MISTAKE-PROOFING
(ERROR-PROOFING, POKA-YOKE)
Mistake-proofing (also called error-proofing or poka-
yoke) is the process of either ensuring there is only one
way (or limited ways) to do any given task in a process
or ensuring that any mistake is very obvious as soon as
it happens. Such efforts help reduce variation in the
process and help prevent nonconforming issues from
occurring in the process downstream or when a cus-
tomer uses the product or service. Have you noticed that
when you try to plug an electrical appliance into an elec-
trical outlet, the plug can go in only one way (this is true
for either two- or three-pronged plugs)! This is an exam-
ple of mistake-proofing that allows the electronics indus-
try to ensure proper usage of appliances in a home.
Jobs in your organization can be looked at in the
same way. Is it possible to put a part in the machine
more than one way? Can the process be done in a dif-
ferent order from what the process sheets say? Can a
part be accidentally put in upside down or backwards?
If any of these issues or any number of others exist, you
Tools 121
should help ensure that things are done more consis-

tently to help reduce variation in the process.
You may need to get the quality office or engineer-
ing group involved with some changes to your
processes; however, some changes you can do with the
help of your natural work groups. If there is a series of
similar parts that comes through your area, look over the
paperwork that accompanies this production. Is every-
thing arranged logically for your work space? Is the
paperwork aligned to show similar steps in the same
order of production? (Since different engineers may have
designed the processes, the process sequence may not
be the same.) If you could change anything about your
work area, what would it be? Tell your supervisor or
team your ideas.
The originator of this method is a Japanese engineer
named Shigeo Shingo, and there is now a yearly prize
(Shigeo Prize) in the United States for the best exam-
ple of mistake-proofing submitted to the judges.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Organizational development is an effort that is planned,
organizationwide, and managed from the top to increase
organization effectiveness and health through interven-
tion in the organization’s “processes,” using behavioral
science knowledge. Managers today are literally
besieged with ideas about and techniques for improving
the effectiveness of their organizations from a wide vari-
ety of practitioners (including Six Sigma). An entire field
of study with its own methods, processes, and tools has
developed called organizational development, or OD.
OD is based on a systemic approach found in systems
thinking and is applied to an overall organization for the
purpose of improving the entire company (or some
aspect thereof). It provides methods for allowing the
change to occur. This process of changing the organi-
zation is sometimes called change management. Nearly
any aspect of the organization has the potential to be
improved or changed to provide faster service, better
quality, or reduced costs to enhance customer satisfac-
tion. OD is all about change, meaning that for the pur-
poses of improvement, we no longer are doing things the
way we used to do them.
Tools 123
As managers look at their organizations, they should

be aware of the three factors of change: (1) recogniz-
ing the need for change; (2) knowing what is to be
changed—the current state; and (3) identifying the future
state and using OD processes, tools, and plans to get
there. Note that this definition does not talk about the
process improvement we typically talk about in Six
Sigma; however, getting the organization to use a
process such as Six Sigma or other manufacturing
process improvement model does require the organiza-
tion to change the way it does things.
OD practitioners tend to focus on a process that
includes team development, intergroup relationships,
goal setting and planning, and education involving skills
and abilities for individual employees. Some authors
(Burke 1987) refer to OD as action research that
includes the following steps:
1. Diagnosis. Interview and observe the people
involved in the system and analyze and organize
the data collected.
2. Feedback. Report back to all involved in the study.
3. Discussion. Analyze what the data mean and plan
the next steps.
4. Action. Take those next steps to see what
happens.
Please note the similarities of these steps to problem
solving, a tool that is used to fix things that have gone
wrong. The point here is that many tools and methods
discussed in this book can be used in a variety of ways.
The operator will see any number of things occurring

as he does his daily work. Be aware that the overall goal
of this effort is to improve the service you give to your
customers to help ensure ongoing employment. If our
companies fail to provide the customers what they want
and need, they will go somewhere else!
Tools 125
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
PDSA CYCLE (PLAN, DO, STUDY, ACT)

PDSA is a process intended to be a guiding light for the
way we work and do our jobs. Building on the work of
Walter Shewhart in the 1930s, Dr. W. Edwards Deming
changed the improvement model PDCA (plan, do, check,
act) to PDSA (plan, do, study, act). The latter model is
the foundation for various processes such as advanced
quality planning, problem solving, Six Sigma, and
process improvement (see Figure 37).
The PDSA cycle is used as a road map to work
through a process to identify possible aspects that can
be improved. First a plan is established regarding what
is to be worked on. In the do phase, we do the work of
the process. Then we can study the process and out-
puts of the process. Finally, we take some actions on
what we have seen and observed to identify possible
improvements. This cycle should be repeated until the
process is as good it can be given the current process
parameters and materials. The challenge is that as new
methods, materials, and technology become available,
we keep open minds to allow for changing the way we
do our work.
A D
S
Figure 37. PDSA cycle.
Another view of the PDSA cycle is represented by the

data-knowledge-action cycle (see Figure 38). This may
allow the operator or supervisor to understand PDSA by
starting with the basic building blocks of the process.
You need to have knowledge about the process, have
data from the process, and be willing and able to take
action to make necessary changes. Without all three
components, nothing will change. Like a three-legged
stool, once all three parts are present, you can work with
the process to understand what it is doing. Then you can
work to improve it.
A fascinating point that the author has noted while
observing people such as Deming, Juran, and Feigen-
baum is that each of them applied this technique to his
Tools 127
Knowledge
Data
Action
Figure 38. Data, knowledge, action.

Source: Cutcher-Gershenfeld and Ford (forthcoming). Used with
permission.
own life and work. Each of them, and many others as

well, continually challenged his/beliefs and training to
look for new and better ways of doing any work or
assignment. The point is to continually improve every-
thing that we do, both on the job and in our life.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
PARETO CHART
Dr. J. M. Juran applied the concept of the Pareto prin-
ciple (based on the work of an 18th-century economist
and priest named Alfredo Pareto) to manufacturing dur-
ing the 1950s. Basically the Pareto principle, or 80/20
rule, states that 80 percent of effect(s) are the result of
20 percent of the causes. The result of this work is a
graphical tool—called a Pareto chart—that shows fre-
quency of occurrences (ranks the effects of the prob-
lems). See Figure 39.
The Pareto chart organizes data to show which items
or issues have the biggest impact on the process, sys-
tem, or service. Then on the chart, we stratify the data
to show the groups, starting with the largest and work-
ing down to the lowest number of items in each group
(see Figure 40 for a pictorial version of the Pareto chart).
The idea is that by organizing the data in this format, we
can develop a plan to work on problems that will give
us the biggest return for our process improvement
efforts.
Tools 129
80
70
60
Count
50
40
30
20
10
0
t7 t6 t3 t1 t8 t2
Defect en en en en en en rs
em em em em em em he
El El El El El El Ot
Count 49 13 7 5 4 3 3
Figure 39. Pareto chart.
A Pareto chart is easy to develop by hand; however,

there are computer software programs that can do this
as well. Here are the basic steps:
• Collect the data—the operator can again start with
the checksheet to collect information
• Organize and group the data from highest frequency
to lowest frequency
X
XXXX
XXX X
X X
X XXX
X
X
X
X
X X
XXXXX
XXXXX X
XXXX XXXXX XX
XXXXX
Figure 40. Pictorial Pareto chart.
• Draw the Pareto chart

• Analyze the data
• Work off the issues—start with the highest fre-
quency issue and try to reduce the causes of the
issue, once you reduce that one (not necessarily
totally eliminating it), go to the next in line
Once the Pareto chart has been created, the opera-
tor and team can start developing plans and action (use
Tools 131
Pareto Chart for Door Panel

