Medical Imaging

Introduction
Having the most precised results referring to the changes of structure or function of
internal organs is essencial for giving out the adequate diagnose and treatment. So, by using
medical imaging we can get this kind of information.
The core of medical imaging is that a psyhical factor must interact with a specific organ,
modifying its characteristics.
The most frequently used factors are: electromagnetic files (X and radiowaves), ionizing
radiations and ultrasounds.
Tomographic images can be achieved with any other factors mentioned previously. The
tomographic techniques is based on obtaining sectioned images of the human body. The
sectioned in cause is divided in volume elements called voxeli. Each voxel transmits a signal that
respresents the answer of the used factor. The signal is detected by a specific device (traductor)
and introduced in a computer through an analogo-digital convertor where the images are
rendered. For each voxel there is a corresponding pixel, with a conventional colour and shade.

Ultrasound
Medical sonography (ultrasonography) is an ultrasound-based diagnostic medical imaging
technique used to visualize muscles, tendons, and many internal organs, to capture their size,
structure and any pathological lesions with real time tomographic images. Ultrasound has been
used by radiologists and sonographers to image the human body for at least 50 years and has
become a widely used diagnostic tool. The technology is relatively inexpensive and portable,
especially when compared with other techniques, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
and computed tomography (CT). Ultrasound is also used to visualize fetuses during routine and
emergency prenatal care. Such diagnostic applications used during pregnancy are referred to as
obstetric sonography. As currently applied in the medical field, properly performed ultrasound
poses no known risks to the patient. Sonography does not use ionizing radiation, and the power
levels used for imaging are too low to cause adverse heating or pressure effects in tissue.
Although the long-term effects due to ultrasound exposure at diagnostic intensity are still
unknown, currently most doctors feel that the benefits to patients outweigh the risks.
Doppler ultrasonography
Doppler ultrasonography employs the Doppler effect to assess whether structures (usually blood)
are moving towards or away from the probe, and its relative velocity. By calculating the
frequency shift of a particular sample volume, for example flow in an artery or a jet of blood
flow over a heart valve, its speed and direction can be determined and visualized. Color Doppler
is the measurement of velocity by color scale.

X-rays
X-rays make up X-radiation, a form of electromagnetic radiation. Since Röntgen's discovery
that X-rays can identify bone structures, X-rays have been used for medical imaging. The first
medical use was less than a month after his paper on the subject. Projectional radiography is the
practice of producing two-dimensional images using x-ray radiation. Bones contain much
calcium, which due to its relatively high atomic number absorbs x-rays efficiently. This reduces
the amount of X-rays reaching the detector in the shadow of the bones, making them clearly
visible on the radiograph. The lungs and trapped gas also show up clearly because of lower
absorption compared to tissue, while differences between tissue types are harder to see.
Projectional radiographs are useful in the detection of pathology of the skeletal system as well as
for detecting some disease processes in soft tissue. Some notable examples are the very common
chest X-ray, which can be used to identify lung diseases such as pneumonia, lung cancer, or
pulmonary edema, and the abdominal x-ray, which can detect bowel (or intestinal) obstruction,
free air (from visceral perforations) and free fluid (in ascites). X-rays may also be used to detect
pathology such as gallstones (which are rarely radiopaque) or kidney stones which are often (but
not always) visible. Traditional plain X-rays are less useful in the imaging of soft tissues such as
the brain or muscle. One area where projectional radiographs are used extensively is in
evaluating how an orthopedic implant, such as a knee, hip or shoulder replacement, is situated in
the body with respect to the surrounding bone. This can be assessed in two dimensions from
plain radiographs, or it can be assessed in three dimensions if a technique called '2D to 3D
registration' is used. This technique purportedly negates projection errors associated with
evaluating implant position from plain radiographs.