100
60
80
Percent
50
Count
40 60
30
40
20
20
10
0 s t 0
nt s
e ips nt Pa
in
Defect ld tc
h de r s
et
a in ge he rt
in er
M Pa Ed Ot Di Ot
h
Count 39 11 6 3 2 3
Figure 41. Before Pareto chart.
a problem-solving method) for improving the process

starting with the most frequently occurring issue or prob-
lem. As that problem is improved (you may not be able
to totally eliminate the problem, but you still try), the
team can go to the next most frequently recurring prob-
lem and work on that, and so on.
When creating multiple Pareto charts over time for
the same process, it is helpful to maintain the same
scale (see Figures 41 and 42). If a computer is used,
After Improvement
100
30
80
20 60
Percent
Count
40
10
20
0 s 0
s nt
ips nt e k
tc
h de ld r oc s
Defect in ge a ng
e
ale rl er
et Hi
o h
Pa Ed M Se Do Ot
Count 13 5 4 3 3 2 0
Figure 42. After Pareto chart.
the operator may have to manually set the scale. This

will allow for easier comparisons to demonstrate con-
tinual improvement.
Tools 133
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Preventive maintenance is about keeping your work area
and operation in good working order all the time. Would
you start on a long trip knowing that the tires on your
vehicle are nearly bald and badly worn? How effective
would you be working around the house with rusty tools?
Have you ever thought about doing a job around the
house and cannot find your tools? Did you know that it
has been estimated that 70 percent of all equipment
mechanical failures in plants can be attributed to the lack
of, or improper, lubrication?
Accidents can happen even though a good preven-
tive maintenance program is in operation, but the fail-
ure will not be caused by poorly maintained machines
or tools. We have all heard of issues and about people
who were injured or worse when a machine or tool mal-
functioned. Many years ago, the author was almost
crushed inside a three-story press when a safety bar
snapped. Other signs of poor preventive maintenance
include frequent setup and adjustments, idling and minor
stoppages, reduced speed, start-up losses, quality
defects in process, and tooling losses.
The operator plays a big role in preventive mainte-

nance by looking for issues before they become prob-
lems. This is sometimes called early equipment
management or conducting planned maintenance. It all
starts with training in the operation and maintenance of
the machines and equipment that are used in the work
area. Each operator should know everything about the
immediate work area and be ready to assist in estab-
lishing good preventive procedures. Some look to a
seven-step approach (Ford Motor Company 1999):
1. Cleaning/inspection. While cleaning the area and
equipment look for safety problems, general
equipment problems, and housekeeping problems.
2. Cleaning, lubricating, and safety procedures.
Establish and follow appropriate procedures for the
work area.
3. Eliminating sources of contamination.
Contaminants hide the defects that cause
breakdowns and quality problems and cause
potential safety hazards. And cleaning is more
difficult and time-consuming if you don’t eliminate
the source of the problem.
4. General inspection training. The operator should
know the fundamentals of hydraulic and pneumatic
devices, fasteners, leak prevention/seals,
drives/gears/mechanical power transmissions,
bearings/spindles, electrical devices, or anything
else that might be found in the work area.
Tools 135
5. Self-directed small group activity inspections and

procedures. Use all your senses in groups to
prevent problems.
6. Workplace organization and housekeeping.
Eliminate anything that does not have a direct use
in the work space, have a place for everything and
keep everything in its place when not in use, and
keep the area neat and ready to use at all times.
7. Small group equipment management. Do all the
above and collect data on how the equipment is
running.
Preventive maintenance, in conjunction with cleanli-
ness, will go a long way toward allowing the organization
and the operators to run a good shop that produces qual-
ity products. Once a shop is running smoothly, the other
tools of continual improvement will work, and there will
be stable processes on which to base sound judgments.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
PROBLEM SOLVING
Some of the more successful attempts to solve problems
have been through the use of a model or tool that out-
lines the steps that should be followed in investigating,
containing issues, and fixing the problems so that they
will not return. Unfortunately, many of us have seen sit-
uations in which someone or even a group or team fixes
a problem, only for the same issue to crop up again in
a week, month, or year. The question is “How do we per-
manently solve problems?”
One common approach to problem solving is called
the eight discipline approach (8D) (Stamatis 1996). The
steps commonly named in this process are as follows:
1. Use a team approach. Organize a small group
(note we did not say that you have a team at this
point—this is just a starting group) of people with
knowledge of the process/product, authority to
make changes on the shop floor, and skill in the
required technical disciplines to solve the problem
and implement corrective actions. The group must
have a designated champion.
Tools 137
2. Describe the problem. Specify the internal/external

customer problem by identifying the quantifiable
terms—the who, what, when, where, why, how, and
how many (five W’s and two H’s) for the problem.
Use SIPOC, brainstorming, flowcharts, and any
other methods that the group feels is appropriate.
3. Start and check interim (containment) actions.
Define and implement containment actions to
isolate the effect or problem from the problem
“right now.” Verify the effectiveness of this
containment action to ensure that the internal or
external customer does not see further problems.
4. Define and check root causes. Identify all potential
causes of the problem (a cause-and-effect chart is
useful here). Isolate and verify the root causes by
testing each potential cause (sampling is used
here) against the problem description and test data
(individual test or a DOE if needed). Identify
alternative corrective actions to eliminate root
causes using a process behavior chart to ensure
the process remains stable.
5. Check corrective action. Through a sampling plan,
quantitatively confirm that the selected corrective
actions will resolve the problem for the customer
and will not cause undesirable issues (FMEA and
control plans).
6. Start permanent corrective action. Once a
corrective action is verified to be working, update
all procedures and processes to incorporate the
new process. This should include training where
appropriate.
7. Stop future problems. Modify the management

systems, operating systems, preventive
maintenance, practices, and procedures and
documentation to prevent recurrence of this and all
similar problems. Note: If similar processes are
found in the shop, look closely at them also to
ensure that they do not develop the same issue.
8. Congratulate your team. Improvements happen
only because many people work together.
Everyone deserves credit.
Besides the foregoing method, your external cus-
tomers may have a prescribed problem-solving method-
ology that they want the shop to use. Other methods that
can be used in problem solving are the PDSA cycle
and, although not recommended, the scientific method
that you probably learned in high school.
Tools 139
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
PROCESS BEHAVIOR CHARTS

(ORIGINALLY STATISTICAL
PROCESS CONTROL)
The foundation for process behavior charts was laid by
Walter Shewhart (called the father of modern-day qual-
ity control) in the late 1920s. The charts were originally
called control charts as they were thought to control the
process. Today, more than 30 different charts can be
used; however, we typically use only use six or seven
on a regular basis. These charts follow the premise of
creating a picture of the process variation while the work
is being done (see the section “Run Charts”). This allows
the operator to ensure that the process is stable and
continuing to operate within the process boundaries (not
necessarily specification limits) that have been estab-
lished for that process. If something does start to dete-
riorate or change in the process, the process behavior
chart will give the operator early warning that some-
thing needs to be adjusted or changed to bring the
process back in control. Note: The operator should
remember that in pursuing continual improvement, you
want the process to change for the better; thus you
should see the movement on the process behavior chart

as an out-of-control condition!
This book will not go into the details of creating and
maintaining process behavior charts as you may find
many references on the subject (see “control charts” in
most texts). We will discuss in general the basic charts
and some of the ways to use them. Table 1 lists those
basic charts.
The “Data type” column in Table 1 indicates two dif-
ferent types of data. Variable data are information in
number format that comes from scales (for example,
rulers, weighing devices, calipers, linear gages, force
indicators, optical indicators, and so on). Attribute data
are information on the goodness of something (for exam-
ple, go/no go gages, color chips, accept/reject indica-
tors, plug gages, yes/no type data, and so on).
Variable data are usually considered more valuable
in understanding process behavior than attribute data as
more information is available and trends and patterns
are more easily and more quickly seen in the variables.
The Gas Company run chart (see Figure 52) is an exam-
ple of a chart using variable data. However, in that exam-
ple there is so much variation in the information that
turning it into an individual moving range behavior chart
(as there are only individual numbers to work with
instead of averages) would be difficult because of the
large cycles involved.
In either type of process behavior chart (variable or
attribute), the operator or supervisor needs to ensure
that the measurements from the process are recorded,
plotted, and calculated appropriately. In variable data
charts (see Figure 43) the operator should ensure that
the process average is calculated and then refer to an
Table 1. Process behavior chart.
Chart name Data type Measure* Description
X-bar and R Variable Averages of Subtract the smallest sample value from the
variable data largest to identify the range.
X-bar and s Variable Averages of Use a computer to identify the standard
variable data deviation.
Individual Variable Individual Used when averages are not available.
moving range variable data
p Attribute Fraction of Percentage of all units checked.
nonconforming
units
n Attribute Number of total Number of units found to have issues.
nonconforming
units
c Attribute Number of Number of issues found.
nonconforming
u Attribute Number of Average number of issues found per the number
nonconforming of units checked.
per unit
*Some references refer to nonconforming as “defect.” Your industry may have a product liability issue with
the term "defect" so "nonconforming" is used in this text.
Tools 141
appropriate table to calculate the upper (UCL) or lower

(LCL) control limits. There is an interesting note per-
taining to the charts that use a sample size of five. It
seems that during World War II, the U.S. War Board
needed to find an easier way for operators to plot the
readings on the charts. Engineers could come by later
with slide rules to calculate the control limits, so they
developed a simple process (see Figure 44). An exam-
ple of this can be seen in Figure 45.
First add up all the x’s and divide by the total number;
this equals x . Record this number. The UCL and LCL
will be calculated using a standardized table that can
be found in many control chart references or in the
SPC software.
Figure 43. Calculating average.
When sample size of five (5) is used for variables

process behavior charts:
To mentally calculate the x :
1. Add the five values.

2. Double the result.
3. Move the theoretical decimal point to the left one
space.
4. This is the x .
Figure 44. Sample size five.

Tools 143
4
7
5
3
8 Add up the number
27
×2
54
5.4 x
Figure 45. Sample calculation.
When working with attribute charts, calculating the

control limits with a handheld calculator can be rela-
tively simple. See Figures 46 through 49 for the steps
to follow on the calculator without having to learn the
technical formulas found in many reference books.
The most important thing about process behavior
charts is that you actually use them to understand what
your process is doing. Just making the charts and post-
ing them on the wall can be called statistical process dis-
play (SPD), but that does little to help the operator or
supervisor monitor or improve the process. Learning to
use and read the charts can go a long way toward help-
ing your shop maintain and or improve the quality of
parts that you produce.
First add up all the p’s and divide by the total number;
this equals p. Record this number.
On your calculator, follow these steps:
1. 1 minus p.
2. Times p.
3. Divide by the total number of p’s.
4.
5. Times 3 equals some value; record this value.
6. Add the value to p for UCL.
7. Subtract the value from p for LCL.
Figure 46. p charts.
First add up all the np’s and divide by the total

number; this equals p. Record this number.
1. 1 minus p.
2. Times p.
3.
5. Add the value to n p for UCL.
6. Subtract the value from n p for LCL.
Figure 47. np charts.

Tools 145
First add up all the c’s and divide by the total number;
this equals c .
1. Put c on the display.

2.
4. Add the value to c for UCL.
5. Subtract the value from c for LCL.
Figure 48. c charts.
First add up all the u’s and divide by the total number;
this equals u .
1. Put u on the display.

2. Divide by the total number of u’s.
3.
5. Add the value to u for UCL.
6. Subtract the value from u for LCL.
Figure 49. u charts.

Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
PROCESS CAPABILITY
How well do the processes that you work with result in
what the customer expects? You do not always have a
direct relationship with everything that you do for the
customer. Many engineers established specification lim-
its for the parts that you produce with the idea that they
know what the customer needs. However, you should
never give up trying to understand what the customer
wants and needs and should continuously seek more
knowledge about how the customer uses your products.
If you compare the specification limits (sometimes
called the voice of the customer—VOC) with the process
variation (sometimes called the voice of the process—
VOP), you can derive a mathematical value that can be
compared over time and with other processes to see
how well you are doing (see Figure 50).
There are typically two calculations done to identify
how capable a process is. They are done to determine
whether the possibility of improvement exists for the
process in question. The two calculations are called Cp
(capability index) and Cpk (process performance). Your
quality office and engineering group can help with the
Tools 147
Capability ratio
USL LSL
Cp
6
Process capability
USL X
Cpk
6
Lesser value of:

X LSL
Cpk
6
Figure 50. Capability calculation.
math for these calculations, but for now you should be

aware of several values and rules regarding these cal-
culations and their application to the shop floor:
1. Cpk = 2.0 is the value given when a shop or
process has achieved Six Sigma quality.
2. A Cp value of less than 1.0 means that the
process is not capable.
3. A Cpk value of less than 1.0 means that the
product is being made outside of acceptable limits.
For both calculations, Cp and Cpk, the higher the
value the better.
4. The Cp value does not change while attempting to
center the process to target unless something in
the process changes.
5. The Cp and Cpk values will be equal if the process

is centered.
6. Cpk is always equal to or smaller than Cp.
7. If the Cpk value becomes a negative number, then
the process average is outside one of the
engineering specifications.
In Figure 51, you will see a summary and compari-
son between Cpk and Six Sigma calculations. We also
can see the corresponding process yield percentages
and the number of deficiencies per million opportunities
(DPMO) for each sigma level.
Cpk Six Sigma DPMO Yield

2.00 6.0 3.4 99.99966
1.67 5.0 230 99.977
1.33 4.0 6210 99.379
1.00 3.0 66800 93.329
0.67 2.0 308000 69.2
0.33 1.0 690000 31
Figure 51. Six Sigma capability.

Tools 149
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
PROCESS IDENTIFICATION
Anything we do can be defined in terms of a process or
system. Many of the tools discussed in this book can be
used to help identify cause and effects, frequency and
distribution of measure, most frequently occurring data,
process flow as it is occurring, and other factors about
the process or system. If you plan to study a process or
system, it is very important that you first identify the
boundaries that you will work with. Many books talk about
the basic “input, process, output” model for process iden-
tification (shown earlier in Figure 3). Today, some peo-
ple are using the SIPOC model (see Figure 4)—supplier,
input, process, output, customer—which gives bound-
aries to the old model.
In any sporting event, besides knowing the rules of
the game, you must know the boundaries of the game
field. This does not prevent us from thinking outside the
box (boundaries), but it does give us guidelines for what
we are dealing with as we go about our daily tasks and
endeavors. Taking the time to actually list or draw com-
ponents of the process will help us visually find issues
more quickly than might otherwise be possible.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
PROCESS IMPROVEMENT
Process improvement is the act of making a system work
better to satisfy customer wants and needs. It is vital if
continual improvement is to become a reality. In process
improvement you should look at reducing overall vari-
ability, not just the variation. Variability is made up of
three components: instability, variation, and off-target
conditions.
In dealing with variability, most practitioners tradi-
tionally have addressed only the variation question. Vari-
ation is important, and we use the tools listed in this
book to help reduce it as much as possible. But the other
two components are also important. Without knowledge
of these two—instability and off-target conditions—we
could miss some very important factors and even cause
major problems in the shop.
Instability is the lack of a stable operating process.
Common cause and special cause variation are
unchecked and not responded to. Without a stable
process, capability values are not worth calculating and
customers can, and do, see any number of issues come
and go without rhyme or reason. The best method for
Tools 151
monitoring a process is to use process behavior charts,