CT
A CT scan, also known as computed tomography scan, makes use of computer-processed
combinations of many X-ray measurements taken from different angles to produce cross-
sectional (tomographic) images (virtual "slices") of specific areas of a scanned object, allowing
the user to see inside the object without cutting. Other terms include computed axial tomography
(CAT scan) and computer aided tomography.
The term "computed tomography" (CT) is often used to refer to X-ray CT, because it is the most
commonly known form. But, many other types of CT exist, such as positron emission
tomography (PET) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). X-ray
tomography, a predecessor of CT, is one form of radiography, along with many other forms of
tomographic and non-tomographic radiography.
CT produces data that can be manipulated in order to demonstrate various bodily structures
based on their ability to absorb the X-ray beam. Although, historically, the images generated
were in the axial or transverse plane, perpendicular to the long axis of the body, modern scanners
allow this volume of data to be reformatted in various planes or even as volumetric (3D)
representations of structures.
It has more recently been used for preventive medicine or screening for disease, for example CT
colonography for people with a high risk of colon cancer, or full-motion heart scans for people
with high risk of heart disease. So, here are some examples of CT medical uses on different body
parts:
HEAD: CT scanning of the head is typically used to detect infarction, tumors, calcifications,
haemorrhage and bone trauma.
LUNGS: CT scan can be used for detecting both acute and chronic changes in the lung
parenchyma, that is, the internals of the lungs.
ANGIOGRAPGHY: Computed tomography angiography (CTA) is contrast CT to visualize
arterial and venous vessels throughout the body.
CARDIAC: A CT scan of the heart is performed to gain knowledge about cardiac or coronary
anatomy. Traditionally, cardiac CT scans are used to detect, diagnose or follow up coronary
artery disease.
ABS AND PELV: CT is an accurate technique for diagnosis of abdominal diseases. Its uses
include diagnosis and staging of cancer, as well as follow up after cancer treatment to assess
response. It is commonly used to investigate acute abdominal pain.

MRI
Magnetic resonance imaging is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures
of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body in both health and disease. MRI
scanners use strong magnetic fields, electric field gradients, and radio waves to generate images
of the organs in the body. Again, some different medical uses:
Neuroimaging
MRI is the investigative tool of choice for neurological cancers, as it has better resolution than
CT and offers better visualization of the posterior fossa.
Cardiovascular
Cardiac MRI is complementary to other imaging techniques, such as echocardiography, cardiac
CT, and nuclear medicine. Its applications include assessment of myocardial ischemia and
viability, cardiomyopathies, myocarditis, iron overload, vascular diseases, and congenital heart
disease.[
Musculoskeletal
Applications in the musculoskeletal system include spinal imaging, assessment of joint disease,
and soft tissue tumors.
Liver and gastrointestinal
Hepatobiliary MR is used to detect and characterize lesions of the liver, pancreas, and bile ducts.
Angiography[
Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) generates pictures of the arteries to evaluate them for
stenosis (abnormal narrowing) or aneurysms (vessel wall dilatations, at risk of rupture). MRA is
often used to evaluate the arteries of the neck and brain, the thoracic and abdominal aorta, the
renal arteries, and the legs (called a "run-off").
! MRI does not involve X-rays and the use of ionizing radiation, which distinguishes it from CT
or CAT scans. Magnetic resonance imaging is a medical application of nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR). NMR can also be used for imaging in other NMR applications such as NMR
spectroscopy. !

RISKS
With all its advantages, there are, however, some risks. So it doesn’t harm the pacient, we need
to use the physical factors with the smallest energy and the detectors with the lowest risk and in
this case, negative effects are minimized. (Or, in other words, we have to use an invasive
method).
This techniques mustn’t be used in excess if it is not necessary and when they are used we need
to look for the information that reffer on the smallest and better delimited as possible of the
human body.
The maximum allowable dose of radiations that a human can intake without suffering a lesion is
5 msV(miliSievert)/year. The most radiosensible organs are gonads and bone marrow and the
least are bones and thyroid. For example, a dose like 6 Sv(Sievert) of radiations could kill
anybody in less than 3 months. So, this methods must be done very carefully and in a strict
interval determined by the doctors and the international rules.