but far too often they either are not kept up-to-date or
are not done at all. Operators play a big role in moni-
toring the processes to ensure that the jobs they per-
form are stable and in control.
Whether a process is off target is often the respon-
sibility of the engineers who design the parts and pro-
duction. The operator can only monitor where the
process is centered within the engineering specifica-
tions and/or control limits. Even though today we talk
about the Taguchi loss function and how processes
should be centered with regard to what the customer
wants and needs, many jobs we work in today were
designed years ago when engineers put the target wher-
ever it made the most economic sense for the company,
instead of for the customer. So the operator should mon-
itor the process and be ready to give up-to-date infor-
mation to engineers when processes are to be
redesigned so that the new thinking becomes a reality
on the shop floor.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
PROJECT PLANNING
Project planning is the disciplined monitoring of how and
when a project will be accomplished. If you want to go
on a long trip, do you just jump in a car and go? In fact,
some people do that because they like the spontaneity
of adventure. Most of us, however, would rather plan the
trip, some in more detail than others. We do so to know
what needs to be taken, how long we will be gone, and
any other number of details. Those of you with young
children know that this is very important.
Another analogy is the story of several blind men try-
ing to describe an elephant (Stamatis 1996). Each man’s
description depended upon which part of the elephant
he was touching, which resulted in an inaccurate
description of the animal. In fact, as the story goes, the
blind men identified each part of the elephant as an
independent part having nothing to do with the ele-
phant’s anatomy. Lack of communication between the
men and an inability to see the “whole” produced a result
that had nothing to do with the elephant.
As is true of many of the tools and processes listed
in this book, there is a lot of information available on pro-
Tools 153
ject planning and project management in various refer-

ences. A professional certification process is even avail-
able just for project management. This book looks only
at some of the basics involved so that you can use the
concepts in your daily work.
Too often, operators use the tools and processes
listed in this book as independent events to satisfy some
issue of the moment. Using project planning, you should
look at the entire system and strive for synergy as you
use communication and the tools and processes to con-
tribute to continual improvement. Project planning
becomes the tracking system to ensure that all the ele-
ments, tools, processes, communications, and so forth
are brought together as a whole system for doing the
work that you do in the shop.
Effective project planning requires skills in the fol-
lowing areas (Kerzner 1995):
• Information processing
• Communication
• Resource negotiations
• Securing commitments
• Incremental and modular planning
• Assuring measurable milestones
• Facilitating top management involvement
At times operators may become part of project plans
that are developed in the shop. Working with such plans
should help ensure the successful demonstration of con-
tinual improvement and the satisfaction of customer’s
wants and needs.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
RUN CHART
A run chart is a graph that shows measurements from a
process or machine in relationship to time. Virtually no
calculations are required for this chart, and it is very use-
ful in monitoring process variation for patterns, trends,
and shifts. The run chart, sometimes called a trend chart
or line graph, is the basis for a number of the process
behavior charts and can be used almost anywhere (try
tracking the utility usage of your home, and then look for
ways to cut energy usage to save cost—see Figure 52).
The run chart is created by setting up a timeline and
a measurement scale. Then as measurements are taken
from the process during production runs, the data can
be plotted on the grid to form a graph of the process.
The operator can then monitor the process as it is run-
ning to see the process variation and whether the
process is changing with sudden shifts (spikes) or mov-
ing up or down over time (trends). The gas company bill
run chart is made with actual numbers for a northern
state. Notice the general trend of summer versus winter
usage of energy. The winter of 1998 used less energy
than either the winters of 1999 or 2000 because an
Tools 155
100
Units
50
0
May Mar Jan Nov
98 99 00 00
Month
Figure 52. Gas company billing run chart.
elderly father came to live in the home. You will also see
a spike in February 2000, which was caused by an esti-
mated bill being generated instead of an actual gas read-
ing taken during January. During the summer months,
the furnace is not used very much, but the gas dryer is
being used more and more to handle additional laundry
needs.
Other uses of the run chart show the operator if there
are cycles (as in the energy usage above) or how things
or events around the work area may be affecting the
machine or process. Sometimes we work around a
machine for so long that we don’t notice little things
happening around us that may have an impact on how
the machine works. By monitoring the run chart, we can
get a picture of what is going on in the system.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
SAMPLING PLAN
A sampling plan is a method for using the inspection of
a prescribed portion of the production run to get an indi-
cation of how good the rest of the parts are. It has been
said that 100 percent inspection is only 80 percent effec-
tive. Whenever we try to inspect large quantities of any-
thing, many things can happen to distract us or
otherwise cause us problems as we try to correctly iden-
tify items to address. One solution to this is to take sam-
ples (preferably randomly) from the population in
question to get an idea of what the population contains.
Another reason for sampling is that in a production set-
ting as we find in most shops, we could never hold the
entire production until completion of a run before we ship
some of it to the customer. Even in the job shop, cus-
tomers may reorder parts years apart from other ship-
ments. We have to have a method of looking at the
quality of the products or service as we ship them.
The quality office will most likely help you develop a
sampling plan for inspecting the products produced in the
shop. The plan will take into account various factors—
line speed, technology available, number of personnel
Tools 157
available, customer expectations, and so on—to meet the

needs of the customer.
Randomness in sampling is when every part that
could be measured has an equal chance or probability
of actually being selected to be measured by the oper-
ator. Instead of saying we only check the first parts after
setup, we might say that we will check the first piece and
then every x (specified number) part after that. Or we
could say that once each hour we will check a certain
number of parts. Then the operator must pick a random
time each hour that fits into the production cycle to
check the parts (versus doing it only at 15 minutes past
each hour).
Sampling plans usually are accompanied by a check-
sheet to demonstrate that the checks were really done
and to simplify the collecting of the data. An operator
using a checksheet can quickly see if he or she is fol-
lowing the sample plan and when the next part or parts
should be evaluated.
Sampling plans are used for any number of activities
besides checking parts from the production floor. If your
organization is ISO 9001 registered, you know that inter-
nal auditors and registrar auditors will come around and
sample what is happening on the shop floor to verify
compliance to standards. Our customers also will some-
times send people into our shops to sample what we are
doing to meet their requirements.
Sampling is a useful tool, and the sampling plan
gives us a guide to how and when we are to do the sam-
pling. The sampling plan should be designed ahead of
actual use, and it should be available for inspection itself
at any time.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
SCATTER DIAGRAM
(CORRELATION, REGRESSION)
Scatter diagrams are a pictorial way of showing rela-
tionships between two factors (see Figure 53). The base
diagram lists each factor on one of the axes of a graph.
The resulting plot will give one of the following four pos-
sibilities: no correlation (see Figure 54), positive corre-
lation (see Figure 55), negative correlation (see Figure
56), and curvilinear correlation (see Figure 57). The
closer the plots align with the linear lines involved, the
stronger the correlation between the two factors.
Using the scatter diagram in conjunction with a
cause-and-effect diagram, the operator can quickly iden-
tify whether an interaction is occurring between factors.
Knowing this, the operator can take appropriate action
steps to deal with any interaction that may exist. In some
cases, if there is a strong positive or negative correla-
tion, then one of the factors may not have to be moni-
tored as the other one will give an indication. Also, this
knowledge will be very useful if a design of experiments
(DOE) is planned for the operation. Knowing interactions
Tools 159
Factor A
Factor B
Figure 53. Scatter diagram format.

Factor A
Factor B
Figure 54. No correlation.

Factor A
Factor B
Figure 55. Positive correlation.

Factor A
Factor B
Figure 56. Negative correlation.

Tools 161
Factor A
Factor B
Figure 57. Curvilinear correlation.
ahead of time gives the experimental designer insight as

to what the machine or process may be doing.
Caution: Scatter diagrams can be misleading. We
could draw a diagram that shows the number of drown-
ings during a year and the amount of ice cream sold dur-
ing the same year. You would see a picture with a
positive correlation that might indicate that ice cream
causes drowning! We know that the real connection is
that the rates of both go up during summer. Thus, you
need to ensure the causality of the two items in ques-
tion—that they really are related to each other. In most
cases, this should not be too hard to demonstrate on the
shop floor. In some cases though, you may need to con-
duct a designed experiment to ensure that the relation-
ship is real or a cause of some other factor.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
SELF-DIRECTED TEAM
A self-directed team is a team of people who have been
authorized by management to work on a process or to
improve a process using all the resources available to
them and to manage their own time and energy, as a self-
operating unit, for the good of the organization. Self-
directed teams tend to share leadership equally among the
group members; thus, rather than one person being the
leader, they are all responsible for the output of the team.
These teams tend to be more important in a company
that has evolved into a lean manufacturing or lean office
organization. Whereas the old system of mass produc-
tion does not require people to be prepared to change
anything quickly, in a lean organization, changeover of
production must be quick and often, and sometimes
occurs many times each shift. Mass customization has
become a new buzzword for manufacturing, given cus-
tomer demand for large quantities of products made to
individual customers’ requirements.
In lean manufacturing organizations, natural work
cells or groups are usually formed around a certain prod-
uct area. These groups are ideal candidates to become
Tools 163
self-directed teams as they work closely together and can

work as a single unit to satisfy customers instead of indi-
vidual workers. The team then is able to provide its own
reward and recognition to each of its members. The team
members have shared goals and take responsibility for
communication with the rest of the organization.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
SHORT-RUN STATISTICAL
PROCESS CONTROL
The process behavior charts developed in the late 1920s
by Walter Shewhart were used primarily for long pro-
duction runs of similar parts. But many times today,
especially given the lean manufacturing environment in
which we are trying to create a pull system with many
quick changeovers, there is no time to create standard
process limits using the old rules. The techniques of
short-run SPC use process behavior charts in new ways
to allow for short, quick runs and still give a meaningful
picture of what the process is doing and if it is stable
and in control.
The best-known method of short-run SPC is to use
the part nominal specification point as a zero factor and
measure the parts as plus or minus from the target val-
ues. This technique works exceptionally well, especially
given the Taguchi loss function, for those processes that
are actually centered within the process specifications.
Let’s say you want to measure the width of a cutoff or
the diameter of a plastic part. The nominal could be 9.5
inches with specifications of plus or minus a half inch.
Tools 165
Table 2. Short-run SPC.

Inches Measure Inches Measure Inches Measure
8.9 –6 9.4 –1 9.8 +3
9.0 –5 9.5 0 9.9 +4
9.1 –4 9.6 +1 10.0 +5
9.2 –3 9.7 +2 10.1 +6
9.3 –2
Your measurement scale is one-tenth of an inch. The

resulting measurements for the process behavior chart
could be those shown in Table 2.
This is an overly simple example. You will need to
use the concept as it applies to your machine and mea-
surement system. The short-run SPC concept will work
for the ongoing operation of the machine or machines,
and it does not matter which part goes into the machine.
You just put a line on the chart to show a new part num-
ber setup and adjust the new part measures to the tar-
get value scale and continue using the same chart you
have been using on the same machine. Please remem-
ber to follow the other rules for maintaining the process
behavior chart as you keep track of other changes in the
process (see the Process Behavior Chart section for
more detail).
165
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
STANDARDIZATION
Standardization is the process of locking in the gains that
you have made during the improvement process. It is
commonly referred to as the SDCA cycle (standardize,
do, check, adjust). This cycle generally is used once a
process has been improved to update the control plans,
FMEA, process sheets, and other process documenta-
tion to lock in the improvements and standardize the
changes throughout the organization (see Figure 58).
Thus, everyone who is involved with the process in
question will do the job in the same basic way.
The SDCA cycle involves updating (standardizing)
any documentation related to the process that has been
improved, then doing the work to ensure that it runs
smoothly. The process is then checked or inspected to
ensure accuracy, and finally adjusted to ensure that the
process output satisfies the customer’s wants and
needs. This cycle should be used anytime that improve-
ments have been achieved and the shop wants to
ensure that the lessons learned will become part of
everyday work.
Tools 167
A D
C
Figure 58. SDCA cycle.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES

Standard operating procedures (SOPs) are known by
many names: work instructions, level-three ISO 9001
documentation, operating guides, job aids, standard job
practices, and more. As you look around your shop,
what do you call the step-by-step description of how to
carry out a task? That description should give the details
of how you do your various jobs; it should address such
things as these: What is the job? Where does the SOP
apply? When does the SOP apply? Who is responsible?
And so on.
Operators are responsible for following SOPs as writ-
ten. If at any time deviations are taken, the operator
needs to document what was done and why. This will be
a big help if at a later date a problem arises and an
investigation is done in the operator’s area. Documented
evidence will go a long way toward preventing finger-
pointing or faultfinding and the operator being blamed
for something out of his or her control.
The SOP should be a living document, as operators
change the work that they do. If something changes in
Tools 169
the system, the operator should ensure that the SOP is

updated. Once something changes in the process, and
a new, desirable level is achieved, the operator should
help update all documents relating to that process
appropriately.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
SYSTEMS THINKING
Systems thinking is recognition/identification and con-
sideration of all the various individual elements that inter-
relate with a common purpose toward the whole function
of a unit (Rice 1997). Many of us are so busy doing our
daily jobs that we have little time to think about what we
are actually doing. In systems thinking, you use all the
tools and methods around you to look at what is being
done in a given operation. You must examine the oper-
ation as it is, neither good nor bad, for things about the
process, machines, methods, environment, or other fac-
tors that could be changed to give faster, better, and
cheaper service to customers (internal and external).
Often, however, we notice that someone (maybe even
yourself) has made a change in one part of an opera-
tion only to cause new problems somewhere else.
Using systems thinking, you can understand the
process and know that if one factor is changed or influ-
enced in some particular way, then something different
might happen downstream in the process. For example,
if a certain supplier ships a material with a higher-than-
normal moisture content, what do we need to do to
Tools 171
compensate for that and ensure good product on the

other end? Or, if the burs on a roll of steel come in dif-
ferently with each shipment, how do we adjust for the
change? What if our process is sensitive to weather?
How should we consistently monitor our process or
processes to ensure good products? All of this is part
of systems thinking.
You should constantly be looking at the variability in
the system for opportunities for continual improvement.
As the author has noted in other sections of this book,
variability is made up of three factors: instability, varia-
tion, and off-target conditions. Instability of a process
says that you cannot be sure what it will do at any given
time. Process behavior charts are useful tools to graph-
ically show how the process is operating, and whether
the process is in a state of statistical control. However,
instability goes beyond just statistical control. A process
can become unstable for any number of reasons. Some
of these include lack of preventive maintenance, poor
cleaning disciplines, improper installation of equipment
or tooling, poor setups, poor materials from suppliers,
vague or unknown customer requirements, and many
more. Learning about your process and how it fits into
the overall operations in your shop is the foundation of
systems thinking.
Variation is discussed in the section titled “What is
Variation” of this book, so lets look at off-target condi-
tions. Given today’s views on quality processes, design
engineers should always position the target values of
characteristic measurements in the center of the spec-
ification limits. With tools such as quality function
deployment (not discussed in this book), engineers
should be able to align the specification limits with what
the customer wants and needs. But this has not always
been the case. A powdered metal bushing used on front
wheels of automobiles was designed in the early 1960s
to be at the bottom end of the specification limits to
save money on material costs. As quality requirements
for capability increased in the 1980s, the supplier was
constantly being beaten up by the customer to improve
the process. Given that the process had never caused
a quality concern or a warranty issue in more than 20
years, the consultant suggested to the customer that it
change the engineering specification to be centered on
the proven process. This recommendation was based
on systems thinking. To change the process would have
cost the supplier and customer far more money and pro-
vided no added value to the person who bought the
vehicle.
Note: If you received training in continuous improve-
ment during the 1980s and early 1990s, please note that
to actually improve the process, sometimes the process
behavior charts (called control charts back then) will
have to go out of control to show an improvement in the
system. Thinking that we can have both continuous
improvement and control charts that are always in con-
trol is not systems thinking!
Tools 173
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
TEAM MEETINGS
Useful and productive team meetings are structured
events with a purpose. Just meeting for the sake of
meeting wastes time and energy that could be used
more productively in other areas. Many of us do not
think much about meetings, as we attend so many of
them that it seems second nature. That is where the
issues sometimes get in the way of meetings being as
effective as they should be. Anytime two or more peo-
ple come together to conduct business, we should
remember that time, energy, and resources are being
spent. For an in-depth study of the topic, see How to
Make Meetings Work by Michael Doyle and David Straus
(1976).
The first question should always be “Why are we
having this meeting?” There are actually many good
reasons to hold meetings, and there are different meet-
ing types. Five of the most basic are problem solving,
information sharing (both gathering and/or giving), plan-
ning and coordination, decision making, and reaction or
feedback. Any meeting can be a combination of these
types. Each type of meeting may require different roles,
more or less people, and a variety of meeting methods.

It is important to be clear about the type of meeting you
want and to plan accordingly. Be sure everyone who will
be attending knows the type of meeting it will be and
why it’s being held so that they can arrive with a com-
mon set of expectations.
Why should you set an agenda? For these reasons:
• It is an essential step in determining whether a
meeting is needed and, if it is, to building a suc-
cessful one
• It helps define what needs to be accomplished
(outcomes)
• It spells out how the outcomes can be accom-
plished (process)
• An agenda establishes a time frame
• It helps identify who needs to be present
Here are some rules to ensure that you have a good
meeting:
1. Treat others as equals, not as inferiors.
2. Be sincere, not manipulative and sneaky.
3. Genuinely care about others; don’t be indifferent.
4. Keep an open mind rather than being certain and
dogmatic.
5. Be descriptive and specific, not evaluative and
vague.
6. Concentrate on solving problems, not blaming
others.
Tools 175
7. Assume others have good intentions rather than

assuming that they are devious.
8. Explain the what and the why; don’t assume that
your intentions or purpose are automatically
understood.
9. Listen for the other person’s point of view; we don’t
always share the same reality.
10. Encourage everyone to give their input; don’t
dominate.
11. Accept and appreciate the differences in others;
don’t let stereotypes run your life.
12. Watch and respond to the way people interact at
every meeting; how people work together affects
the outcome of the meeting’s effectiveness.
Here are the typical roles of meeting participants:
• Leader
• Facilitator
• Timekeeper
• Recorder
• Team member
• Historian—lesson learned
Planned and handled properly, meetings do not have
to be a waste of time and energy. Ensuring there is a
good reason to hold the meeting and establishing a
good agenda are the best ways to use everyone’s time
well. Being a team member means that at some time you
may be the one to facilitate a meeting with your team.
Define
Control Measure
Improve Analyze
VARIATION REDUCTION
Variation is a fact of life. If the gage or test equipment
does not show that the process is varying, then it is not
sensitive enough and needs to be replaced. The author
is aware of one shop that thought it had a pretty good
product. The problem was that customers preferred a
competitor’s parts. Upon checking the competitor’s
parts, the shop operators thought that their gages were
broken as the Japanese parts showed no variation. The
shop gages proved to be okay. The Japanese product
was just so good that the U.S. system could not even
measure it.
Since all processes vary, the question becomes how
to improve the process by reducing the amount of vari-
ation that is currently present (see Figure 59). This book
lists various tools and methods to help identify variation.
In variation reduction, you use those same tools to iden-
tify and monitor your progress toward improving what
you do. What are the MSA numbers? What can be seen
in the cause-and-effect diagram, the histogram, the
Pareto chart, or other tools? These and many other
questions should be answered to understand the
process as well as possible.
Tools 177
Improve
USL LSL USL LSL
Figure 59. Variation reduction curves.
Just buying a new electronic gage may actually

cause more variation in the system due to measurement
error (see “Measurement System Analysis”). Throwing
money at the system rarely helps improve the process.
Studies will need to be done to understand all aspects
of the process variation (for example, gages, machines,
materials, people, communications, paperwork, and so
on), and you’ll need to work to reduce the causes in the
system. The key is to identify and provide what the cus-
tomer wants and needs from your process to the best of
your abilities and given any limitations of the process.
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Team Process for Identifying and Resolving Problems. Garden
City, MI: Multiface.
Burke, W. W. 1987. Organization Development: A Normative View.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. This is part of a series of books
on organization development.
Chowdhury, Subir. 2001. The Power of Six Sigma. Chicago: Dear-
born Books.
Cutcher-Gershenfeld, J., and K. Ford. (forthcoming). Valuable Dis-
Learning. New York: Oxford University Press.

connects: The Bold Vision and Harsh Realities of Organizational
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Education. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
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———. 1999. Lean Manufacturing Workshop. Dearborn, MI: Ford
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Doyle, M., and Straus, D. 1976. How to Make Meetings Work: The
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If Japan Can, Why Can’t We. . . . (Washington, D.C.: CC-M Produc-
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Ishikawa, Kaoru. 1976. Guide to Quality Control. Tokyo: Asian Pro-

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Kerzner, H. 1995. Project Management: A System Approach to Plan-
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Munro, R. A. Linking Six Sigma with QS-9000. Quality Progress, vol.
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Path Is Your Team Taking? Dearborn, MI: Ford Motor Company.
Note also that the June 1999 issue of Quality Progress was ded-
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team building.
———. 2001 Personal discussions.
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Spencer, J. 1999. Six Sigma handouts. Northville, MI: ASQ Greater
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———. 2000. Personal discussions.
Stamatis, D. H. 1996. Total Quality Service: Principles, Practices, and
Implementation. Delray Beach, FL: St. Lucie Press.
———. 2001 Personal discussions.
———. 1997. TQM Engineering Handbook. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Wheeler, D. J., and S. R. Poling. 1998. Building Continual Improve-
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Womack, J. P., and D. T. Jones. 1996. Lean Thinking. New York:
Simon & Schuster.
Six Sigma for the Shop Floor 181
Start
Figure 60. Nine dots solved.

Index
Page number entries in bold indicate a figure reference
advanced quality planning (AQP), auditing, 42–44; see also auditing

39–41 team
cause-and-effect diagram, 40 changes for, 44
checksheet for, 40–41 as checking process, 42–44
model for, 41 how to, 42–44
agenda, and team meetings, internal, 44
174 internal and benchmarking, 47
American Society for Quality; see and ISO 9001, 42
ASQ reason for, 42
analyze, 24 team guidelines, 43–44
appraisal costs, and cost-benefit auditing team
analysis, 74 guidelines for, 43
appreciation for a system, and responsibilities, 43
continual improvement, automated banking machine; see
68 ATM (automated banking
AQP; see advanced quality machine)
planning
AQP; see Association for Quality behavior charting, 67
and Participation benchmarking, 45–48
ASQ (American Society for agreement on process, 47
Quality), 38 basic process steps, 46
Association for Quality and before you start, 47
Participation (AQP), 29 evaluation of change, 48
ATM (automated banking external research, 47
machine), 45 flowchart difficulties, 47
attribute data, 140, 142; internal research, 47
see also process behavior plan for change, 48
charts resources for change, 48
183
blueprint; see also GD&T certified quality improvement

(geometric dimensioning associate; see CQIA
and tolerancing) (certified quality
and GD&T (geometric improvement associate)
dimensioning and change, and benchmarking,
tolerancing), 105–106 48
production use of, 106 checking process; see auditing
purpose of, 106 checksheets, 59–63
brainstorming, 49–52 for advanced quality planning
creative phase, 49–50 (AQP), 40
creative phase guidelines, 50 for analytical purposes, 59,
evaluation phase, 49–50 62–63
evaluation phase and data collection methods, 59
facilitator, 50 examples of, 60, 61, 62
idea stoppers, 51–52, 52 process behavior charts, 63
main purpose, 50–51 steps for, 62
phases of, 49 CI (continual improvement);
see continual improvement;
c charts, 145; see also process continous improvement
behavior charts cleaning, lubricating, and safety
capability index; see Cp procedures, 134; see also
cause-and-effect, measurement preventive maintenance
breakdown, 56 cleanliness, 64–66
cause-and-effect diagram, 14, 40, 5S method, 65–66, 65
53–56 identification, 66
basic diagram, 54 CLT (central limit theorem);
fishbone diagram, 53–56 see central limit theorem
five W’s and H (what, why, communication
when, where, who, and and GD&T (geometric
how), 53–54 dimensioning and
Ishikawa diagram, 53–56 tolerancing), 106
six M’s, 54–57 and project planning,
central limit theorem (CLT), 152–153
57–58 and teams, 29–30
graphing example, 58 congratulations, and 8D, 137; see
statistics for nonnormal also problem solving
distributions, 57–58 contamination, 134; see also
statistics for normal preventive maintenance;
distributions, 57–58 problem solving
Index 185
continual improvement (CI), 4, CQIA (certified quality

67–69 improvement associate), 38
employee involvement, 68 creative phase
industrial revolution, 67 guidelines for, 50
PDSA and SDCA together, 69 cross-functional team, 32, 51
process behavior charting, customer feedback, 78–79
67 collecting of, 79
quality circles, 68 interacting with customers, 79
SPC (statistical process customers, 6
control), 67
TQM (total quality data collections, and checksheets,
management), 67 59
continuous improvement (CI), 19, data-knowledge-action cycle, and
68; see also continual PDSA cycle, 126, 127
improvement (CI) data type, 140; see also process
control, 25 behavior charts
control plan, 71–73 DCP (dynamic or dimensional
importance of following, control plan), 70; see
72–73 dynamic control planning
information for, 70–73, 71 (DCP)
operational manual, 72 DCP critical path, 81; see also
outlining of steps, 72 dynamic control planning
corrective action, and 8D, 137; (DCP)
see also problem solving define, measure, analyze, improve,
correlation, 158–161; see also and control; see DMAIC
scatter diagram Deming, W. Edwards, Dr., 125
curvilinear, 160 describe the problem, and 8D, 137;
negative, 160 see also problem solving
positive, 160 Design for Six Sigma (DFSS), 21
cost-benefit analysis, 74–77 design of experiments (DOE); see
cost of quality, 74–77 DOE (design of
goal of, 77 experiments)
quality cost, 74–77 DFSS; see Design for Six Sigma
Cp (capability index), 146–148; DMAIC (define, measure, analyze,
see also process capability improve, and control), 1,
rules for, 147–148 24; see also DMAIC model
Cpk (process performance), DMAIC model
146–148; see also process commitment to, 23
capability defined, 1–3, 23, 24
rules for, 147–148 improvement, 11–12
DOE (design of experiments), 86; error-proofing; see mistake-

see also experimentation proofing
dynamic control planning (DCP), experimentation, 86–87
70, 80–83 confirmation test, 87
advantages of, 83 DOE (design of experiments),
critical path, 81 86–87
as a living document, 80 process of, 86–87
maintaining control plan and purpose of, 86–87
control planning process, testing of, 87
81–82 external failure costs, and cost-
matrix, 81 benefit analysis, 74
primary focus, 82–83
starting of process, 81 failure mode and effects analyses
supporting information, 82 (FMEAs), 80, 92–104
teams’ focus, 81–83 matrix for, 93
risk priority number (RPN), 93
early equipment management; see samples of, 94–103
preventive maintenance usefulness of, 92–93
8D (eight discipline approach), what to include, 93–104
136–138; see also 8D; fishbone diagram, 53–56; see also
problem solving cause-and-effect diagram
eight discipline approach (8D); 5S method, 65–66
see 8D (eight discipline set in order, 66
approach) shine, 66
80/20 principle, and pareto chart, sort, 65
128; see also pareto chart standardize, 66
employee involvement, 84–85 sustain, 66
approachable managers, 85 five W’s and H (what, why, when,
atmosphere of cooperation, 85 where, who, and how), and
evidence of, 85 cause and effect, 53–54
ending, and team, 32 flowchart, 3, 88–91
engineering drawing; see as analytical tool, 91
blueprint; GD&T (geometric steps to create, 89–90
dimensioning and symbols for, 88
tolerancing) tips on starting, 91
equipment management, 134; see types of, 88–89
also preventive what it actually is, 89
maintenance what you think it is, 89
equipment problems, and what you would like it to be,
cleanliness, 64 89
Index 187
FMEAs (failure mode and effects idea stoppers, and brainstorming,

analyses); see failure mode 52
and effects analyses improve, 25
(FMEAs) improvement team, 32, 110–111
forming, and team, 31 industrial revolution, 67
inspections and procedures, 134;
gage control plans, and dynamic see also preventive
control planning (DCP), 80 maintenance
gage repeatability and inspectors, reason for, 42
reproducibility (GR&R); see instability; see also systems
GR&R (gage repeatability thinking; variability;
and reproducibility) variation
GD&T (geometric dimensioning internal auditing; see auditing
and tolerancing), 105–106; internal failure costs, and cost-
see also gage repeatability benefit analysis, 74
and reproducibility (GR&R) International Organization for
blueprint Standardization’s quality
production use of, 106 management system, 68;
sample information box, 106 see also continual
standardized language, 106 improvement (CI); ISO; ISO
symbol examples, 105 9000; QMS
geometric dimensioning and interpersonal relationships, and
tolerancing (GD&T); see SGRPI, 30
GD&T (geometric Ishikawa diagram, 53–56; see also
dimensioning and cause-and-effect diagram
tolerancing) Ishikawa, Kaoru, Dr., 20, 53
GR&R (gage repeatability and ISO (International Organization for
reproducibility), 118; see Standardization’s quality
also measurement system management system), 68;
analysis (MSA) see also continual
10 percent or less error, 119 improvement (CI); ISO
green belt project, 38, 86 9000; QMS
group, 29 ISO 9001, 42; see also auditing;
group development, stages of, SOPs
31–33; see also team level-three documentation, 168
health risks, and cleanliness, 64 project planning, 152–153
histograms, 107–109
examples of, 108 job aids, 168; see also SOPs
steps for, 109 Juran, Dr. J. M., 128
kaizen, 68; see also continual meeting; see team meetings

improvement (CI) members, and MCG, 30
knowledge about variation, and mistake-proofing, 120–121
continual improvement (CI), Motorola, 6
68 M’s, six (man, machine, methods,
materials, measurement,
LCL (lower control limits), 142; mother nature); see six M’s
see also process behavior MSA (measurement system
charts analysis); see measurement
calculations of, 142–143 system analysis (MSA)
lean manufacturing, 112–113; muda, 113
see also waste
five basic steps, 113 norming, and teams, 32
goal of, 113 np charts, 144; see also process
pull concept, 112 behavior charts
waste elimination, 112
lean manufacturing/lean office, 68; OD (organizational development);
see also continual see organizational
improvement (CI); lean development
manufacturing operating guides, 168; see also
lessons learned, 114–115 SOPs
line graph, 154; see also run operational manual, and control
chart plan, 72
lower control limits (LCL); see operator, and preventive
LCL (lower control limits) maintenance, 134; see also
preventive maintenance
MAIC (measure, analyze, improve, organizational development (OD),
control) model, 10–11 122–124
Malcolm Baldrige National Quality as action research, 123
Award, 45, 68 factors of change, 123
management commitment, goals of, 124
116–117 output process, differences in, 14
mass production, and lean
manufacturing, 112 p charts, 144; see also process
MCG (members, control, and behavior charts
goals), 30 pareto chart, 128–132
measure, 24 data organization, 128
measure, analyze, improve, 80/20 principle, 128
control; see MAIC model example of, 129
measurement system analysis pictorial example, 130
(MSA), 118–119 steps for, 129–130
Index 189
Pareto, Alfredo, 128 problem solving, 136–138

PDCA (plan, do, check, act), 23; check corrective action, 137
see also PDCA model; congratulate your team, 138
PDSA model define and check root causes,
PDCA model, 23 137
PDSA (plan, do, study, act), 23; describe the problem, 137
see also PDSA model future problems, 138
PDSA model, 23, 125–127 permanent corrective action,
data-knowledge-action cycle, 137
126, 127 similarities to action research,
PDCA model to PDSA model, 123
125 start and check interim, 137
performing, and team, 32 problem-solving method, and
pilot test, and benchmarking, 48 pareto chart, 130–131; see
plan, and PDSA model, 125 also pareto chart
planned maintenance; see procedures, and SGRPI, 30
preventive maintenance process, 5–6, 6
planning, and benchmarking, 48 Design for Six Sigma (DFSS),
poka-yoke, 68; see also continual 21
improvement (CI); mistake- process behavior chart, 139–145;
proofing see also short-run
prevention costs, and cost-benefit statistical process control
analysis, 74 attribute data, 140, 142
preventive maintenance, 133–135 c charts, 145
cleaning/inspection, 134 np charts, 144
eliminating sources of p charts, 144
contamination, 134 and systems thinking, 171
general inspection training, u charts, 145
134 UCL and LCL, 142
poor, signs of, 133 variable data, 140, 142
reasons for, 133 process capability, 146–148
self-directed small group calculations for, 146–148
activity inspections and Cp, 146–148
procedures, 135 Cpk, 146–148
seven-step approach, 134–135 Cp and Cpk calculations, 147
small group equipment six sigma capability, 148
management, 135 VOC, 148
workplace organization and VOP, 148
housekeeping, 135 process flow diagram; see flow
pride, and cleanliness, 64 chart
process identification, 149 randomness, and sampling, 157

process improvement, 150–151 regression, 158–161; see also
instability, 150–151 scatter diagram
and process behavior charts, research; see also benchmarking
151 and benchmarking, 47
off-target, 151 external for benchmarking, 47
variability, 150 internal for benchmarking, 47
process performance; see Cpk risk priority number (RPN); see
profound knowledge, 68 also failure mode and
project planning, 152–153 effects analyses (FMEAs)
project team, 33 roles, and SGRPI, 30
psychology, and continual root causes, and 8D, 137; see
improvement (CI), 68 also problem solving
pull production, 112–113; see RPN (risk priority number); see
also lean manufacturing risk priority number (RPN)
run chart, 154–155
QMS (quality management creation of, 154–155
system), 69; see also example chart, 155
continual improvement (CI);
ISO; ISO 9000 safety audit, 43; see also auditing
QOS; see quality operating system and cleanliness, 64
QPSs (quality process sheets), 70 and preventive maintenace,
quality auditing; see auditing 133–135
quality circle, and continual written safety rules, 43
improvement (CI), 68 sampling plan, 156–157
quality circle team, 33 with checksheet, 157
quality cost and randomness, 157
and cost-benefit analysis, scatter diagram, 158–161
74–77 curvilinear correlation, 161
traditional, 76, 77 diagram format, 159
quality management system misleading, 161
(QMS); see QMS (quality negative correlation, 160
management system) no correlation, 159
quality of conformance, 21 positive correlation, 160
quality of design, 21 SDCA (standardize, do, check,
quality of parts, and control plan, adjust), 166
73 SDCA cycle, and continual
quality operating system (QOS), 19 improvement (CI), 69
quality process sheets (QPSs), self-directed team, 33, 162–163
see QPSs (quality process and lean manufacturing,
sheets) 162–163
Index 191
Senge, Peter, 117 statistical process control; see

set in order, and 5S method, 66 SPC (statistical process
SGRPI (systems, goals, roles, control)
procedures, and storming, and team, 31–32
interpersonal relationships), study, and PDSA model, 125
30 sustain, and 5S method, 66
comparison to MCG, 30 systems, goals, roles, procedures,
Shewhart, Walter, 67, 125, 139, and interpersonal
164 relationships; see SGRPI
Shigeo prize, 121 systems thinking, 170–172
shine, and 5S method, 66
Shingo, Shigeo, 121 Taguchi loss function model,
short-run SPC; see short-run 15–16, 16
statistical process control. Taylorism, 85
short-run statistical process team, 29–33; see also self-
control, 164–165; see also directed team; team
process behavior chart meetings
example, 165 cross-functional, 32
SIPOC identification (supplier, ending and, 32
input, process, output, forming and, 31
customer), 6, 7, 149; see improvement, 32–33, 110–111
also process identification managers’ problems with,
and process identification, 29–30
149 and National Training
six M’s (man, machine, methods, Laboratories Institute, 31
materials, measurement, norming and, 32
mother nature), 54 performing and, 32
SOPs (standard operating project, 33
procedures), 43, 168–169; quality circle, 33
see also auditing self-directed, 33, 162–163
sort, and 5S method, 66 stages of, 31–33
SPC (statistical process control), storming and, 31–32
67; see also short-run structures of, 32–33
statistical process control types of, 32–33
spikes, and run chart, 154 well-functional, developing, 33
standard job practices, 168; see team approach, and 8D, 136; see
also SOPs also problem solving
standardization, 166–167 team meetings, 173–175
and SDCA cycle, 166–167 agenda, 174
standardize, and 5S method, 66 reasons for, 173–175
rules for, 174–175 value analysis/value engineering,

typical roles, 175 68; see also continual
testing; see also experimentation improvement (CI)
confimation run, 87 variability, 171; see also process
theory of knowledge, and improvement
continual improvement (CI), components of, 17
68 variable data, 140, 142; see also
theory X, 85 process behavior charts
time, and run chart, 154–155 variation, 13–17, 171; see also
total cost, and cost-benefit mistake-proofreading;
analysis, 74 variation reduction
Total Quality Control, 67 reduction of, 120–121, 176–177
total quality management; see variation reduction, 176–177
TQM (total quality VOC (voice of the customer),
management) 148; see also process
TQM (total quality management), capability
19, 67; see also continual voice of the customer (VOC); see
improvement (CI) VOC
trend chart, 154; see also run voice of the process (VOP); see
chart VOP (voice of the process)
trends, and run chart, 154 VOP (voice of the process),
148; see also process
u charts, 145; see also process capability
behavior charts
UCL (upper control limits), 142; Waste; see also lean
see also process behavior manufacturing
charts elimination of, 112
calculation of, 142–143 examples of, 113
uniformity, and GD&T (geometric five steps for elimination, 113
dimensioning and what, why, when, where, who, and
tolerancing), 106 how; see five W’s and H
upper control limits; see UCL work instructions, 168; see also
(upper control limits) SOPs

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Six Sigma for

the Shop Floor

Roderick A. Munro, Ph.D.

ASQ Quality Press

To shop floor operators and supervisors everywhere,

Continual improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

Self-directed team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162

The Master in the art of living makes little distinc-

It will be left to the reader to decide at what point the

Control Management commitment Measure

Improve Verify Analyze

Figure 1. The DMAIC model.

she matches particular tools to particular phases in the

Input Transformation Output

person who uses the work we do (internal customer) to

Supplier Input Transformation Output Customer

Figure 3. The SIPOC model.

and which ones need to be improved. This process is

Which provides more insight?

Game number 180 185 190 195 200 205

What is your prediction for game number 205?

Figure 4. More insight.

thing happened—maybe lessons were taken—and

nizations have added a D (define) stage to identify the

Control Management commitment Measure

Improve Verify Analyze

Figure 5. The DMAIC base model.

We are entering a journey of continual improvement

output of the process. A common way to describe this

No good Good No good

Loss No loss Loss

Figure 6. Traditional view of quality.

Figure 7. Part goodness.

Loss Good Good

Figure 8. Taguchi loss function.

ation (both common cause and special cause—to be dis-

and off-target conditions (which happen when a process

around the world. How can they do a better job than we

POINTERS IN EXPRESSING QUALITY

5. Expose latent defects. (Look at the process over

Control Management commitment Measure

Improve Verify Analyze

Figure 9. The DMAIC model.

Operators and supervisors, as well as the rest of the

Improve Act on the data to change the process for

Process behavior charts

of people come together. Just saying the words one time

Every team must go through a series of stages

The Obvious The Less Obvious

involved: forming, storming, norming, performing (pro-

ing feelings and risking rejection just because they see

members have been given the time and resources

1. Recognize that variation exists in everything you

established one, and it used to work okay, then

ADVANCED QUALITY PLANNING

in our jobs as well as in our homes. Anything that is to

found in this guide. Your role in this process is to ensure

Figure 10. The AQP model.

standard operating procedures (SOPs) or some other

Being an internal auditor for your organization can be

of hours and allows customers to get materials 24 hours

1. Flowchart the current process.

Before starting a benchmarking project, you are